3898:, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that the US Postal Service's widespread disruptions in mail delivery violated federal law and risked delaying the delivery of mail-in ballots — thereby causing voter disenfranchisement. On October 10, 2020, the court granted a preliminary injunction motion suspending service changes that had disrupted mail delivery. The court issued a series of additional orders leading up to the November 2020 General Election, which required the US Postal Service to take extraordinary measures to ensure the timely delivery of ballots and to provide daily updates about the delivery status of mail-in ballots. LDF represented the NAACP and individuals in the litigation.
1819:
3959:, on January 6, 2023, a three-judge district court ruled against the State of South Carolina’s 2021 congressional map and concluded that the map is an unconstitutional racial gerrymander and intentionally discriminatory in violation of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. The Supreme Court took the case up on direct appeal and heard oral arguments on October 11, 2023. LDF represented the plaintiffs at trial and presented oral argument on their behalf in the Supreme Court.
4783:
4753:
40:
3786:, held that Texas's 2011 voter photo identification law violated the Voting Rights Act and that there was sufficient evidence to find that the Texas Legislature might have passed the law for the purpose of discriminating against Black and Latino voters. LDF presented oral argument in the Fifth Circuit on behalf of Black students and the Texas League of Young Voters.
4155:. While he was director-counsel, LDF successfully defended the civil rights movement, ended "all deliberate speed" in desegregation the first employment discrimination lawsuits in the Supreme Court, and brought about a national moratorium on the death penalty. After leaving the LDF, Greenberg was a professor at Columbia Law School and the former Dean of
3768:, Following the remand to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, the Supreme Court again upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action. LDF represented the Black Student Alliance and the Black Ex-Students of Texas, Inc. in oral argument before the U.S. Court of Appeals and in an amicus brief in the Supreme Court.
4211:, Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division at the U.S. Department of Justice since January 2021 and the Kenneth and Harle Montgomery Professor of Public Interest Law at Stanford Law School. She is frequently mentioned as a potential democratic appointee to the U.S. Supreme Court.
3798:, the Supreme Court reversed the death sentence of Mr. Duane Buck because Mr. Buck's trial attorney introduced evidence that suggested Mr. Buck was more likely to commit violent acts in the future because he is black. LDF represented and presented oral argument on Mr. Buck's behalf in the Supreme Court.
3884:
granted a preliminary junction that prohibited South
Carolina from enforcing its witness signature requirement for absentee voters in the June 2020 primary elections. The court found that forcing people to obtain the signature of a third-party witness on their absentee ballot would endanger their
2013:
The board of directors of the NAACP created the Legal
Defense Fund in 1940 specifically for tax purposes. In 1957, LDF was completely separated from the NAACP and given its own independent board and staff. Although LDF was originally meant to operate in accordance with NAACP policy, after 1961,
3756:, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Michigan's Proposal 2 voter initiative, which amended the state's constitution to make affirmative action illegal in public employment, public education or public contracting purposes. LDF represented the Plaintiffs challenging Proposal 2.
1876:
in the U.S., LDF states it has "been instrumental in the formation of similar organizations that have replicated its organizational model in order to promote equality for Asian-Americans, Latinos, and women in the United States." LDF has also been involved in "the campaign for human rights
3308:
ordered over 180 of the local government bodies in counties, cities, and school boards in
Alabama to change their methods of election because intentionally racially discriminatory state laws had made it extremely difficult for Black voters to elect their preferred candidates to local
3942:
ruling, the
Supreme Court returned the case to the lower courts, which ultimately gave the Louisiana legislature the chance to draw a map with a second majority-Black district. And, in January 2024, the Legislature responded by adopting a new VRA-compliant map. LDF represented the
3617:. Smith was a young African-American mother whose abusive, domineering boyfriend led her to play a peripheral role (she did not sell drugs but was aware of the selling) in a conspiracy to obtain and distribute crack cocaine. She had been sentenced to a mandatory minimum of
2022:
recognized that the "universal esteem in which the initials are held is due in significant measure to distinguished record as a civil rights litigator" and that the NAACP has "benefitted from the added luster given to the NAACP initials by the LDF's litigation successes."
