50:
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796:, because of better healing capacity of young tissues. Young children can recover almost normal nerve function. In contrast, a patient over 60 years old with a cut nerve in the hand would expect to recover only protective sensory function, that is, the ability to distinguish hot/cold or sharp/dull; recovery of motor function would be likely incomplete. Many other factors also affect nerve recovery. The use of autologous nerve grafting procedures that involve redirection of regenerative donor nerve fibers into the
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of the regenerating axon. NGF has not only a trophic role but also a tropic or guiding role. The
Schwann cells that form the bands of Bungner at the distal injury site express NGF receptors as a guiding factor for the regenerating axon of the injured neuron. NGF bound to the receptors on Schwann cells provides the growing neurons that are contacted with a trophic factor to promote further growth and regeneration
291:
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in
Schwann cells that are typically specific to inflammatory macrophages. Expression of one such molecule MAC-2, a galactose-specific lectin, is observed in not only degenerating nerves that are macrophage-rich but also degenerating nerves that are macrophage-scarce and Schwann cell-rich. Furthermore, the effects of MAC-2 in degenerating nerves are associated with myelin phagocytosis. There was a
375:, but can also occur when the nerve is stretched (without damage to the epineurium). There is usually an element of retrograde proximal degeneration of the axon, and for regeneration to occur, this loss must first be overcome. The regeneration fibers must cross the injury site and regeneration through the proximal or retrograde area of degeneration may require several weeks. Then the
820:(< 20 PSI). Also, high pressure injection was associated with neurologic deficits and severe axonal damage after the block. Other methods of preventing nerve injury include electrical nerve stimulation and ultrasonography. Electrical stimulation with a motor response at < 0.2 mA only can occur with an intraneural/intrafasciular needle tip location.
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supernatant contains a mitogenic factor, a mitosis promoting factor, that is characterized heat and trypsin sensitivity, both of which characterize it as a peptide. Treatment of
Schwann cells with the collected supernatant shows that it is a mitogenic factor and thus plays an important role in the proliferation of Schwann cells.
391:
is the most severe lesion with no potential of full recovery. It occurs on severe contusion, stretch, or laceration. The axon and encapsulating connective tissue lose their continuity. The last (extreme) degree of neurotmesis is transsection, but most neurotmetic injuries do not produce gross loss of
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typically has a high level of expression in
Schwann cells associated with nerves that are healthy, but in response to nerve injury CNTF expression decreases in Schwann cells distal to the injury site and remains relatively low unless the injured axon begins to regrow. CNTF has numerous trophic roles
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typically has a low level of expression in nerves that are healthy and not growing or developing, but in response to nerve injury NGF expression increases in
Schwann cells. This is a mechanism to increase growth and proliferation of Schwann cells at the distal stump in order to prepare for reception
467:
Immediately following injury, neurons undergo a large number of transcriptional and proteomic changes which switch the cell from a mature, synaptically active neuron to a synaptically silent, growth state. This process is dependent on new transcription, as blocking the ability of cells to transcribe
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proteins produced by
Schwann cells at the distal stump including fibronectin and laminin. Fibronectin are components of the basal lamina and promote neurite growth and adhesion of the growth cone to the basal lamina. In regenerating neural cells, neurite promoting factors play a role in adhesion of
564:
Schwann cells are active in
Wallerian degeneration. They not only have a role in phagocytosis of myelin, but they also have a role in recruitment of macrophages to continue the phagocytosis of myelin. The phagocytic role of Schwann cells has been investigated by studying the expression of molecules
344:
If the force creating the nerve damage is removed in a timely fashion, the axon may regenerate, leading to recovery. Electrically, the nerve shows rapid and complete degeneration, with loss of voluntary motor units. Regeneration of the motor end plates will occur, as long as the endoneural tubules
616:
The primary role of macrophages in peripheral regeneration is demylenation during
Wallerian degeneration. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that in tellurium demylenated, crushed, and cut nerves, expression of lysozyme, which is a marker for myelin phagocytosis, and of ED1, which is a marker for
592:
with axon degeneration an increase in MCP-1 mRNA expression followed by an increase in macrophage recruitment occurred. In addition varying levels of MCP-1 mRNA expression also had an effect. Increased MCP-1 mRNA levels correlated positively with an increase in macrophage recruitment. Furthermore,
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Methods to help prevent nerve injuries include injection pressure monitoring. The presence of a high opening injection pressure (> 20 PSI) is a sensitive sign of intrafascicular/intraneural needle tip placement. Extrafascicular needle tip placement is associated with low pressures
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have been shown to increase the rate of peripheral nervous system axon regeneration. IGF-I and IGF-II mRNA levels are significantly increased distal to the site of crush injury in rat sciatic nerves. At the site of nerve repair, locally delivered IGF-I can significantly increase the rate of axon
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receptors; binding to the specific receptor yields autophosphorylation and subsequent phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on proteins that participate in further downstream signaling to activate proteins and genes involved in growth and proliferation. Neurotrophic factors act through retrograde
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showed that peak lysozyme mRNA expression occurred at an appropriate time with respect to temporal models of myelin phagocytosis. Macrophages do not phagocytose all cellular debris at the nerve injury site; they are selective and will salvage certain factors. Macrophages produce apolipoprotein E
310:
does not occur, so recovery does not involve actual regeneration. There is frequently greater involvement of motor than sensory function with autonomic function being retained. In electrodiagnostic testing with nerve conduction studies, there is a normal compound motor action potential amplitude
686:
in the peripheral nervous system including the prevention of atrophy of dennervated tissue and the prevention of degeneration and death of motor neurons after nerve injury. (frostick) In sciatic motor neurons both CNTF receptor mRNA expression and CNTF receptor is increased after injury for a
301:
is the least severe form of nerve injury, with complete recovery. In this case, the axon remains intact, but there is myelin damage causing an interruption in conduction of the impulse down the nerve fiber. Most commonly, this involves compression of the nerve or disruption to the blood supply
630:
Macrophages also play a role in inducing the proliferation of
Schwann cells that occurs during Wallerian degeneration. Supernatant has been collected from medium in which macrophages are active in myelin phagocytosis where lysosomal processing of the myelin occurs within the macrophage. The
668:
transport in neurons, in which they are taken up by the growth cone of the injured neuron and transported back to the cell body. These neurotrophic factors have both autocrine and paracrine effects, as they promote growth of the damaged neurons as well as the adjacent
Schwann cells.
642:(IL-1ra). Expression of IL-1ra in mice with transected sciatic nerves via implantation of a tube releasing IL-1ra showed the regrowth of fewer myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Macrophage secretion of interleukin-1 is involved in stimulation of nerve regeneration.
432:
interact to remove debris, specifically myelin and the damaged axon, from the distal injury site. Calcium has a role in the degeneration of the damage axon. Bands of BĂĽngner are formed when uninnervated Schwann cells proliferate and the remaining connective tissue
93:. There is no single classification system that can describe all the many variations of nerve injuries. In 1941, Seddon introduced a classification of nerve injuries based on three main types of nerve fiber injury and whether there is continuity of the
1964:
Wan, Lidan; Xia, Rong; Ding, Wenlong (2010). "Short-term low-frequency electrical stimulation enhanced remyelination of injured peripheral nerves by inducing the promyelination effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on Schwann cell polarization".
580:
analysis of teased nerve fibers shows that before macrophages arrive at the injury site, myelin is fragmented and myelin debris and lipid droplets are found in the cytoplasm of Schwann cells, indicating phagocytic activity before macrophages arrive.
137:; it is the part that regenerates. The distal stump refers to the end of the injured neuron that is still attached to the end of the axon; it is the part of the neuron that will degenerate, but the stump remains capable of regenerating its axons.
459:, which has the ability to produce a protease that digests any material or debris that remains in its path of regeneration toward the distal site. The growth cone responds to molecules produced by Schwann cells such as laminin and fibronectin.
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can promote nerve regeneration. The positive effect of electrical stimulation on nerve regeneration is due to its molecular influence on the damaged neuron and Schwann cells. Electrical stimulation can directly accelerate the expression of
379:
tip progresses down the distal site, such as the wrist or hand. Proximal lesion may grow distally as fast as 2 to 3 mm per day and distal lesion as slowly as 1.5 mm per day. Regeneration occurs over weeks to years.
