62:, with two anthropologists in 1969 identifying 1935 to 1945 as the field's seminal period, and declined in the decades that followed due to changes in academic thought. Jerome Braun wrote in 2014 that "the study of national character nowadays is considered somewhat old-fashioned because the most famous period devoted to this study, the period immediately after World War II, eventually reached a point of exhaustion, intellectual and otherwise, as studies were attacked for superfic and bias on the part of the researchers."
34:, is controversial. Most of the research on national character has focused on the content, stability, accuracy, and origins of national character stereotypes. A 1985 cross-national study of national character found fundamental differences between the psychological profiles of the respective national populations of
58:. Some studies comparing national character stereotypes with assessed personality traits find a moderate relationship between stereotype and reality, while others have found perceptions of national character to be unfounded and poorly related. Academic interest in national character peaked around
30:. National character has been studied within the fields of anthropology, sociology, and psychology. The question of whether analysis and descriptions of national characters express meaningful content, as opposed to comprising inaccurate
277:
Terracciano, A.; Abdel-Khalek, A. M.; Ádám, N.; Adamovová, L.; Ahn, C.-k.; Ahn, H.-n.; Alansari, B. M.; Alcalay, L.; Allik, J.; Angleitner, A.; Avia, M. D.; Ayearst, L. E.; Barbaranelli, C.; Beer, A.; Borg-Cunen, M. A. (2005-10-07).
96:
1574:
447:
1085:
256:
227:
148:
671:
392:"Is the Study of Attitudes Sufficient for the Study of National Character? Putting the Work of Alex Inkeles in Context"
217:
1818:
1644:
1564:
1544:
440:
1534:
1045:
1604:
1473:
906:
1833:
1808:
1787:
433:
1050:
1674:
1624:
554:
1664:
1614:
1423:
713:
170:
1744:
1055:
345:"International Marketing and National Character: A Review and Proposal for an Integrative Theory"
1408:
1030:
942:
391:
1813:
1749:
1739:
1634:
1160:
1115:
618:
344:
244:
1828:
1823:
1754:
1554:
1015:
291:
1353:
1140:
1075:
8:
1594:
1155:
1100:
1020:
962:
845:
740:
470:
295:
1714:
1373:
1338:
1248:
775:
559:
372:
320:
279:
198:
1323:
1503:
1403:
1368:
1193:
1170:
1165:
1040:
656:
646:
495:
480:
456:
411:
376:
364:
325:
307:
252:
223:
190:
186:
144:
76:
1273:
967:
1759:
1433:
1393:
1383:
1333:
1318:
1308:
1268:
1228:
1218:
1095:
1065:
1025:
911:
747:
725:
515:
505:
403:
356:
315:
299:
202:
182:
136:
1428:
280:"National Character Does Not Reflect Mean Personality Trait Levels in 49 Cultures"
140:
1709:
1704:
1468:
1413:
1398:
1378:
1358:
1313:
1288:
1198:
1150:
1135:
1035:
995:
886:
881:
708:
596:
510:
485:
128:
1764:
1654:
1584:
1483:
1458:
1328:
1298:
1258:
1223:
1080:
1005:
990:
985:
876:
866:
576:
527:
360:
407:
1802:
1769:
1478:
1463:
1453:
1438:
1388:
1343:
1303:
1238:
1233:
1203:
1070:
1010:
952:
676:
490:
415:
368:
311:
194:
55:
43:
303:
1448:
1443:
1418:
1348:
1283:
1243:
1213:
1208:
1120:
1110:
1000:
735:
730:
718:
639:
625:
549:
329:
59:
1729:
1524:
1498:
1493:
1293:
1278:
1145:
1125:
1105:
957:
932:
891:
752:
661:
651:
613:
571:
534:
500:
23:
1734:
1694:
1263:
1253:
1130:
1060:
947:
916:
896:
840:
835:
790:
685:
31:
1774:
1724:
1488:
1363:
1090:
861:
785:
692:
666:
586:
71:
425:
276:
1699:
1175:
901:
871:
830:
825:
591:
566:
937:
800:
581:
539:
522:
39:
1719:
810:
780:
632:
544:
475:
135:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 3099–3101,
51:
35:
27:
820:
815:
795:
603:
47:
805:
131:, in Zeigler-Hill, Virgil; Shackelford, Todd K. (eds.),
169:
McCrae, Robert R.; Terracciano, Antonio (August 2006).
133:
1575:
The Work of Art in the Age of
Mechanical Reproduction
168:
1800:
219:National Character: A Psycho-Social Perspective
16:Common personality characteristics of a nation
441:
683:
637:
623:
175:Current Directions in Psychological Science
448:
434:
126:
319:
215:
97:"National Character | Encyclopedia.com"
1801:
242:
455:
429:
389:
342:
171:"National Character and Personality"
122:
120:
118:
116:
13:
22:refers to a characteristic common
14:
1845:
113:
1645:The Closing of the American Mind
1565:Civilization and Its Discontents
1545:A Vindication of Natural Society
187:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00427.x
127:Realo, Anu; Allik, Jüri (2020),
243:Turner, David A. (2022-04-26),
383:
336:
270:
236:
209:
162:
89:
1:
1535:Oration on the Dignity of Man
343:Clark, Terry (October 1990).
141:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_475
82:
1605:The Society of the Spectacle
390:Braun, Jerome (2014-01-30).
216:Inkeles, Alex (2017-07-12).
7:
251:, Brill, pp. 118–178,
65:
10:
1850:
361:10.1177/002224299005400406
1783:
1687:
1675:Intellectuals and Society
1625:The Culture of Narcissism
1516:
1184:
976:
925:
854:
768:
761:
701:
463:
408:10.1163/15691330-12341328
1819:Scientific controversies
1665:The Malaise of Modernity
1615:The History of Sexuality
714:Catholic social teaching
1745:Philosophy of education
304:10.1126/science.1117199
684:
638:
624:
1750:Philosophy of history
1740:Philosophy of culture
1635:A Conflict of Visions
396:Comparative Sociology
249:Comparative Education
1755:Political philosophy
1555:Democracy in America
349:Journal of Marketing
245:"National Character"
129:"National Character"
101:www.encyclopedia.com
1595:One-Dimensional Man
296:2005Sci...310...96T
26:of the people of a
1715:Cultural pessimism
1710:Cultural criticism
609:National character
20:National character
1834:National identity
1809:Social philosophy
1796:
1795:
1512:
1511:
657:Spontaneous order
647:Social alienation
496:Cultural heritage
457:Social philosophy
258:978-90-04-51808-7
229:978-1-351-50373-0
150:978-3-319-24612-3
77:National identity
1841:
1760:Social criticism
1680:
1670:
1660:
1650:
1640:
1630:
1620:
1610:
1600:
1590:
1580:
1570:
1560:
1550:
1540:
1530:
766:
765:
748:Frankfurt School
726:Communitarianism
689:
643:
629:
450:
443:
436:
427:
426:
420:
419:
387:
381:
380:
340:
334:
333:
323:
290:(5745): 96–100.
274:
268:
267:
266:
265:
240:
234:
233:
213:
207:
206:
166:
160:
159:
158:
157:
124:
111:
110:
108:
107:
93:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1792:
1779:
1705:Critical theory
1683:
1678:
1668:
1658:
1648:
1638:
1628:
1618:
1608:
1598:
1588:
1578:
1568:
1558:
1548:
1538:
1528:
1508:
1186:
1180:
978:
972:
921:
850:
757:
709:Budapest School
697:
486:Cosmopolitanism
459:
454:
424:
423:
388:
384:
341:
337:
275:
271:
263:
261:
259:
241:
237:
230:
214:
210:
167:
163:
155:
153:
151:
125:
114:
105:
103:
95:
94:
90:
85:
68:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1847:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1765:Social science
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1671:
1661:
1655:Gender Trouble
1651:
1641:
1631:
1621:
1611:
1601:
1591:
1585:The Second Sex
1581:
1571:
1561:
1551:
1541:
1531:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
982:
980:
974:
973:
971:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
929:
927:
923:
922:
920:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
858:
856:
852:
851:
849:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
772:
770:
763:
759:
758:
756:
755:
750:
745:
744:
743:
733:
728:
723:
722:
721:
711:
705:
703:
699:
698:
696:
695:
690:
681:
680:
679:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
635:
630:
621:
616:
611:
606:
601:
600:
599:
589:
584:
579:
577:Invisible hand
574:
569:
564:
563:
562:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
531:
530:
520:
519:
518:
513:
508:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
467:
465:
461:
460:
453:
452:
445:
438:
430:
422:
421:
402:(6): 748–772.
382:
335:
269:
257:
235:
228:
208:
181:(4): 156–161.
161:
149:
112:
87:
86:
84:
81:
80:
79:
74:
67:
64:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1846:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1770:Social theory
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
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1690:
1686:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1424:Radhakrishnan
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1185:20th and 21st
1183:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
983:
981:
977:18th and 19th
975:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
930:
928:
924:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
859:
857:
853:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
773:
771:
767:
764:
760:
754:
751:
749:
746:
742:
739:
738:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
720:
717:
716:
715:
712:
710:
707:
706:
704:
700:
694:
691:
688:
687:
682:
678:
675:
674:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
642:
641:
636:
634:
631:
628:
627:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
598:
595:
594:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
561:
558:
557:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
529:
526:
525:
524:
521:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
503:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
468:
466:
462:
458:
451:
446:
444:
439:
437:
432:
431:
428:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
386:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
339:
331:
327:
322:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
273:
260:
254:
250:
246:
239:
231:
225:
222:. Routledge.
221:
220:
212:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
165:
152:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
123:
121:
119:
117:
102:
98:
92:
88:
78:
75:
73:
70:
69:
63:
61:
57:
56:United States
53:
49:
45:
44:Great Britain
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
1814:Anthropology
1673:
1663:
1653:
1643:
1633:
1623:
1613:
1603:
1593:
1583:
1573:
1563:
1553:
1543:
1533:
1523:
943:Guicciardini
926:Early modern
762:Philosophers
736:Conservatism
731:Confucianism
719:Distributism
652:Social norms
640:Sittlichkeit
626:Ressentiment
608:
572:Institutions
550:Human nature
399:
395:
385:
355:(4): 66–79.