3716:, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the City of Chicago can be held accountable for each and every time it used a hiring practice that arbitrarily blocked qualified minority applicants from employment. LDF presented oral argument in this case in the Supreme Court.
2099:, invalidated state laws that denied African-American students access to all-white state graduate schools when no separate state graduate schools were available for African Americans. (Handled by Thurgood Marshall for the NAACP before the formal foundation of LDF.)
3934:, In June 2022, a federal court preliminary enjoined Louisiana’s congressional map and ordered the state to draw a map with two majority-Black districts. But the Supreme Court of the United States put this order on hold temporarily pending its decision in
3292:(1986), the Supreme Court ruled that at-large countywide election of state legislators illegally discriminated against black voters, and the Court established the standard for identifying "vote dilution" under the 1982 amendments to the Voting Rights Act.
3972:
who was an LDF cooperating attorney. The following, non-exhaustive list of LDF alumni demonstrates the breadth of positions these attorneys have held or currently hold in public service, the government, academia, the private sector, and other areas.
3321:: in a 5–4 vote, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a challenge to Georgia's death penalty and held that statistical evidence showing pervasive racial bias in the administration of the death penalty was not sufficient to invalidate a death sentence.
2014:
serious disputes emerged between the two organizations. These disputes ultimately led the NAACP to create its own internal legal department while LDF continued to operate and score significant legal victories as an independent organization.
3820:
school system because
Gardendale's purpose was to create a mostly white school system separate from the more racially diverse Jefferson County schools. LDF represents and presented oral arguments on behalf of Black students opposed to the
4150:
succeeded
Thurgood Marshall and served as LDF's second director-counsel from 1961 to 1984. Greenberg began as an Assistant Counsel at LDF in 1949. He argued more than 40 of LDF's cases before the Supreme Court, including a portion of
2973:
4249:. Marshall left LDF in 1961 to become a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit before going on to become Solicitor General of the United States and Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
1754:
1641:
3910:, on June 8, 2023, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed a preliminary injunction against the State of Alabama's 2021 congressional districts and ruled that Alabama's map is racially discriminatory in violation of Section 2 of the
3178:
2017:
At times, this separation has created considerable confusion in the eyes and minds of the public. In the 1980s, the NAACP unsuccessfully sued LDF for trademark infringement. In its ruling rejecting the NAACP's lawsuit, the
2853:
3100:, ruled that courts should hear cases of alleged unlawful discrimination based on the "minimal showing" that a qualified non-white applied unsuccessfully for a job that either remained open or was filled by a white person.
4804:-based history of the major cases taken on by LDF. This article has taken extensive portions of this page with the permission of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc., the copyright holder of that material.
3554:
3329:
3593:
for murder because of discrimination in the composition of the Grand Jury that originally indicted him more than 40 years earlier. (Rideau was retried, convicted on the lesser charge of manslaughter, and released in
2793:
3728:, the Supreme Court struck down Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act, ending the Section 5 preclearance regime. LDF presented oral argument and represented a group of African-American voters in the Supreme Court.
3398:
4378:
Theodore Shaw, Julius L. Chambers
Distinguished Professor of Law and Director of the Center for Civil Rights at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Professor Shaw served as the fifth president and
2994:
5032:
2873:
to desegregate public schools. However, this issue was contested in the courts for three more decades. In the most recent as of 2004 related cases, the U.S. Supreme Court in April 2002 refused to review
3534:
4022:, appointed by President Obama and confirmed by the Senate on December 22, 2010. Immediately prior to her appointment, Ms. Berrien was the Director of Litigation and Associate Director-Counsel for LDF.
3341:
to spend $ 4 million to upgrade predominantly black, as well as predominantly white, housing projects in the city, and to implement federal maintenance, tenant selection and other procedures equitably.
2136:
3980:, former acting President-Director Counsel for LDF (2012–2013), argued twice in the U.S. Supreme Court in defense of the constitutionality of the Voting Rights Act, and a current Commissioner for the
2988:
2980:
because there were inadequate standards to guide judges and juries making the decision which defendants will receive a sentence of death. However, under revised laws, U.S. executions resumed in 1977.