626:
mRNA expression in the three models for demylenation and nerve damage were consistent with respect to models for cholesterol salvage in nerve injury. Macrophages play a role in salvaging cholesterol during nerve injury.
132:
of nervous tissue. The events that occur in peripheral regeneration occur with respect to the axis of the nerve injury. The proximal stump refers to the end of the injured neuron that is still attached to the neuron
1749:
Colloca, Luana; Ludman, Taylor; Bouhassira, Didier; Baron, Ralf; Dickenson, Anthony H.; Yarnitsky, David; Freeman, Roy; Truini, Andrea; Attal, Nadine; Finnerup, Nanna B.; Eccleston, Christopher (16 February 2017).
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Neurotrophic factors are those that promote survival and growth of neurons. A trophic factor can be described as a factor that is associated with providing nourishment to allow for growth. In general they are
608:(CNTF), which promote growth, of both the damaged nerve and supporting Schwann cells, but also producing neurite promoting factors, which guide the growing axon, both of which are discussed below.
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has been successful in restoring target muscle function. Localized delivery of soluble neurotrophic factors may help promote the rate of axon regeneration observed within these graft conduits.
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is severe injury). It may be difficult to differentiate the severity by clinical findings due to common neurological impairments, including motor and sensory impairments distal to the lesion.
420:
Wallerian degeneration is a process that occurs before nerve regeneration and can be described as a cleaning or clearing process that essentially prepares the distal stump for reinnervation.
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Stoll G, Griffin JW, Li CY, Trapp BD (October 1989). "Wallerian degeneration in the peripheral nervous system: participation of both Schwann cells and macrophages in myelin degradation".
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Surgery can be done in case a nerve has become cut or otherwise divided. Recovery of a nerve after surgical repair depends mainly on the age of patients. Younger the patients, better the
1453:
Guénard V, Dinarello CA, Weston PJ, Aebischer P (July 1991). "Peripheral nerve regeneration is impeded by interleukin-1 receptor antagonist released from a polymeric guidance channel".
364:(EMG) performed 2 to 4 weeks later shows fibrillations and denervation potentials in musculature distal to the injury site. Loss in both motor and sensory spines is more complete with
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Lu MC, Ho CY, Hsu SF, Lee HC, Lin JH, Yao CH, Chen YS (11 December 2007). "Effects of electrical stimulation at different frequencies on regeneration of transected peripheral nerve".
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MacLennan AJ, Devlin BK, Neitzel KL, McLaurin DL, Anderson KJ, Lee N (1999). "Regulation of ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor alpha in sciatic motor neurons following axotomy".
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Thanos PK, Okajima S, Tiangco DA, Terzis JK (1999). "Insulin-like growth factor-I promotes nerve regeneration through a nerve graft in an experimental model of facial paralysis".
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to that of producing molecules for growth and repair. These factors include GAP-43, tubulin and actin. Chromatolysis is reversed when the cell is prepared for axon regeneration.
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between the amount of MAC-2 expression and the extent of myelin phagocytosis. A deficiency in MAC-2 expression can even cause inhibition of myelin removal from injury sites.
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new mRNA severely impairs regeneration. A number of signaling pathways have been shown to be turned on by axon injury and help to enable long distance regeneration including
584:
Schwann cell activity includes recruitment of macrophages to the injury site. Monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1) plays a role in recruiting monocytes/macrophages. In
400:
as well as axons and their covering. Denervation changes recorded by EMG are the same as those seen with axonotmetic injury. There is a complete loss of motor, sensory and
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Glazner GW, Morrison AE, Ishii DN (September 1994). "Elevated insulin-like growth factor (IGF) gene expression in sciatic nerves during IGF-supported nerve regeneration".
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macrophages, occurred in the same region. Lysozyme was also investigated with respect to the temporal progression of myelin phagocytosis by macrophages in nerve injury.
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would be useful in nerve regeneration if they successfully exhibit essentially the same role as the endoneurial tubes and Schwann cells do in guiding regrowing axons.
