Nerthus - Knowledge

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ramparts of rivers and woods. There is nothing noteworthy about these peoples individually, but they are distinguished by a common worship of Nerthus, or Mother Earth. They believe that she interests herself in human affairs and rides among their peoples. In an island of the Ocean stands a sacred grove, and in the grove a consecrated cart, draped with cloth, which none but the priest may touch. The priest perceives the presence of the goddess in this holy of holies and attends her, in deepest reverence, as her cart is drawn by heifers. Then follow days of rejoicing and merry-making in every place that she designs to visit and be entertained. No one goes to war, no one takes up arms; every object of iron is locked away; then, and only then, are peace and quiet known and loved, until the priest again restores the goddess to her temple, when she has had her fill of human company. After that the cart, the cloth and, if you care to believe it, the goddess herself are washed clean in a secluded lake. This service is performed by slaves who are immediately afterwards drowned in the lake. Thus mystery begets terror and pious reluctance to ask what the sight can be that only those doomed to die may see.

811: 371:

quod in commune Nerthum, id est Terram matrem, colunt eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste contectum; attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intellegit vectamque bubus feminis multa cum veneratione prosequitur. Laeti tunc dies, festa loca, quaecumque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt; clausum omne ferrum; pax et quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat. Mox vehiculum et vestes et, si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit illud, quod tantum perituri vident.

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then and the countryside celebrates the festival, wherever she designs to visit and to accept hospitality. No one goes to war, no one takes up arms, all objects of iron are locked away, then and only then do they experience peace and quiet, only then do they prize them, until the goddess has had her fill of human society and the priest brings her back to her temple. Afterwards the chariot, the cloth, and, if one may believe it, the deity herself are washed in a hidden lake. The slaves who perform this office are immediately swallowed up in the same lake. Hence arises dread of the mysterious, and piety, which keeps them ignorant of what only those about to perish may see.

795: 823: 150: 2088: 20: 3305: 965: 69:. Nerthus's cart is met with celebration and peacetime everywhere it goes, and during her procession no one goes to war and all iron objects are locked away. In time, after the goddess has had her fill of human company, the priest returns the cart to her "temple" and slaves ritually wash the goddess, her cart, and the cloth in a "secluded lake". According to Tacitus, the slaves are then immediately drowned in the lake. 919: 614:. John Lindow rejects Motz's proposal and Simek's support. He highlights the presence of the form in the Codex Aesinas (discovered in 1902, while Grimm died in 1863), and asks, "would it not be an extraordinary coincidence that a deity who fits the pattern of the later fertility gods should have a name that is etymologically identical with one of them?" 730:

does not indicate whether the deity was considered male or female. This difference in gender between the two has resulted in significant discussion from scholars. A variety of reasons for this difference have been proposed: Over the years, scholars have variously proposed that that Nerthus was likely

1285:

As summarized by M. J. Towsell, "The modern textual history of the Germania begins … with the fifteenth-century humanist manuscript known as the Codex Aesinas, which appears to be the source of all the other Germania manuscripts (and very many copies were made in the Renaissance, all of which appear

1152:

has been preferred due to its relation to the Old Norse name Njǫrðr" (Janson 2018: 10-11); "Nerthus has long been seen as the etymon of Njǫrðr." (North 1997: 20); "Since the name Nerthus corresponds phonetically to that of Njǫrðr scholars have accepted her as his female counterpart." (Motz 1992: 3);

901:

ch. 40. Although it is not said explicitly that this is a cyclical ritual, there is no doubt that it is recurring and that it involves the whole community. Like with most other rituals of this type, we are not told at what time of the year the Nerthus procession took place, but since it is clearly a

609:

it corresponds to Njǫrðr". Instead, Motz propose that various female entities from the continental Germanic folklore record, particularly those in central Germany and the Alps, stem from a single source, whom she identifies as Nerthus, and that migrating Germanic peoples brought the goddess to those

1321:

are as valid as Nerthus and that the deity in ch. 40 has nothing to do with Njǫrðr but rather should be associated with Frau Percht or Frau Holle in recent folklore Simek 2003: 56–57. But as Simek admits, Nerthus has manuscript witness. Furthermore, Motz's argument for conceptual similarities seems

909:

draws a parallel between these incidents and Tacitus's account of Nerthus, suggesting that in addition a neck-ring-wearing female figure "kneeling as if to drive a chariot" also dates from the Bronze Age. Davidson says that the evidence suggests that similar customs as detailed in Tacitus's account

392:

on an island in the Ocean, in which there is a consecrated chariot, draped with cloth, where the priest alone may touch. He perceives the presence of the goddess in the innermost shrine and with great reverence escorts her in her chariot, which is drawn by female cattle. There are days of rejoicing

370:

Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis nationibus cincti non per obsequium, sed proeliis ac periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde et Aviones et Anglii et Varini et Eudoses et Suardones et Nuithones fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur. Nec quicquam notabile in singulis, nisi

387:

By contrast, the Langobardi are distinguished by being few in number. Surrounded by many mighty peoples they have protected themselves not by submissiveness but by battle and boldness. Next to them come the Ruedigni, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarines, and Huitones, protected by river and

1385:

For example, as Terry Gunnell puts it, "that such a wagon existed in real life is supported by archaeological evidence in the form of two early Iron Age wagons that were deposited in the bogs at Dejbjerg, Jylland, at a time close to that of Tacitus's account. It is highly tempting to draw direct