4839:
3673:
to change admission policies by removing racial quotas in the form of "points", but allowed them to continue to utilize race as a factor in admissions, to admit a diverse entering class of students.
2621:, overturned the practice of "departmental seniority", which had forced non-white workers to give up their seniority rights when they transferred to better jobs in previously white-only departments.
3108:
3510:
public schools and schools in the surrounding suburbs, found the state liable for maintaining racial and ethnic isolation, and ordered the legislative and executive branches to propose a remedy.
3490:: The Supreme Court refused to allow employers to defeat otherwise valid claims of job discrimination by relying on facts they did not know until after the discriminatory decision had been made.
3300:
2727:
1626:
3697:, the Supreme Court ruled the Voting Rights Act Section 5 preclearance process constitutional. LDF presented oral argument at the Supreme Court on behalf of a group of African-American voters.
3681:
2693:, ruled that 33 Mississippi school districts must desegregate "at once" thereby ending the era of foot-dragging in school desegregation permitted under the "all deliberate speed" doctrine of
5158:
3243:
1558:
2281:, ruled against practices of segregation within a formerly all-white graduate school insofar as they interfered with meaningful classroom instruction and interaction with other students.
4372:
1636:
4047:
2750:
1621:
4274:
3056:
school segregation, ruling that where deliberate segregation was shown to have affected a substantial part of a school system, the entire district must ordinarily be desegregated.
4932:
4256:
3468:
2517:
274:
5964:
3486:
3474:
3209:, struck down Federal government use of a written test for hiring into nearly 200 entry-level positions because the test disproportionately disqualified African Americans and
920:
2956:
333:
285:
4179:, and the Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General and acting head of the Civil Rights Division at the U.S. Department of Justice from October 2014 until January 2017.
3649:, ruled that it is legal to create, for partisan political reasons, a district with a high concentration of minority voters; hence the North Carolina district from which
4246:
3693:
2813:
2573:
2485:
1631:
1583:
6022:
4046:. After the separation, he replaced Thurgood Marshall as the General Counsel for the NAACP. He won numerous cases at the Supreme Court and was a federal judge on the
3712:
2617:
1593:
1588:
3845:
granted summary judgment to LDF and ruled that the
Presidential Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice violated multiple requirements of the
4260:
4072:
3955:
3866:
granted a preliminary injunction that required
Louisiana to extend the early voting period by three days and provided voters at highest risk of serious illness from
3338:
1859:
1603:
4093:
3863:
3006:
2716:
2665:
2595:
2208:
1573:
5522:
Tauber, Steven C. "On Behalf of the
Condemned? The Impact of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund on Capital Punishment Decision Making in the U.S. Courts of Appeals,"
4907:
3881:
2654:
2589:
2235:
476:
3428:
3064:
2906:
2561:
1508:
1498:
317:
5460:
Clemon, U. W., and Bryan K. Fair. "Making Bricks Without Straw: The NAACP Legal Defense Fund and the Development of Civil Rights Law in Alabama 1940-1980."
4646:
4843:
4399:
3456:
Restaurants agreed to pay African-American employees, applicants, and white managers who resisted the practices, $ 105 million and to implement aggressive
3130:
2305:
1578:
255:
4009:
3639:
3585:
2565:, made court order to allow a voting-rights march in Alabama, led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., which had previously been stopped twice by state police.
2337:
1568:
1563:
3752:
3685:, the Supreme Court ruled racial quotas unconstitutional in PK–12 school assignment, but allowed other remedial school integration programs to continue
3422:
3392:
2890:
2825:
2444:
2428:
2375:
2356:
1995:
4057:
3349:
2865:
2058:
facilities. During the civil rights protests of the 1960s, LDF represented "the legal arm of the civil rights movement" and provided counsel for Dr.
2000:
1598:
1478:
5155:
4076:
3842:
3365:
treatment and patient admissions. The settlement also provided increased opportunities for African-American physicians to practice at the hospital.
3263:
5133:
4176:
4172:
2629:
794:
3809:
3645:
1833:
1734:
481:
353:
207:
4882:
4589:
6007:
5129:
4417:
4409:
3410:
2689:
1852:
6012:
4307:
3038:
banned government provision of school books to segregated private schools established to allow whites to avoid public school desegregation.