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The frequency of stimulation is an important factor in the success of both quality and quantity of axon regeneration as well as growth of the surrounding myelin and
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both in neurons and Schwann cells. cAMP is a molecule that stimulates multiple signaling pathways that aid nerve regeneration by enhancing the expression of several
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Fansa H, Schneider W, Wolf G, Keilhoff G (July 2002). "Influence of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) on nerve autografts and tissue-engineered nerve grafts".
548:. Several of these can also boost the regenerative capacity of CNS neurons, making them potential therapeutic targets for treating spinal cord injury and stroke.
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Unless otherwise demonstrated, nerve injuries are commonly irreversible, and therefore complete treatment is rather difficult, though still possible and hence
1300:
Toews AD, Barrett C, Morell P (July 1998). "Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 is responsible for macrophage recruitment following injury to sciatic nerve".
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Venezie RD, Toews AD, Morell P (January 1995). "Macrophage recruitment in different models of nerve injury: lysozyme as a marker for active phagocytosis".
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Fansa H, Keilhoff G (March 2004). "Comparison of different biogenic matrices seeded with cultured Schwann cells for bridging peripheral nerve defects".
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60:
of a nerve with a decrease in myelinated nerve fibres (pink) and an abnormal increase in fibrous tissue (yellow), as may be seen in nerve injuries.
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in the peripheral nervous system is possible. The processes that occur in peripheral regeneration can be divided into the following major events:
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804:
962:"Canadian Association of Neuroscience review: axonal regeneration in the peripheral and central nervous systems--current issues and advances"
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in the peripheral nervous system that support neurons by forming myelin that encases nerves. During Wallerian degeneration Schwann cells and
2584:
1208:"Peripheral nerve injury induces Schwann cells to express two macrophage phenotypes: phagocytosis and the galactose-specific lectin MAC-2"
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At the neuronal cell body, a process called chromatolysis occurs in which the nucleus migrates to the periphery of the cell body and the
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stimulation to regenerate mammalian nerves. Mammalian neurons preferentially orient and grow towards the cathode in DC electric fields.
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prolonged time frame compared to the short time frame in the central nervous system suggesting a role for CNTF in nerve regeneration.
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framework of the nerve (the encapsulating tissue, the epineurium and perineurium, are preserved). Because axonal continuity is lost,
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Tiangco DA, Papakonstantinou KC, Mullinax KA, Terzis JK (May 2001). "IGF-I and end-to-side nerve repair: a dose-response study".
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98:
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Schwann cells are active in demyelination of injured nerves before macrophages are even present at the site of nerve injury.
306:). There is a temporary loss of function which is reversible within hours to months of the injury (the average is 6–8 weeks).
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distal to the lesion at day 10, and this indicates a diagnosis of mild neurapraxia instead of axonotmesis or neurotmesis.
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17:
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Frostick SP, Yin Q, Kemp GJ (1 January 1998). "Schwann cells, neurotrophic factors, and peripheral nerve regeneration".
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Macrophages are also involved in the secretion factors that promote nerve regeneration. Macrophages secrete not only
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to form in the proximal stump. For neurotmesis, it is better to use a new more complete classification called the
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than with neurapraxia, and recovery occurs only through regenerations of the axons, a process requiring time.
222:
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638:, a cytokine that induces expression of nerve growth factor (NGF) in Schwann cells but also an interleukin-1
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which is involved in rescuing cholesterol in damaged nerves. In the same investigation, temporal levels of
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2018:"Electrical stimulation promotes peripheral axon regeneration by enhanced neuronal neurotrophin signaling"
2016:
English, Arthur W.; Schwartz, Gail; Meador, William; Sabatier, Manning J.; Mulligan, Amanda (2007-02-01).
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and measurement of regeneration showed that low frequency stimulation had a more successful outcome than
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To assess the location and severity of a nerve injury, clinical assessment is commonly combined with
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and greatly expanded during modern medicine with such advances as use of growth-promoting molecules.
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continuity of the nerve but rather internal disruption of nerve structures sufficient to involve
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1809:"Peripheral Nerve Reconstruction after Injury: A Review of Clinical and Experimental Therapies"
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An expanding area of nerve regeneration research deals with the development of scaffolding and
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regeneration within a nerve graft and help expedite functional recovery of a paralyzed muscle.