408:

The Langobardi, by contrast, are distinguished by the fewness of their numbers. Ringed round as they are by many mighty peoples, they find safety not in obsequiousness but in battle and its perils. After them come the Reudingi, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarini and Nuitones, behind their

1253:

For example, according to James B. Rives, "... Tacitus may very well have served on the Germanic frontier himself, and certainly would have had many opportunities to talk both with Romans who had experience in Germania and with Germani serving in the Roman army" (Mattingly 2009: xlii). See also

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had been absorbed into the Roman pantheon by Tacitus's time, and Tacitus served as a priest in the cult of Cybele, which included duties such as washing a sacred cult stone. Similar to Tacitus's description of Nerthus, Cybele was at times closely connected to or conflated with the concept of

1476:

describing a euhemerized account of Freyr's death and Saxo's description of Frotho's death, John Lindow notes that "clearly the two figures played out the same mythic pattern, and many scholars think they may have been the same figure (Lindow 2001: 124). On Lýtir and Freyr, see Simek 2007:

355:. The seven tribes are surrounded by rivers and forests and, according to Tacitus, there is nothing particularly worthy of comment about them as individuals, yet they are particularly distinguished as a group in that they all worship the goddess Nerthus. The chapter reads as follows: 954:

The description of the goddess' attendants in the lake on the completion of the rites recalls the sacrificed bog people. There is indeed much to suggest that the bog people were participants in ritual celebrations of this kind, which culminated in their death and deposition in the

776:(translated by Birley and Mattingly above as "lake") with ceremonial wagons found ritually placed in peat bogs around Tacitus's time, ceremonial wagons from the Viking Age, and descriptions of ceremonial wagon processions in Old Norse texts. Notable examples include the 810: 118:, a family of deities. The Old Norse record contains three narratives featuring ritual wagon processions that scholars have compared to Tacitus's description of Nerthus's wagon procession, one of which (and potentially all of them) focus on Njörðr's son Freyr. 388:

forests. There is nothing especially noteworthy about these states individually, but they are distinguished by a common worship of Nerthus, that is, Mother Earth, and believes that she intervenes in human affairs and rides through their peoples. There is a

749:

deity, that the deity's gender simply changed from female to male over time, or that Tacitus's account mistakes Nerthus for a female deity rather than male deity. Others have proposed that a 'female Njörðr' continues into the Old Norse corpus as the

1004:, a translation into terms his Roman readers would find familiar." John Lindow says that Tacitus's "identification with Mother Earth probably has much less to do with Jörd in Scandinavian mythology than with fertility goddesses in many cultures". 1153:"Nerthus cannot be other than Njörd ..." (Turville-Petre 1964: 172); "strange has been the history of this goddess Nerthus in modern times. Sixteenth century scholars found irresistible the temptation to emend the name of 'Mother Earth' into 1429:(god of wagons), which can be associated with the wagon that pulled Nerthus in Tacitus. We do not think that the association is fortuitous." (Lindow 2020a: 78 with further discussion in Lindow 2020: 1333). "With regard to Nerthus and the 1299:: "I do not wish to advocate the name Hertha for the goddess; I merely wish to state that the phonetic coincidence of the variant with the name of an Eddic god does not suffice to support an identify of the two numina." (Motz 1992: 3-4). 794: 896:

Cyclical rituals have no doubt taken place during several millennia in the North as well as everywhere else. One of the most famous descriptions of such a ritual from the Early Iron Age is Tacitus's description of the Nerthus ritual in

461:

in 92 AD. While Tacitus appears to have been away from Rome during this period, he would have had plenty of opportunity to gain information provided by King Masyas and Ganna from those who spent time with the two during their visit.

852:, Freyja drives a chariot driven by cats, which scholars have linked to the depiction of nine cats on the Oseberg ship burial wagon, potentially indicating a wagon procession featuring the goddess. Dated to the fourteenth century, 1697:

Theodor Fontane and the European Context: Literature, Culture and Society in Prussia and Europe: Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Symposium at the Institute of Germanic Studies, University of London in March

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Additionally, scholars have sought to explain the difference in gender between the early Germanic and Old Norse forms of the deity, discussed potential etymological connections to the obscure female deity name

60:

were particularly distinguished by their veneration of the goddess. Tacitus describes the wagon procession in some detail: Nerthus's cart is found on an unspecified island in the "ocean", where it is kept in a

833:

In Norse mythology, Njörðr is strongly associated with water, and he and his children, Freyr and Freyja, are particularly associated with wagons. Together this family is known in Old Norse sources as the

1144:"Most scholars accept that the name Njǫrðr, the wealthy hostage sent to the Æsir and the father of Freyr and Freyja, is identical to that of a goddess Nerthus "or Mother Earth" described by Tacitus in 1267:

of the Semnones, who visited Rome in 92: The Semnones are described in preferential detail in ch. 39, immediately before the account of Nerthus in ch. 40". See also discussion in Bintley 2015: 86-87.

888:, "if we accept a close relationship among, perhaps even an identity of, Nerthus, Freyr, and Frotho ... it appears that these three descriptions are all part of a discourse connecting gods of the 2022: 2145: 946:. Various scholars have linked Tacitus's description of drowned slaves in a "lake" as a reference to the interment of human corpses in peat bogs. For example, according to archaeologist 784:

in Norway. This wagon may have been incapable of turning corners and may have been used solely for ritual purposes. The ship burial contains tapestry fragments, today known as the

1853:

Janson, Henrik. 2018. "Pictured by the Other: Classical and Early Medieval Perspectives on Religions in the North" in John McKinnell, John Lindow, and Margaret Clunies Ross, ed.