2246:
1788:
1768:
1528:
1020:
1005:
492:
5265:
4144:, organizer, educator; creator of the division of legal information and community service and director of that division from 1965 to 1984
3930:
3779:
3741:
3072:, which requires that state universities, public schools, and other institutions that receive federal money may not discriminate by race.
1533:
1513:
6027:
4331:
2501:
2019:
799:
260:
4840:"NAACP Legal Defense Fund Succeeds in Defending Rights of 6,000 African-American Applicants for Chicago Firefighter Jobs | NAACP LDF"
2870:
1463:
1340:
374:
5033:"LDF Files Agreement Requiring USPS to Implement Key Measures to Prioritize and Expedite Ballot Delivery in Georgia Runoff Election"
4116:, the first African-American Assistant Attorney General for the United States Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division and the
3384:, established that a federal court could order local tax increases to fund magnet schools as a part of a school desegregation order.
2857:, forbade a city government from interfering in the construction of low-income housing in a predominantly white section of the city.
4068:
1845:
1783:
1548:
1503:
17:
4156:
4019:
3151:
2344:
1749:
1493:
1488:
1473:
4814:
2120:
and dropped though the settlement led to the removal of a 15 percent salary discrepancy between black and white teachers in the
3654:
3046:
2960:, ruled that employers may not refuse to hire women with pre-school-aged children unless the same standards are applied to men.
1468:
1453:
1360:
5174:
3981:
3914:. The Supreme Court also upheld the constitutionality of the Voting Rights Act in the redistricting context. LDF represented
2145:
1420:
497:
486:
348:
302:
297:
270:
5465:
5348:
3764:
3736:
2084:
1523:
1483:
1425:
1380:
240:
1410:
1390:
1235:
804:
650:
5144:
4392:
in the U.S. Supreme Court. She is one of the few African-American women to have ever argued a case in the Supreme Court.
2277:
2197:
2042:
1942:
1538:
1518:
1072:
937:
369:
5515:
Tauber, Steven C. "The NAACP Legal Defense Fund and the U.S. Supreme Court's Racial Discrimination Decision Making,"
5439:
5225:
4033:
3995:
3142:
2770:
2141:
2095:
418:
250:
5323:
3096:
1828:
1764:
1375:
1025:
438:
338:
5899:
5599:
4655:
4368:
4117:
2403:
1330:
1197:
1015:
942:
5491:
3546:
agreement did not deprive an employee of his right to enforce federal anti-discrimination laws in federal court.
2998:, ruled against systems' avoiding public school desegregation by the creation of all-white "splinter districts".
4192:
4029:
3846:
3436:
and Texas, respectively, to enforce and implement federal regulations calling for testing of poor children for
1739:
1415:
1365:
5498:
Klinetobe, Charles. "Jury Trials and Gerrymanders: The Legal Effort to Maintain Segregation in July of 1957."
4712:
5577:
4352:
3602:
3518:
3210:
1430:
1400:
1385:
1370:
1345:
1325:
947:
581:
448:
4284:
4103:
3894:
3503:
3457:
3334:
3305:
3237:
2977:
2934:
1458:
1350:
1335:
1320:
1287:
586:
265:
171:
serves as the eighth President and Director-Counsel, since March 2022. Previous Director-Counsels include
4226:
3522:, determined that a former employee may sue his ex-employer for retaliating against him (by giving a bad
2938:, ruled that tests for employment or promotion that produce different outcomes for blacks and whites are
2704:
2473:
2321:
2033:
1681:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1405:
877:
668:
638:
576:
525:
453:
343:
165:
founded LDF as a separate legal entity in 1940, which became totally independent from the NAACP in 1957.
5510:
Crafting Law in the Second Reconstruction: Julius Chambers, the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, and Title VII.
4933:"LDF Applauds Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals En Banc Decision Finding Texas Voter ID Law Discriminatory"
4908:"LDF Applauds Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals En Banc Decision Finding Texas Voter ID Law Discriminatory"
5753:
4515:
4341:
4218:
4131:
4127:
4106:, President emeritus of LDF's board and Secretary of Transportation in the administration of President
2830:
2262:
on the ground that she had not requested the state to provide a separate law school for black students.