588:-induced demylenation with no axon degeneration, nerve crush with axon degeneration, and nerve
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David Haustein, C. Alex Carrasquer, Stephanie M. Green, Michael J. Del Busto (1 June 2020).
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causes the metabolic function of the cell to change from that of producing molecules for
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Schwann cells play an important role in not only producing neurotrophic factors such as
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forms endoneurial tubes. Bands of BĂĽngner are important for guiding the regrowing axon.
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927:. PM&R KnowledgeNow, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
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function. If the nerve has been completely divided, axonal regeneration causes a
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1388:"Macrophage-mediated myelin-related mitogenic factor for cultured Schwann cells"
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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329:, but with maintenance of the epineurium. This type of nerve damage may cause
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1986:
1941:
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Seckel BR (September 1990). "Enhancement of peripheral nerve regeneration".
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hybridation determined that the cellular source of MCP-1 was Schwann cells.
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10.1002/(SICI)1097-4547(19980715)53:2<260::AID-JNR15>3.0.CO;2-A
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Axonotmesis is usually the result of a more severe crush or contusion than
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274:), while injuries to the axons and supporting structures are more severe (
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Menorca, Ron M. G.; Fussell, Theron S.; Elfar, John C. (29 August 2013).
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10.1002/(SICI)1098-2752(1998)18:7<397::AID-MICR2>3.0.CO;2-F
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if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
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1978:
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Axonotmesis involves the interruption of the axon and its covering of
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Gadsden. Neurologic Complications of Peripheral Nerve Blocks. NYSORA.
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also boost the regenerative capacity of peripheral neurons including
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Several signaling pathways are upregulated following a nerve injury.
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1925:"Electrical Stimulation to Promote Peripheral Nerve Regeneration"
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2015:
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1868:"Peripheral Nerve Trauma: Mechanisms of Injury and Recovery"
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1160:"Pathophysiology of Peripheral Nerve Injury: A Brief Review"
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tests. Injuries to the myelin are usually the least severe (
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509:
505:
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110:
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1109:"Nerve Injury Classifications — Seddon's and Sunderland's"
101:
in five stages, based on the extent of damage to both the
30:"Nerve damage" redirects here. For the Skinlab album, see
759:, which further triggers multiple regeneration pathways.
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Axon regeneration is characterized by the formation of a
1205:
755:. Electrical stimulation also results in the influx of
1062:"Evaluation and management of peripheral nerve injury"
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Willand MP, Nguyen MA, Borschel GH, Gordon T (2016).
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is a more severe nerve injury with disruption of the
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2115:
1584:
1006:"Intrinsic mechanisms of neuronal axon regeneration"
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Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality
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925:"Peripheral Neurological Recovery and Regeneration"
2172:"Nerve repair and grafting in the upper extremity"
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1299:
1807:Grinsell, D.; Keating, C. P. (3 September 2014).
1386:Baichwal RR, Bigbee JW, DeVries GH (March 1988).
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2176:Journal of the Southern Orthopaedic Association
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1170:(5). Medscape Today: Neurosurgical Focus: 1–7.
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341:functions, and is mainly seen in crush injury.
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1206:Reichert F, Saada A, Rotshenker S (May 1994).
189:Please review the contents of the section and
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966:The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences
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945:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
727:arising due to nerve injuries is necessary.
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140:The study of nerve injury began during the
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1587:Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research
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774:stimulation on regeneration of damaged
702:Neurite promoting factors include many
97:. Usually, however, nerve injuries are
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2203:Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience
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1622:Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery
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560:Guillain–Barré syndrome – nerve damage
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2075:Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair
1929:Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair
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749:cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
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851:"A Classification of Nerve Injuries"
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2585:Peripheral nervous system disorders
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1158:Burnett MG, Zager, Eric L. (2004).
416:Overview of peripheral regeneration
24:
2134:10.1523/jneurosci.04-12-02939.1984
1225:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-05-03231.1994
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691:Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
679:Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)
25:
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698:Role of neurite-promoting factors
480:. Similarly, a growing number of
2443:Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
1967:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1455:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1345:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1302:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1004:Mahar M, Cavalli V (June 2018).
960:Fenrich K, Gordon T (May 2004).