1425:

According to John Lindow, "... we should accept that Snorri knew more valid kennings than are attested in the verse he cites. For example, he tells that Njǫrðr may be kenned as

881:, who is driven around for three days after his death so that the country wouldn't crumble. Both of these names have been interpreted by scholars as likely bynames for Freyr. 858:

tells of a ritual wagon procession wherein a depiction of Freyr is driven around in a wagon by a priestess in a manner scholars have compared to Tacitus's description.

2031: 2015: 389: 62: 439:), potentially his own experiences in Germania, or merchants and soldiers, such as Germanic peoples in Rome, or Germania and Romans who spent time in the region. 902:

ritual connected with fertility and peace, we may conjecture that it was not during the summer, which was the season for war and other kinds of male activities.

885: 301:'paradise' (literally 'field of contentment'), or to the word 'north' (i.e. 'deity of the northern people', cf. Greek νέρτερος 'belonging to the underworld')." 1286:

to be direct or indirect copies of this single manuscript)." (Toswell 2010: 30) Regarding Nerthus and the Codex Aesinas, see discussion in Lindow 2020b: 1331.

2008: 1376:

For example, see Schjødt 2020a: 631-634, McKinnell 2005: 50-52, North 1997: 1-25, Gunnell 1995: 53-60, Davidson 1988: 116-119, and Turville-Petre 1964: 173.

1916:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North. History and Structures, Volume III: Social, Geographical, and Historic Contexts, and Communication between Worlds

1905:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North. History and Structures, Volume III: Social, Geographical, and Historic Contexts, and Communication between Worlds

1751:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North. History and Structures, Volume III: Social, Geographical, and Historic Contexts, and Communication between Worlds

1729:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North. History and Structures, Volume III: Social, Geographical, and Historic Contexts, and Communication between Worlds

435: 706:, which antiquarians proposed as a potential location of the Nerthus site described in Tacitus. However, along with the rejection of the reading 1317:

Lindow (2020a: 108) says: "Rudolf Simek takes seriously the suggestion of Lotte Motz (1992) that other name forms in the humanist editions of

822: 884:

Some scholars have interpreted this to reflect that this procession occurred as a cyclic ritual associated with the Vanir. According to

816:

The reconstructed ceremonial wagon found in the Viking Age Oseberg ship burial. One side of the wagon features a depiction of nine cats.

2215: 943: 482:

date from around the fifteenth century and these display significant variation in the name of the goddess: All attested forms are in

446:

places particular emphasis on the Semnones, and scholars have suggested that some or all of Tacitus's information may come from King

65:

and draped in white cloth. Only a priest may touch it. When the priest detects Nerthus's presence by the cart, the cart is drawn by

3262: 976:). This has been received by scholars in a variety of ways and affected early manuscript readings of the deity's name (especially 3280: 1798: 1592: 137:

Tacitus's Nerthus has had some influence on popular culture, and in particular the now widely rejected manuscript reading of

1715: 804:

on display at the National Museum of Denmark, found deposited in a peat bog in Denmark and dating from around Tacitus's time

662:, the seat of the ancient kings of Denmark, is also located on Zealand. Nerthus is then commonly compared to the goddess 780:—in fact a composite of two wagons—discovered in western Jutland, Denmark. A wagon from the Viking Age was found in the 1903:

Schjødt, Jens Peter. 2020a. "Various Ways of Communicating" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.

1740:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North. History and Structures, Volume I: Basic Premises and Consideration of Sources

1556:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North. History and Structures, Volume I: Basic Premises and Consideration of Sources

281:, thus gender ambivalent)". According to McKinnell, "The meaning of the name has usually been connected with Old Irish 642:, and about the goddess Nerthus among a group of tribes, probably located in the southern part of present-day Denmark. 2361: 1937: 1898: 1880: 1848: 1812: 1780: 1727:

Ingunn Ásdísardóttir. 2020. "Freyja" in "Written Sources" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.

1709: 1672: 1655: 1641: 1613: 1574: 980:, see "Name and manuscript variations" section above). In his assessment of the Old Norse personification of earth ( 525:

manuscript tradition, two have yielded significant discussion among scholars since at least the nineteenth century,

2323: 1554:

Andrén, Anders. 2020. "The Spatial and Temporal Frame" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.

1358:

See for example discussion in Lindow 2020: 1332, Simek 2007: 230, North 1997: 20-24, and Turville-Petre 1964: 172.

3339: 3285: 2493: 1890: 3275: 2543: 2348: 2208: 1872: 942:

in Northern Europe. Like the wagons interred in peat bogs discussed above, these bodies were intentionally and

1040: 72:

Scholars have linked Tacitus's description of ceremonial wagons found from around Tacitus's time up until the

2000: 1990:

Polomé, E. "A Propos De La Déesse Nerthus." Latomus 13, no. 2 (1954): 167–200. www.jstor.org/stable/41517674.

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Tacitus's description of the Nerthus procession has been the subject of extensive discussion from scholars.

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Jacob Grimm's identification of the form Nerthus as the etymological precursor to the Old Norse deity name

425:

Tacitus does not provide information regarding his sources for his description of Nerthus (nor the rest of

1914:

Schjødt, Jens Peter. 2020b. "Cyclical Rituals" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.