352:
348:
338:
287:
283:
272:
262:, retrieved
248:
238:
218:
211:
178:
174:
164:
154:, retrieved
132:
104:. Retrieved
100:
91:
60:World War II
19:
18:
1829:Personality
1824:Stereotypes
1730:Historicism
1559:(1835–1840)
1525:De Officiis
1249:de Beauvoir
1219:Baudrillard
1171:Vivekananda
1161:Tocqueville
1076:Kierkegaard
892:Ibn Khaldun
862:Alpharabius
753:Personalism
662:Stewardship
619:Reification
614:Natural law
535:Familialism
501:Culturalism
32:stereotypes
24:personality
1803:Categories
1735:Humanities
1695:Agnotology
1354:Kołakowski
917:Ibn Tufayl
897:Maimonides
841:Thucydides
836:Tertullian
791:Lactantius
686:Volksgeist
667:Traditions
481:Convention
264:2024-02-29
156:2024-02-28
106:2024-02-28
83:References
54:, and the
1775:Sociology
1725:Historism
1434:Santayana
1404:Oakeshott
1374:MacIntyre
1359:Kropotkin
1334:Heidegger
1187:centuries
1101:Nietzsche
1066:Jefferson
1051:Helvétius
1016:Condorcet
979:centuries
963:Montaigne
786:Confucius
776:Augustine
693:Worldview
587:Modernity
560:Formation
416:1569-1322
377:167991385
369:0022-2429
312:0036-8075
195:0963-7214
72:Imagology
1788:Category
1700:Axiology
1688:See also
1479:Voegelin
1469:Spengler
1444:Shariati
1399:Nussbaum
1384:Maritain
1344:Irigaray
1324:Habermas
1289:Foucault
1274:Durkheim
1176:Voltaire
1141:de Staël
1116:Rousseau
1041:Franklin
902:Muhammad
887:Gelasius
872:Avempace
855:Medieval
831:Polybius
826:Plutarch
592:Morality
567:Ideology
555:Identity
464:Concepts
330:16210536
66:See also
1529:(44 BC)
1459:Sombart
1454:Skinner
1439:Scruton
1419:Polanyi
1394:Niebuhr
1379:Marcuse
1314:Gramsci
1309:Gentile
1269:Du Bois
1259:Deleuze
1229:Benoist
1199:Agamben
1156:Thoreau
1146:Stirner
1136:Spencer
1086:Le Play
1036:Fourier
1021:Emerson
1006:Carlyle
991:Bentham
968:Müntzer
938:Erasmus
912:Plethon
907:Photios
867:Aquinas
801:Mencius
769:Ancient
702:Schools
582:Loyalty
540:History
528:Counter
523:Culture
491:Customs
321:2775052
292:Bibcode
284:Science
203:4978062
40:Germany
1720:Ethics
1679:(2010)
1669:(1991)
1659:(1990)
1649:(1987)
1639:(1987)
1629:(1979)
1619:(1976)
1609:(1967)
1599:(1964)
1589:(1949)
1579:(1935)
1569:(1930)
1549:(1756)
1539:(1486)
1484:Walzer
1474:Taylor
1464:Sowell
1449:Simmel
1414:Pareto
1409:Ortega
1319:Guénon
1304:Gehlen
1299:Gandhi
1254:Debord
1239:Butler
1234:Berlin
1224:Bauman
1214:Badiou
1204:Arendt
1194:Adorno
1126:Ruskin
1081:Le Bon
1056:Herder
1031:Fichte
1026:Engels
996:Bonald
986:Arnold
958:Milton
953:Luther
933:Calvin
811:Origen
781:Cicero
741:Social
677:Family
672:Values
633:Rights
597:Public
545:Honour
476:Anomie
471:Agency
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201:
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147:
52:Russia
36:France
28:nation
1517:Works
1504:Žižek
1489:Weber
1429:Röpke
1389:Negri
1369:Lasch
1339:Hoppe
1294:Fromm
1284:Evola
1264:Dewey
1244:Camus
1151:Taine
1131:Smith
1121:Royce
1111:Renan
1046:Hegel
1011:Comte
1001:Burke
948:Locke
882:Dante
877:Bruni
846:Xunzi
821:Plato
816:Philo
796:Laozi
604:Mores
516:Multi
506:Inter
373:S2CID
199:S2CID
48:Italy
1499:Zinn
1494:Weil
1364:Land
1349:Kirk
1209:Aron
1166:Vico
1106:Owen
1096:Mill
1091:Marx
1071:Kant
1061:Hume
806:Mozi
511:Mono
412:ISSN
365:ISSN
326:PMID
308:ISSN
253:ISBN
224:ISBN
191:ISSN
145:ISBN
1329:Han
1279:Eco
404:doi
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