1696:
1676:
1179:
1114:
887:
789:
756:
543:
428:
5083:
4624:
3744:
for a second view. LDF represented the Black Student Alliance and the Black Ex-Students of Texas, Inc.
4321:
4311:
4080:
3817:
3740:, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action, and remanded the case to the
3187:
2453:
1967:
1651:
1395:
1355:
644:
3380:
5979:
4597:
3147:
2087:
admission policy. (Managed by Thurgood Marshall for the NAACP before the formal foundation of LDF.)
1230:
1010:
857:
741:
515:
396:
224:
158:
4724:
5881:
5845:
5839:
5669:
4762:
4345:
4252:
4147:
3724:
3610:
3589:, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit threw out the 28-year-old, third conviction of
3022:
2646:
2538:
1957:
1744:
1686:
1149:
1109:
832:
731:
609:
423:
3870:
with the option to vote by mail in the November and December 2020 primary and general elections.
5869:
5747:
5729:
5717:
5118:
4421:
4386:. She previously served as the director of litigation for LDF and, in that role argued and won
4280:
4165:, voting rights advocate and the first African-American woman tenured professor at Harvard Law.
3670:
3614:
3448:
3358:
2363:
2059:
443:
433:
413:
4857:
3205:
5905:
5794:
4733:"Notice of proposed class action settlement and consent decree [legal advertisement]"
4123:
4015:
3543:
3507:
3080:
3069:
2922:
2533:
2433:
2399:
2232:
1972:
1067:
1057:
989:
952:
736:
726:
626:
307:
5555:
5479:
Hooks, Benjamin L. "Birth and Separation of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund,"
5107:
4185:, a federal judge on the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.
4042:, an assistant counsel at LDF until its 1956 separation from the NAACP, and an architect of
3849:, halting the Commission's operations until it was brought into compliance with federal law.
5944:
5887:
5681:
5675:
5663:
4516:"NAACP v. NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc., 753 F.2d 131 (D.C. Circuit 1985)"
4135:
3999:
3288:
2392:
2121:
1823:
1275:
520:
312:
245:
5298:
8:
5959:
5893:
5857:
5851:
5776:
5651:
5639:
5592:
5413:
5057:
4982:
4362:
4300:
4005:
3813:
3498:
3282:
3034:
2605:
2546:
2467:
2156:
1691:
1169:
1131:
548:
379:
5488:
Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America
4195:. Holder was a member of LDF's Board of Directors and interned for LDF as a law student.
3968:
A number of prominent attorneys have been affiliated with LDF over the years, including
3478:, led to settlements to end discriminatory use of police dogs in minority neighborhoods.
1174:
5949:
5800:
5782:
5657:
5007:
4883:"U.S. Supreme Court Ruling Reaffirms the Importance of Diversity in College Admissions"
4052:
3991:
3665:
2674:
2641:
2227:
2192:
2172:
2080:
2051:
1937:
1062:
847:
614:
591:
280:
184:
5399:
4782:
4752:
4732:
4484:
4299:, who became director of the LDF in 1977, was the first African-American professor at
5818:
5645:
5536:
Ware, Gilbert. "The NAACP-Inc. Fund Alliance: Its Strategy, Power, and Destruction,"
5273:
4536:
4383:
4358:
4242:
4229:. He is a former LDF staff attorney and currently a member of its board of directors.
4113:
4083:
3911:
3906:
3221:
2968:
2550:
2463:
2289:
2125:
2117:
2075:
867:
708:
215:
192:
162:
157:. Although LDF can trace its origins to the legal department of the NAACP created by
4175:
since April 2021. She was formerly the President and Chief Executive Officer of the
2926:, struck down Muhammad Ali's conviction for refusing to report for military service.
2633:, ruled that "freedom of choice" was an insufficient response to segregated schools.
1247:
5974:
5875:
5770:
5633:
5503:
5374:
4327:
4290:
4270:
4236:
4214:
4208:
4039:
3858:
3563:
3317:
3252:
3162:
3114:
2735:
2650:
2409:
2181:
2161:
2055:
1984:
1885:
1873:
1242:
1099:
927:
862:
842:
751:
4957:
4590:"Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board and the Desegregation of New Orleans Schools"
3414:, established the standard for resolving longstanding school desegregation orders.