990:), McKinnell says that the Old Norse earth personification does not appear to be notably connected to the 861:

Similar wagon procession-narratives may be found in two other texts, namely a description of a deity name

854: 3334: 3290: 2303: 1685: 892:

type with circumambulations and thus with processions focusing on yearly rituals." Schjødt further says:

39:

associated with a ceremonial wagon procession. Nerthus is attested by first century A.D. Roman historian

582:. The Codex Aesinas is a fifteenth-century composite manuscript that is considered a direct copy of the 2456: 2451: 1840: 1605: 1103: 785: 751: 127: 3308: 2488: 2395: 2388: 2366: 2201: 549:). This reading has subsequently been rejected by most scholars. Since pioneering nineteenth century 185: 2167: 1997:, tome 147, n°2, 1955. pp. 210–226. ; www.persee.fr/doc/rhr_0035-1423_1955_num_147_2_7224 1187:

See for example Hopkins 2012: 39 ("From this survey we may conclude that academic consensus is that

2528: 2513: 2328: 2313: 1822: 1386:

parallels between these wagons and those of Nerthus and Freyr described above." (Gunnell 1995: 59.)

968:

A depiction of the Phyrgian goddess Cybele with a chariot led by cats dated to the third century BC

1738:

Lindow, John. 2020a. "Written Sources" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.

1165:. For many years this false goddess drove out the rightful deity from the fortieth chapter of the 2643: 2533: 2523: 2518: 2338: 2318: 2275: 1772: 1597: 1584: 3045: 2478: 2473: 2400: 2295: 2072: 994:, Njörðr, and/or Nerthus. He concludes that "it seems likely that Tacitus equates Nerthus with 2343: 2233: 1660: 772:(translated above by Birley as "chariot" and by Mattingly as "cart") ritually deposited in a 622:

Scholars have proposed a variety of locations for Tacitus's account of Nerthus. For example,

1276:

For discussion on these forms, see for example Lindow 2020b: 1331 and McKinnell 2005: 50-52.

2434: 2405: 2308: 1947: 1677: 1000: 906: 130:, proposed a variety of locations for where the procession may have occurred (generally in 1056: 698: 8: 3270: 2483: 1930: 1749:

Lindow, John. 2020b. "Njǫrðr" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.

844: 781: 610:

regions from coastal Scandinavia. After her death, Motz's proposal received support from

583: 81: 1993:

Dumézil, Georges. "Njordr, Nerthus et le folklore scandinave des génies de la mer". In:

429:). Tacitus's account may stem from earlier but now lost literary works (such as perhaps 2653: 2505: 2444: 2333: 2265: 2241: 2096: 1953:

Sturtevant, Albert Morey (1952). "Regarding the Old Norse name Gefjon" as published in

1701: 1263:

For example, according to Richard North (1997: 22), "Tacitus's informant may have been

1075: 947: 726:, Tacitus describes Nerthus female while the Old Norse deity Njörðr is male. The form * 550: 451: 910:

continued to exist during the close of the pagan period through worship of the Vanir.

2429: 2280: 2255: 2156: 2039: 1933: 1894: 1876: 1844: 1808: 1794: 1776: 1705: 1668: 1651: 1637: 1609: 1588: 1570: 647: 586:, the oldest identifiable manuscript of the text. All other manuscripts of Tacitus's 240:, meaning 'strength', perhaps meaning 'the powerful one'. The name may be related to 154: 28: 2114: 646:

Some scholars have proposed that the location of the Nerthus procession occurred on

2852: 2224: 601:

proposes that the linguistic correspondence is a coincidence and that "The variant

400: 149: 57: 1513:

Glob 2004 : 163. On Glob and Nerthus, see further discussion in Sanders 2009: 6-7.

1024:('Mother of the Gods'), and was at times depicted with a chariot pulled by lions. 623: 2461: 2439: 2383: 2353: 2237: 1061: 987: 538: 483: 454: 430: 103: 45: 972:

In his description of Nerthus, Tacitus refers to the goddess as "Mother Earth" (

867: 3344: 3135: 2919: 2583: 2270: 2124: 2087: 2062: 1720: 1199:"), Sturtevant 1952: 167, de Vries 1977: 410-411, and Finnur Jónsson 1931: 429. 801: 777: 379: 201: 189: 89: 77: 2030: 3323: 2894: 2857: 2817: 2683: 2412: 2371: 2150: 1790: 877: 763: 746: 731:

one of a pair of deities in a manner similar to Njörðr's incestuous children

567: 2996: 1441:('god of wagons') in a scaldic kenning cited in the principal manuscript of 2588: 2578: 2561: 2378: 2177: 2077: 1033: 741: 674: 635: 631: 630:

In the accounts of specific Germanic tribes, Tacitus also writes about the

611: 287:'strength' (so 'the powerful one'), but it might be related to Old English 96:) is the early Germanic etymological precursor to the Old Norse deity name 1682:

Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: early Scandinavian and Celtic religions