294:Nerve compression in neurapraxia
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128:, axon regeneration/growth, and
2478:Anterior spinal artery syndrome
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2009:
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1756:Nature Reviews. Disease Primers
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352:, but with preservation of the
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1060:Campbell WW (September 2008).
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191:add the appropriate references
13:
1:
2116:NB Patel NB, Poo M-M (1984).
1813:BioMed Research International
1556:10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00717-9
1126:Brown DE, Neumann RD (2004).
835:
807:. Scaffolding developed from
781:Other studies have used both
709:neural cell adhesion molecule
1599:10.1016/0169-328X(94)90162-7
1132:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
1078:10.1016/j.clinph.2008.03.018
1010:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
815:Prevention of nerve injuries
731:Nerve regeneration therapies
714:
646:Role of neurotrophic factors
578:immunohistochemical staining
7:
2381:Intraventricular hemorrhage
2376:Intraparenchymal hemorrhage
1212:The Journal of Neuroscience
823:
606:ciliary neurotrophic factor
176:reliable medical references
10:
2606:
2242:10.1179/016164104225013842
2022:Developmental Neurobiology
734:
278:is moderate injury, while
29:
2554:Injury of accessory nerve
2522:
2468:
2358:
2285:
1884:10.1016/j.hcl.2013.04.002
1107:Faubel C (17 July 2010).
1022:10.1038/s41583-018-0001-8
979:10.1017/S0317167100053798
849:Seddon HJ (August 1942).
672:Nerve growth factor (NGF)
444:breaks up and disperses.
182:or relies too heavily on
68:
56:
47:
42:
2428:Post-concussion syndrome
2087:10.1177/1545968307313507
1942:10.1177/1545968315604399
1259:Journal of Neurocytology
1066:Clinical Neurophysiology
783:oscillating current (AC)
711:(N-CAM) and N-cadherin.
463:Neuron-intrinsic changes
147:
27:Damage to nervous tissue
2537:Peripheral nerve injury
2503:Posterior cord syndrome
2460:Penetrating head injury
2401:Subarachnoid hemorrhage
2368:Intracranial hemorrhage
1177:10.3171/foc.2004.16.5.2
855:British Medical Journal
809:bio-compatible material
766:that support the axon.
2559:Brachial plexus injury
2549:Wallerian degeneration
2483:Brown-SĂ©quard syndrome
2433:Second-impact syndrome
2360:Traumatic brain injury
1413:10.1073/pnas.85.5.1701
867:10.1136/bmj.2.4260.237
743:Electrical stimulation
655:
561:
358:Wallerian degeneration
308:Wallerian degeneration
295:
156:
126:Wallerian degeneration
118:central nervous system
2493:Central cord syndrome
2488:Cauda equina syndrome
2450:Diffuse axonal injury
2230:Neurological Research
1720:10.1002/mus.880130904
1467:10.1002/jnr.490290315
1357:10.1002/jnr.490400111
768:Histological analysis
707:the axon and include
653:
559:
552:Role of Schwann cells
482:transcription factors
450:synaptic transmission
442:endoplasmic reticulum
293:
155:
2438:Dementia pugilistica
1634:10.1055/s-2001-14516
785:and non-oscillating
753:neurotrophic factors
704:extracellular matrix
567:positive correlation
105:and the surrounding
2455:Abusive head trauma
2418:Cerebral laceration
1826:10.1155/2014/698256
1768:10.1038/nrdp.2017.2
1404:1988PNAS...85.1701B
1218:(5 Pt 2): 3231–45.
1164:Neurosurgical Focus
787:direct current (DC)
721:lifelong management
640:receptor antagonist
612:Role of macrophages
602:nerve growth factor
574:Electron microscopy
109:, since supporting
18:Neurological damage
2470:Spinal cord injury
2413:Cerebral contusion
2034:10.1002/dneu.20339
1752:"Neuropathic pain"
1708:Muscle & Nerve
1665:Muscle & Nerve
1271:10.1007/BF01187086
1129:Orthopedic Secrets
656:
562:
296:
157:
142:American Civil War
113:may be involved.
2572:
2571:
2564:Traumatic neuroma
2524:Peripheral nerves
2396:Epidural hematoma
2391:Subdural hematoma
2318:
2317:
2170:Payne SH (2001).