5923:
5863:
5806:
5741:
5723:
5705:
5699:
5162:
4395:
4267:
to serve on the Yugoslav Tribunal and became its president between 1997 and 1999.
4141:
2387:
1877:
throughout the world, including in South Africa, Canada, Brazil, and elsewhere."
1270:
1077:
827:
746:
172:
5352:
6017:
5969:
5693:
5585:
5375:"NAACP's Theodore Shaw to Discuss "The Continuing Struggle for Racial Justice""
4425:
4413:
4337:
4264:
4097:
4064:
4061:, which upheld the constitutionality of busing to achieve school desegregation.
4025:
3590:
3437:
3362:
2732:
2712:
2449:
1729:
1154:
1124:
882:
872:
703:
188:
5607:
4815:"Supreme Court Ruling Leaves in Place Core Provision of the Voting Rights Act"
4648:
A Timeline of LDF's over 75-Year History of Defending Voting Rights in Alabama
3806:
Stout v. Jefferson County Board of Education and Gardendale Board of Education
2341:, required desegregation of Mansfield High School, outside Fort Worth, Texas;
6001:
5277:
4561:
4459:
4388:
4317:
4296:
4232:
3977:
3794:
3567:
3559:
3523:
3226:
3186:
consider race in drawing electoral districts if necessary to comply with the
2842:
2775:
2600:
2577:, overturned all convictions of demonstrators' participating in civil rights
2522:
2038:
1990:
1952:
1798:
1793:
147:
85:
4310:. He formerly was the Chief of the Civil Rights Bureau in the office of the
3918:
plaintiffs in the lower courts and presented oral argument on behalf of the
5917:
5788:
5711:
5531:
Making Civil Rights Law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court, 1936–1961
4348:
4222:
4198:
4168:
4162:
4089:
3987:
3969:
3837:
3607:
3452:: A record court-approved settlement in an employment discrimination case.
2838:
2798:
2395:
2213:
1977:
1282:
1094:
822:
685:
180:
168:
143:
108:
4460:"Transformative History of the NAACP Legal Defense & Educational Fund"
2164:—of four young black defendants accused of murdering an elderly white man.
5911:
5812:
5735:
5687:
4801:
4324:
and only the second African American to be elected governor of any state.
4188:
4107:
3539:
3453:
3271:
2972:, ruled that the death penalty as then applied in 37 states violated the
2940:
2911:
2759:
2755:
2490:
1919:
1448:
1104:
957:
837:
621:
176:
5250:
5058:"U.S. Senate Confirms EEOC Chair, Two Commissioners and General Counsel"
4797:
2817:, approved Federal suits over discrimination in the selection of juries.
5985:
5541:
4405:
3433:
3402:, established that Voting Rights Act applies to the election of judges.
3248:
3011:
2834:
2259:
1901:
553:
292:
5349:"Columbia Law School : Full Time Faculty : Theodore M. Shaw"
4205:. LDF's fourth director-counsel and the first female director-counsel.
3682:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
3170:, the most racially disproportionate application of the death penalty.
2521:, ruled against segregation in public facilities such as restaurants;
3268:
3085:
2678:
2670:
1932:
1881:
1778:
1119:
852:
631:
458:
4537:"Introducing LDF's New President and Director-Counsel: Janai Nelson"
4092:, first African-American federal judge in Alabama, retired from the
5474:
Crusaders in the Courts: Legal Battles of the Civil Rights Movement
4373:
United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
3867:
3650:
3154:, as providing an independent remedy for employment discrimination.
3052:
3014:
evidence to prove racial discrimination in the selection of juries.
2945:
2739:
2506:
2255:
1164:
1089:
1082:
5548:
The Black O: Racism and Redemption in an American Corporate Empire
4048:
United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
3068:, required federal education officials to enforce Title VI of the
2882:, in which lower courts had ruled in favor of the school district.
2297:
with a hastily established inferior law school for black students.
5251:"Dennis D. Parker - National Center for Law and Economic Justice"
4275:
United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York
4182:
3783:
3026:, banned discrimination in the provision of municipal facilities.