265:, "*Nerthuz is etymologically ambivalent, cognate not only with Old Irish 19: 3070: 3028: 2951: 2864: 2732: 2722: 2633: 2417: 2172: 2119: 1864: 1066: 1036: 923: 555: 297: 262: 253: 241: 170: 162: 98: 1088: 959: 66: 3247: 3035: 3018: 2966: 2956: 2941: 2909: 2899: 2777: 2727: 2603: 2598: 2566: 2285: 2182: 2104: 872: 668: 598: 324: 73: 964: 679: 666:, who is said to have plowed the island of Zealand from Sweden in the 257:, used to gloss the word 'paradise' in Old English texts, or the word 3242: 3237: 3227: 3160: 3065: 2961: 2924: 2914: 2874: 2827: 2822: 2772: 2712: 2638: 2628: 2608: 2571: 2556: 2129: 2047: 1094: 982: 639: 234: 166: 102:, a male deity who is comparably associated with wagons and water in 2146:

Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe

756: 222: 123: 3215: 3200: 3180: 3165: 3145: 3120: 3105: 3100: 3080: 3050: 3040: 2991: 2981: 2976: 2807: 2792: 2767: 2747: 2717: 2707: 2702: 2673: 2668: 2658: 2593: 2551: 2260: 2193: 2067: 2057: 1977:

Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia

1060:(see "location" section above) play major roles in German novelist 939: 935: 927: 694: 458: 352: 348: 328: 320: 316: 173: 1769:

Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs

1106:, another apparently Germanic goddess mentioned by Tacitus in his 862: 703: 655: 3232: 3220: 3210: 3185: 3175: 3170: 3150: 3140: 3115: 3055: 3013: 2986: 2904: 2837: 2832: 2812: 2802: 2757: 2752: 2742: 2737: 2678: 2663: 2613: 1919: 1908: 1858: 1754: 1743: 1732: 1559: 1118: 1008: 344: 332: 230: 131: 40: 36: 918: 289: 245: 3252: 3205: 3190: 3155: 3130: 3095: 3090: 3023: 3008: 2946: 2884: 2869: 2847: 2797: 2787: 2782: 2695: 2690: 2648: 2618: 2109: 1264: 1112: 1091:, a primeval cow in the mythology of the North Germanic peoples 1012: 736: 713: 710:, the location is no longer considered to be a potential site. 663: 650:

in Denmark. They link the Nerthus with the medieval place name

541:. These scholars linked the name with a common German word for 447: 340: 336: 107: 593:

Some scholars have continued suggesting alternate readings to

3125: 3110: 3085: 3075: 3060: 3003: 2971: 2936: 2931: 2889: 2879: 2762: 2623: 2466: 991: 835: 732: 659: 658:) located on Zealand. Further justification is given in that 278: 115: 111: 1295:

Motz, however, states that she does not propose the reading

1270: 574:) was discovered, and it was also found to contain the form 315:, Roman historian Tacitus, discussing the Suebian tribes of 196:. As outlined by philologist John McKinnell, "Nerthus > * 3195: 2842: 2162: 1716:"Goddesses Unknown I: Njǫrun and the Sister-Wife of Njǫrðr" 1148:

ch. 40." (Lindow 2020c: 33); "…since Jacob Grimm, the form

1050:

had some influence in German popular culture. For example,

938:, numerous well-preserved human remains have been found in 2032:

Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology

1828:

Motz, Lotte. 1992. "The Goddess Nerthus: A New Approach".

1157:, which nineteenth century scholars further improved into 764:

Wagons, wagon processions, the Vanir, and cyclical rituals

1817:

McKinnell, John. 2022. "The Earth as Body in Old Norse".

1115:, a deity and son of the sea and earth in Greek mythology 1039:

is named after Nerthus. The form "Hertha" was adopted by

457:. The two visited Rome for a blessing from Roman emperor 134:), and considered Tacitus's sources for his description. 1195:

and so too to the Proto-Germanic forebear of the name, *

590:

are thought by scholars to stem from the Codex Aesinas.

282: 180:

as the linguistic precursor to the Old Norse deity name

1370: 1121:, another Germanic goddess mentioned by Tacitus in his 533:. Hertha was popular in some of the earliest layers of 838:. Njörðr is referred to as "god of wagons" (Old Norse 768:

Scholars associate Tacitus's description of Nerthus's

251:, meaning 'contented', and the Old English place name 1887:

Bodies in the Bog and the Archaeological Imagination

828:

Detail of the Oseberg wagon's depiction of nine cats

563:

has been widely accepted as correct in scholarship.

161:

Scholars commonly identify the goddess Nerthus with

1257: 1140: 1138: 930:

found in Denmark and dated to the fourth century BC

1516: 1457: 1412: 1410: 1367:See for example discussion in Hopkins 2012: 39-40. 1361: 1211: 1046:Up until its superseding as the dominant reading, 327:, there are seven more remote Suebian tribes; the 1466: 1340:Chadwick 1907:267—268, 289 and Davidson 1964:113. 1097:, a Germanic goddess mentioned by Tacitus in his 473: 3321: 1957:; volume 24 (number 4, November). ISSN 0036-5637 1925:Simek, Rudolf. 2007. translated by Angela Hall. 1691:Hardy, Barbara. 2010. "Tellers and Listeners in 1567:Trees in the Religions of Early Medieval England 1531:See discussion in for example North 1995: 20-23. 1498: 1489: 1480: 1448: 1379: 1311: 1172: 1135: 1407: 1398: 1389: 1325: 1302: 1247: 1202: 450:of the Semnones and/or his high priestess, the 1343: 2209: 2016: 1602:Widsith: A Study in Old English Heroic Legend 1507: 788:. These fragments depict a wagon procession. 23:"Nerthus" on her cart - by Emil Doepler, 1905 1830:Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 1334: 714:Gender difference between Nerthus and Njörðr 277:'good vigor, vitality' (used especially for 2240:origin primarily identified as speakers of 1454:Ingunn Ásdísardóttir 2020: 1278-1279, 1287. 1352: 1289: 960:"Mother Earth" and the Roman cult of Cybele 678:and in Lejre wed the legendary Danish king 2216: 2202: 2023: 2009: 1805:Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend 212:". Scholars have additionally linked both 1534: 1419: 1020:('Mother Earth') through her identity as 521:Of the various forms found in the extant 233:is unclear, but seems to be cognate with 1855:The Pre-Christian Religions of the North 1238: 963: 917: 176:. Scholars identify the Romano-Germanic 148: 18: 3281:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 1968:and the Study of Anglo-Saxon England". 1620:Altnordisches Etymologisches Worterbuch 1279: 1229: 1220: 478:All surviving manuscripts of Tacitus's 3322: 1837:Heathen Gods in Old English Literature 1634:The Bog People: Iron Age Man Preserved 1525: 926:, a well-preserved ritually deposited 685:Chambers notes that the mistaken name 220:to the obscure Old Norse goddess name 2197: 2004: 1181: 1073:Nerþuz is a character who appears in 848:(the Codex Regius). According to the 76:, particularly the Germanic Iron Age 2223: 537:scholarship, such as the edition of 420: 84:wagon in Norway. The goddess's name 1648:The Origins of Drama in Scandinavia 1027: 319:, writes that, beside the populous 13: 1984: 1819:Religionsvidenskabeligt Tidsskrift 1322:forced." & Lindow 2020b: 1331. 1254:discussion in Bintley 2015: 86-87. 56:, Tacitus records that a group of 14: 3356: 1995:Revue de l'histoire des religions 1724:; volume 5. pp. 39–44. 842:) in the principal manuscript of 702:, a lake on the German island of 311:In chapter 40 of his ethnography 3304: 3303: 2086: 1927:Dictionary of Northern Mythology 1665:The Origin of the English Nation 821: 809: 793: 502:) and several others (including 3286:Christianization of Scandinavia 1975:Turville-Petre, Gabriel. 1964. 1891:The University of Chicago Press 1472:Noting a comparable episode in 498:(implying a nominative form of 153:"Njörd's desire of the Sea" by 3276:Christianization of the Franks 2349:Continental Germanic mythology 1873:Johns Hopkins University Press 722:etymologically descends from * 691:Name and manuscript variations 474:Name and manuscript variations 80:in Denmark and the Viking Age 1: 1565:Bintley, Michael D. J. 2015. 1547: 1041:several German football clubs 913: 165:, a deity who is attested in 106:. Together with his children 1629:. S. L. Møllers bogtrykkeri. 490:(yielding the nominate form 465: 144: 126:, mention of the mysterious 7: 3291:Christianization of Iceland 1686:Manchester University Press 1579:Birley, A. R. Trans. 1999. 1082: 754:and/or in the goddess name 617: 304: 261:. According to philologist 10: 3361: 1979:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1942:Stuart, Duane Reed. 1916. 1841:Cambridge University Press 1764:. Oxford University Press. 1606:Cambridge University Press 1191:is potentially related to 786:Oseberg tapestry fragments 16:Deity in Germanic paganism 3299: 3261: 2542: 2504: 2294: 2248: 2231: 2138: 2095: 2084: 2038: 1785:Mattingly, Harold. 2009. 1636:. New York Review Books. 43:in his ethnographic work 2529:North Germanic languages 2514:Germanic parent language 1598:Chambers, Raymond Wilson 1128: 597:. For example, in 1992, 2534:West Germanic languages 2524:East Germanic languages 2519:Proto-Germanic language 2339:Proto-Germanic folklore 2276:Romano-Germanic culture 1803:McKinnell, John. 2005. 1773:Oxford University Press 1714:Hopkins, Joseph. 2012. 1585:Oxford University Press 1169:" (Chambers 2001 : 70). 578:, yielding the reading 545:(compare modern German 290: 283: 246: 3340:Agricultural goddesses 2073:Sacred tree at Uppsala 1960:Toswell, M. J. 2010. " 1885:Sanders, Karin. 2009. 1835:North, Richard. 1997. 1753:, pp. 1331–1344. 1731:, pp. 1273–1302. 1661:Chadwick, Hector Munro 1646:Gunnell, Terry. 1995. 1625:Finnur Jónsson. 1931. 1244:Mattingly 2009: 53-54. 969: 931: 745:), that Nerthus was a 570:(often abbreviated as 418: 169:texts and in numerous 158: 24: 2344:Anglo-Saxon mythology 2234:Ethnolinguistic group 2058:Grove of the Semnones 1948:The Macmillan Company 1869:Comparative Mythology 1787:Agricola and Germania 1760:Lindow, John. 2020c. 1678:Davidson, Hilda Ellis 1618:de Vries, Jan. 1977. 1437:, Njǫrðr is known as 1349:Chambers 2001: 69-71. 1178:McKinnell (2005: 50). 967: 921: 752:Sister-wife of Njörðr 357: 269:'strength' and Greek 152: 128:Sister-wife of Njörðr 114:, the three form the 49:as a "Mother Earth". 22: 1955:Scandinavian Studies 1918:, pp. 797–822. 1907:, pp. 589–642. 1767:Lindow, John. 2001. 1581:Agricola and Germany 1558:, pp. 135–160. 1522:McKinnell 2022: 539. 1463:Gunnell 1995: 54-59. 1001:interpretatio Romana 855:Ögmundar þáttr dytts 605:was chosen by Grimm 3330:Fertility goddesses 3271:Gothic Christianity 1762:Old Norse Mythology 1742:, pp. 63–101. 