2128:(12): 2939–2947.
1979:10.1002/jnr.22426
1973:(12): 2578–2587.
1677:10.1002/mus.10165
1113:ThePainSource.com
737:Neuroregeneration
619:Northern blotting
435:basement membrane
410:Sunderland System
354:connective tissue
268:electrodiagnostic
264:
263:
240:
122:neuroregeneration
107:connective tissue
80:
79:
37:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
2597:
2408:Brain herniation
2345:
2338:
2331:
2322:
2321:
2283:
2282:
2271:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2167:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2053:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1944:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1903:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1828:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1496:
1487:
1486:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1433:
1415:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1237:
1227:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1179:
1155:
1144:
1143:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1057:
1044:
1043:
1033:
1001:
992:
991:
981:
957:
951:
950:
944:
936:
934:
932:
920:
889:
888:
878:
846:
624:apolipoprotein E
362:Electromyography
259:
258:
250:
247:
241:
239:
198:
167:
166:
159:
52:
40:
39:
21:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2518:
2464:
2354:
2349:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2294:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2226:
2222:
2199:
2195:
2168:
2159:
2114:
2110:
2071:
2067:
2014:
2010:
1962:
1958:
1921:
1917:
1864:
1860:
1805:
1801:
1747:
1743:
1704:
1700:
1661:
1657:
1618:
1614:
1593:(3–4): 265–72.
1583:
1579:
1540:
1536:
1497:
1490:
1451:
1447:
1384:
1380:
1341:
1337:
1298:
1294:
1255:
1251:
1204:
1200:
1190:
1188:
1156:
1147:
1140:
1124:
1120:
1105:
1101:
1058:
1047:
1002:
995:
958:
954:
938:
937:
930:
928:
921:
892:
861:(4260): 237–9.
847:
843:
838:
826:
817:
739:
733:
717:
700:
665:tyrosine kinase
661:protein ligands
648:
614:
554:
465:
418:
386:
317:
288:
260:
256:
251:
245:
242:
199:
188:
184:primary sources
168:
164:
150:
38:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2603:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2542:classification
2539:
2528:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2515:(Quadriplegia)
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2370:
2364:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2333:
2325:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2286:Classification
2279:
2278:External links
2276:
2273:
2272:
2263:
2220:
2193:
2157:
2108:
2065:
2028:(2): 158–172.
2008:
1956:
1915:
1878:(3): 317–330.
1858:
1799:
1741:
1714:(9): 785–800.
1698:
1655:
1612:
1577:
1550:(4): 1401–13.
1534:
1507:(7): 397–405.
1488:
1461:(3): 396–400.
1445:
1378:
1335:
1292:
1249:
1198:
1145:
1139:978-1560535416
1138:
1118:
1099:
1072:(9): 1951–65.
1045:
1016:(6): 323–337.
993:
952:
890:
840:
839:
837:
834:
833:
832:
825:
822:
816:
813:
776:sciatic nerves
772:high frequency
735:Main article:
732:
729:
716:
713:
699:
696:
647:
644:
613:
610:
553:
550:
464:
461:
417:
414:
385:
382:
333:of the motor,
316:
313:
287:
284:
262:
261:
254:
252:
205:"Nerve injury"
171:
169:
162:
149:
146:
116:Unlike in the
78:
77:
72:
66:
65:
54:
53:
45:
44:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2602:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2346:
2341:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2236:(2): 167–73.
2235:
2231:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2189:
2185:
2182:(3): 173–89.
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2081:(4): 367–73.
2080:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1628:(4): 247–56.
1627:
1623:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1493:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1398:(5): 1701–5.
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1351:(1): 99–107.
1350:
1346:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:(5): 671–83.
1264:
1260:
1253:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1202:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1141:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1000:
998:
989:
985:
980:
975:
972:(2): 142–56.