2047:
1252:
558:
39:
5440:"Chairwoman Steps Down at New York City Police Oversight Agency"
5084:"The Most Important Midterm Race is One You Haven't Heard About"
4412:
and the Henry Cohen Professor of Urban Policy and Management at
2212:, ruled against strategies that excluded African Americans from
4257:
United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas
2895:
2802:
2709:
2578:
2313:, preventing state courts from enforcing restrictive covenants.
1889:
1159:
5965:
Afro-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics
5572:
3084:, ruled that defendants are entitled to have potential jurors
5608:
5199:
4408:, an MSNBC Legal Analyst, civil rights activist, lawyer, and
4263:. McDonald was one of the first eleven judges elected by the
3526:) after he filed discrimination charges over his termination.
2258:
could not bar an African-American student from its all-white
2177:
932:
154:
5567:
5145:'Eric Holder In Profile,' Washington Post, November 18, 2008
4679:
3694:
Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder
3167:
3119:
2216:
2176:, a voting rights case in which the Supreme Court required
962:
5609:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
3631:
years in prison even though she was a first-time offender.
118:
4314:
and, prior to that, worked for over a dozen years at LDF.
4261:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
4239:
Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division.
3956:
Alexander v. South Carolina State Conference of the NAACP
2144:
teachers be paid salaries equal to whites, regardless of
2008:
1892:
and hundreds of cooperating attorneys across the nation.
5266:"Reince Priebus, The Least Interesting Man in the World"
4485:"LDF@70: 70 Years of Fulfilling the Promise of Equality"
4355:
from 2011 to 2017. He interned for LDF as a law student.
4094:
U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Alabama
3864:
U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana
2914:
case to a venue where jurors are not biased against him.
2645:, ruled that state laws banning interracial marriage ("
2599:, reversed state convictions of Alabama and Mississippi
2462:: LDF attorneys defended Martin Luther King Jr. against
2031:
Probably the most famous case in the history of LDF was
4079:. She previously headed the Civil Rights bureau of the
2876:
Cappachione v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
5226:"Asian-American Is Named To Top Civil Rights Position"
4096:, and one of the first Black officials elected to the
3882:
U.S. District Court for the District of South Carolina
3134:, mandated back pay for victims of job discrimination.
2655:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
5763:
4283:, the first African-American woman to be appointed a
3179:
United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburgh v. Carey
5351:. Law.columbia.edu. November 9, 1961. Archived from
4400:
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
3885:
health and safety in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.
3274:
intended to reduce African-American voting strength.
2854:
Kennedy-Park Homes Association v. City of Lackawanna
5324:"LDF President Ted Shaw Joins Columbia Law Faculty"
4010:
U.S. District Court for the District of Connecticut
3190:
by avoiding a dilution of minority voting strength.
1755:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
4761:
4731:
3753:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
3357:, a District Court approved a settlement ending a
3118:Act, requiring disclosure of the actual cost of a
2673:in civil rights act cases are entitled to receive
2329:racial segregation of public education facilities.
6023:Legal advocacy organizations in the United States
4763:"Judge approves racial discrimination settlement"
4740:. Munster, Indiana. November 25, 1992. p. C5
4058:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
3947:plaintiffs in the Supreme Court and lower courts.
3555:Campaign to Save Our Public Hospitals v. Giuliani
3330:Jiggets v. Housing Authority of City of Elizabeth
2866:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
2114:Abbington v Board of Education of Louisville (KY)
5999:
5504:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2006.00141.x
4382:Christina Swarns, the Executive Director of the
4287:and the first to argue before the Supreme Court.
3843:U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia
2944:to be presumed discriminatory, and must measure
2910:, upheld the right of a criminal defendant in a
2898:to challenge prison conditions in federal court.
2880:Belk v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
2794:Ali v. The Division of State Athletic Commission
153:LDF is wholly independent and separate from the
5134:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
4674:
4672:
4670:
4668:
4351:in 2017. He also served as the chairman of the
4177:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
4173:Associate Attorney General of the United States
3399:Houston Lawyers Association v. Attorney General
2948:for the job in question or they cannot be used.