1632:Glob, P. V. 2004 . 1495:Schjødt 2020b: 803. 1486:Schjødt 2020a: 633. 1445:" (North 1997: 24). 1217:McKinnell 2005: 51. 1104:"Isis" of the Suebi 782:Oseberg ship burial 739:(perhaps involving 584:Codex Hersfeldensis 229:The meaning of the 82:Oseberg ship burial 3335:Germanic goddesses 2654:Germani cisrhenani 2362:Funerary practices 2266:Pre-Roman Iron Age 2242:Germanic languages 2097:Germanic mythology 2048:Grove of Baduhenna 1944:Tacitus - Germania 1076:Fire Emblem Heroes 970: 948:Peter Vilhelm Glob 932: 886:Jens Peter Schjødt 871:and one featuring 693:above) led to the 159: 25: 3317: 3316: 2489:Gothic and Vandal 2281:Germanic Iron Age 2256:Nordic Bronze Age 2238:Northern European 2191: 2190: 2168:Líf and Lífþrasir 2157:Dream of the Rood 2040:Germanic paganism 1972:27 (2010): 27–62. 1857:, pp. 7–40. 1799:978-0-140-45540-3 1593:978-0-19-283300-6 1569:. Boydell Press. 1504:Davidson 1964:96. 1416:Lindow 2001: 237. 1404:Gunnell 1995: 60. 1395:Gunnell 1995: 59. 1331:Andrén 2020: 212. 1308:Motz 1992: 12-16. 1235:Birley (1999:58). 1208:Puhvel 1989: 205. 421:Tacitus's sources 417: 416: 404: 383: 365: 273:- but with Vedic 155:W. G. Collingwood 29:Germanic paganism 3352: 3307: 3306: 3263:Christianization 2853:Ripuarian Franks 2225:Germanic peoples 2218: 2211: 2204: 2195: 2194: 2090: 2053:Grove of Nerthus 2025: 2018: 2011: 2002: 2001: 1962:Quid Tacitus...? 1807:. D. S. Brewer. 1627:Lexicon poeticum 1541: 1540:Hardy 2001: 125. 1538: 1532: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1511: 1505: 1502: 1496: 1493: 1487: 1484: 1478: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1423: 1417: 1414: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1393: 1387: 1383: 1377: 1374: 1368: 1365: 1359: 1356: 1350: 1347: 1341: 1338: 1332: 1329: 1323: 1315: 1309: 1306: 1300: 1293: 1287: 1283: 1277: 1274: 1268: 1261: 1255: 1251: 1245: 1242: 1236: 1233: 1227: 1224: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1200: 1185: 1179: 1176: 1170: 1142: 1028:Modern influence 922:The face of the 825: 813: 797: 401:Harold Mattingly 399: 378: 363: 359: 358: 295:'contented' and 293: 286: 249: 58:Germanic peoples 3360: 3359: 3355: 3354: 3353: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3320: 3319: 3318: 3313: 3295: 3257: 2538: 2500: 2462:Gothic alphabet 2354:Norse mythology 2290: 2244: 2227: 2222: 2192: 2187: 2134: 2091: 2082: 2034: 2029: 1987: 1985:Further reading 1982: 1823:Viewable online 1650:. D.S. Brewer. 1550: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1481: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1449: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1326: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1290: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1271: 1262: 1258: 1252: 1248: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1226:Stuart 1916:20. 1225: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1203: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1143: 1136: 1131: 1085: 1062:Theodor Fontane 1030: 988:Norse mythology 986:, a goddess in 962: 944:ritually placed 916: 829: 826: 817: 814: 805: 798: 766: 716: 620: 539:Beatus Rhenanus 484:accusative case 476: 468: 436:Bella Germaniae 431:Pliny the Elder 423: 309: 147: 104:Norse mythology 17: 12: 11: 5: 3358: 3348: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3311: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3294: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3267: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3256: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3224: 3223: 3218: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3032: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3001: 3000: 2999: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2922: 2920:Thracian Goths 2917: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2887: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2845: 2840: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2725: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2699: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2575: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2548: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2537: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2510: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2497: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2476: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2464: 2454: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2427: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2410: 2409: 2408: 2403: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2386: 2376: 2375: 2374: 2369: 2359: 2358: 2357: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2331: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2300: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2289: 2288: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2271:Roman Iron Age 2268: 2263: 2258: 2252: 2250: 2246: 2245: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2206: 2198: 2189: 2188: 2186: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2153: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2133: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2115:Hoddmímis holt 2112: 2107: 2101: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2044: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2028: 2027: 2020: 2013: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1991: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1973: 1958: 1951: 1940: 1923: 1912: 1901: 1883: 1862: 1851: 1833: 1826: 1815: 1801: 1783: 1765: 1758: 1747: 1736: 1725: 1721:RMN Newsletter 1712: 1689: 1675: 1658: 1644: 1630: 1623: 1616: 1595: 1577: 1563: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1533: 1524: 1515: 1506: 1497: 1488: 1479: 1465: 1456: 1447: 1443:Skáldskaparmál 1418: 1406: 1397: 1388: 1378: 1369: 1360: 1351: 