971:
967:
963:
956:
948:
942:
926:
919:
917:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
895:
886:
882:
877:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
841:
831:
828:
827:
821:
812:
810:
806:
801:
799:
798:graft conduit
795:
790:
788:
784:
779:
777:
773:
769:
765:
764:blood vessels
760:
758:
754:
750:
745:
744:
738:
728:
726:
722:
712:
710:
705:
695:
692:
688:
685:
684:motor neurons
680:
676:
673:
669:
666:
662:
652:
643:
641:
637:
636:interleukin-1
632:
628:
625:
620:
609:
607:
603:
598:
596:
591:
587:
582:
579:
575:
570:
568:
558:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
460:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
431:
427:
423:
422:Schwann cells
413:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
390:
381:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
325:
321:
312:
309:
305:
300:
292:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
253:
249:
238:
235:
231:
228:
224:
221:
217:
214:
210:
207: –
206:
202:
201:Find sources:
196:
192:
186:
185:
181:
177:
172:This section
170:
161:
160:
154:
145:
143:
138:
136:
131:
130:reinnervation
127:
123:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
76:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
46:
41:
33:
19:
2532:Nerve injury
2531:
2387:Extra-axial
2372:Intra-axial
2298:
2266:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2209:(1): 57–71.
2206:
2202:
2196:
2179:
2175:
2125:
2121:
2111:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2025:
2021:
2011:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1935:(5): 490–6.
1932:
1928:
1918:
1875:
1872:Hand Clinics
1871:
1861:
1816:
1812:
1802:
1759:
1755:
1744:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1671:(1): 87–93.
1668:
1664:
1658:
1625:
1621:
1615:
1590:
1586:
1580:
1547:
1544:Neuroscience
1543:
1537:
1504:
1501:Microsurgery
1500:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1348:
1344:
1338:
1308:(2): 260–7.
1305:
1301:
1295:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1189:. Retrieved
1167:
1163:
1128:
1121:
1112:
1102:
1069:
1065:
1013:
1009:
969:
965:
955:
929:. Retrieved
858:
854:
844:
830:Brain injury
818:
805:bio-conduits
802:
791:
780:
761:
757:calcium ions
741:
740:
725:disabilities
718:
701:
690:
689:
678:
677:
671:
670:
657:
633:
629:
615:
599:
583:
571:
563:
466:
454:
446:Nerve damage
439:
419:
409:
387:
370:
347:
345:are intact.
343:
318:
297:
279:
275:
271:
265:
243:
233:
226:
219:
212:
200:
180:verification
173:
139:
115:
83:Nerve injury
82:
81:
43:Nerve injury
32:Nerve Damage
2590:Neurotrauma
2513:Tetraplegia
2352:Neurotrauma
2122:J. Neurosci
1819:: e698256.
590:transection
457:growth cone
430:macrophages
426:glial cells
398:endoneurium
394:perineurium
389:Neurotmesis
384:Neurotmesis
373:neurapraxia
366:axonotmesis
320:Axonotmesis
315:Axonotmesis
299:Neurapraxia
286:Neurapraxia
280:neurotmesis
276:axonotmesis
272:neuropraxia
246:August 2021
174:needs more
111:glial cells
2579:Categories
2498:Paraplegia
2423:Concussion
836:References
604:(NGF) and
216:newspapers
99:classified
58:Micrograph
2042:1932-8451
1987:1097-4547
1892:0749-0712
1835:2314-6133
1776:2056-676X
1762:: 17002.
1191:11 August
931:30 August
794:prognosis
715:Treatment
586:tellurium
402:autonomic
339:autonomic
331:paralysis
135:cell body
75:Neurology
70:Specialty
62:HPS stain
2258:20778148
2250:15072636
2215:12671244
2188:12132829
2103:44508076
2095:18663248
2060:17443780
2003:44385062
1995:20648648
1951:26359343
1910:23895713
1853:25276813
1794:28205574
1736:41805497
1693:38261013
1685:12115953
1642:11396586
1572:54261668
1564:10391446
1529:25808747
1483:26748205
1373:43695162
1330:45060923
1287:24958947
1186:15174821
1094:41886248
1086:18482862
1040:29666508
988:15198438
941:cite web
885:20784403
824:See also
377:neuritis
360:occurs.
324:neuronal
304:ischemia
2152:6502213
2143:6564852
2051:4730384
1901:4408553
1844:4167952
1785:5371025
1728:2233865
1607:7808226
1521:9880154
1475:1833560
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