1342: 1333: 1324: 1310: 1301: 1288: 1278: 1269: 1256: 1246: 1237: 1228: 1219: 1210: 1201: 1180: 1171: 1133: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1116: 1110: 1101: 1092: 1084: 1081: 1064:'s 1896 novel 1029: 1026: 961: 958: 957: 956: 915: 912: 907:Hilda Davidson 904: 903: 845:Skáldskaparmál 831: 830: 827: 820: 818: 815: 808: 806: 802:Dejbjerg wagon 799: 792: 778:Dejbjerg wagon 765: 762: 747:hermaphroditic 715: 712: 644: 643: 619: 616: 559:, the reading 475: 472: 467: 464: 422: 419: 415: 414: 412: 411: 410: 396: 395: 394: 375: 374: 373: 308: 303: 190:Proto-Germanic 146: 143: 90:Proto-Germanic 78:Dejbjerg wagon 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3357: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3325: 3310: 3302: 3301: 3298: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3187: 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2368: 2365: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2296:Early culture 2293: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2214: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2152: 2151:Ask and Embla 2149: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2021: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2007: 2006: 2003: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1988: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1939: 1938:0-85991-513-1 1935: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1900: 1899:9780226734040 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1881:9780801839382 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1850: 1849:9780521551830 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1824: 1821:74: 534–550. 1820: 1816: 1814: 1813:9781843840428 1810: 1806: 1802: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1782: 1781:0-19-515382-0 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1763: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1713: 1711: 1710:9789042012363 1707: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1673:0-941694-09-7 1670: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1656:9780859914581 1653: 1649: 1645: 1643: 1642:9781590170908 1639: 1635: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1617: 1615: 1614:9781108015271 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1576: 1575:9781843839897 1572: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1552: 1537: 1528: 1519: 1510: 1501: 1492: 1483: 1475: 1474:Ynglinga saga 1469: 1460: 1451: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1433:in ch. 40 of 1432: 1428: 1422: 1413: 1411: 1401: 1392: 1382: 1373: 1364: 1355: 1346: 1337: 1328: 1320: 1314: 1305: 1298: 1292: 1282: 1273: 1266: 1260: 1250: 1241: 1232: 1223: 1214: 1205: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1175: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1141: 1139: 1134: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1080: 1078: 1077: 1071: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1038: 1035: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1003: 1002: 997: 993: 989: 985: 984: 979: 975: 966: 953: 952: 951: 949: 945: 941: 937: 929: 925: 920: 911: 908: 900: 895: 894: 893: 891: 887: 882: 880: 879: 878:Gesta Danorum 874: 870: 869: 864: 859: 857: 856: 851: 847: 846: 841: 837: 824: 819: 812: 807: 803: 796: 791: 790: 789: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 761: 759: 758: 753: 748: 744: 743: 738: 734: 729: 725: 721: 711: 709: 705: 701: 700: 696: 692: 688: 683: 681: 677: 676: 671: 670: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 641: 637: 633: 629: 628: 627: 625: 624:Anders Andrén 615: 613: 608: 604: 600: 596: 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 568:Codex Aesinas 566:In 1902, the 564: 562: 558: 557: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 471: 463: 460: 456: 453: 449: 445: 440: 438: 437: 432: 428: 413: 407: 406: 405: 402: 397: 391: 386: 385: 384: 381: 376: 372: 368: 367: 366: 361: 360: 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 307: 302: 300: 299: 294: 292: 285: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 255: 250: 248: 243: 239: 236: 232: 227: 225: 224: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 186:reconstructed 183: 179: 175: 172: 168: 164: 156: 151: 142: 140: 135: 133: 129: 125: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 100: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 70: 68: 64: 59: 55: 50: 48: 47: 42: 38: 34: 30: 21: 2589:Anglo-Saxons 2579:Adrabaecampi 2562:Bucinobantes 2304:Architecture 2178:Sacred grove 2155: 2078:Caill Tomair 2052: 1994: 1976: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1954: 1943: 1926: 1915: 1904: 1886: 1868: 1865:Puhvel, Jaan 1854: 1836: 1829: 1818: 1804: 1786: 1768: 1761: 1750: 1739: 1728: 1719: 1696: 1692: 1681: 1664: 1647: 1633: 1626: 1619: 1601: 1580: 1566: 1555: 1536: 1527: 1518: 1509: 1500: 1491: 1482: 1473: 1468: 1459: 1450: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1400: 1391: 1381: 1372: 1363: 1354: 1345: 1336: 1327: 1318: 1313: 1304: 1296: 1291: 1281: 1272: 1259: 1249: 1240: 1231: 1222: 1213: 1204: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1174: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1122: 1107: 1098: 1074: 1072: 1065: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1045: 1034:minor planet 1031: 1021: 1017: 1006: 999: 995: 981: 977: 973: 971: 933: 905: 898: 889: 883: 876: 868:Flateyjarbók 866: 860: 853: 849: 843: 839: 832: 773: 769: 767: 755: 742:hieros gamos 740: 727: 723: 719: 717: 707: 697: 690: 686: 684: 675:Gylfaginning 673: 667: 651: 645: 638:, among the 632:divine twins 621: 612:Rudolf Simek 606: 602: 594: 592: 587: 579: 575: 571: 565: 560: 554: 546: 542: 534: 530: 526: 522: 520: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 486:and include 479: 477: 469: 443: 441: 434: 426: 424: 403:translation: 398: 390:sacred grove 382:translation: 380:A. 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