2630:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
1872:While primarily focused on the civil rights of
5400:"Meet the people behind the Innocence Project"
4416:. Wiley is also the former board chair of the
4371:, the first African-American appointed to the
3810:U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit
2466:charges for demonstrating without a permit in
2379:, a further ruling against forced confessions.
2293:, ruled against a Texas attempt to circumvent
2160:, overturned the convictions—based on coerced
2140:, a federal court order that African-American
482:Education of freed people during the Civil War
128:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc.
33:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc.
5593:
5200:"David Kendall – Williams & Connolly LLP"
5130:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
4418:New York City Civilian Complaint Review Board
4306:Dennis Parker, the executive director of the
4245:, LDF founder and the first African-American
4077:Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law
3411:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
2995:U.S. v. Scotland Neck City Board of Education
2690:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
1853:
4665:
4609:
4607:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4308:National Center for Law and Economic Justice
4020:U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
3088:about whether they harbor racial prejudices.
2525:closed his restaurant rather than integrate.
2247:Sipuel v. Board of Regents of Univ. of Okla.
493:Historically black colleges and universities
4510:
4508:
4506:
4504:
4361:, civil rights activist and founder of the
4055:, third director-counsel of LDF. He argued
3780:U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
3742:U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
3657:was ruled not to be an illegal gerrymander.
2398:from interfering with the desegregation of
477:Education during the slave period in the US
5600:
5586:
4680:"NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund"
4332:U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
3535:Wright v. Universal Maritime Service Corp.
3355:Simkins v. Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital
2502:Simkins v. Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital
2020:U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
1922:for exceptional African-American students.
1912:Policy research and monitoring legislation
1860:
1846:
800:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
4604:
4596:. Federal Judicial Center. Archived from
4439:
2509:that received Federal construction funds.
2137:Alston v. School Board of City of Norfolk
256:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
5955:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
5037:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
5012:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4987:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4962:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4937:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4912:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4887:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4862:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4819:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4684:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4566:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4541:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4501:
4464:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4410:2021 mayoral candidate for New York City
2989:Wright v. Council of the City of Emporia
2649:") in Virginia and 15 other states were
2360:, overturned segregation of city buses;
5437:
5081:
4138:office and handled more than 120 cases.
4075:since 2021 and former President of the
4036:. She was a summer legal intern at LDF.
3963:
3255:that discriminate on the basis of race.
2345:Mansfield school desegregation incident
27:Organization in New York, United States
14:
6000:
5263:
5223:
4759:
4727: (N.D. Fla. January 25, 1993).
3109:Mourning v. Family Publication Service
3047:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
2180:to allow African Americans to vote in
2009:Creation and separation from the NAACP
5581:
5438:Mueller, Benjamin (August 31, 2017).
4798:http://www.naacpldf.org/timeline.aspx
4584:
4582:
4477:
3990:, the first tenured African-American
3982:United States Civil Rights Commission
3506:, in view of the disparities between
3301:Dillard v. Crenshaw County Commission
2728:Thorpe v. Housing Authority of Durham
998:Athletic associations and conferences
487:History of African-American education
6008:1940 establishments in New York City
4715: (N.D. Fla. March 12, 1992).
2085:University of Maryland School of Law
1895:
921:Association for the Study of African
6013:Civil rights movement organizations
5414:"MSNBC Public Relations on Twitter"
5224:Holmes, Steven A. (June 12, 1997).
5082:Shechet, Ellie (November 2, 2018).
4625:"Aline Elizabeth Black (1906–1974)"
4293:was an LDF attorney from 1959–1989.
2841:membership be limited to owners of
2026:
1926:
1735:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1236:African-American Vernacular English
805:National Conference of Black Mayors
179:(2008–2012), Ted Shaw (2004–2008),
146:organization and law firm based in
24:
5627:Presidents and CEOs (1996–present)
5573:Thurgood Marshall Institute at LDF
5454:
4858:"Shelby County, Alabama v. Holder"
4622:
4579:
3816:attempt to secede from the larger
3244:Goldboro Christian Schools v. U.S.
2715:process as a means of suppressing
2278:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
938:National Black Chamber of Commerce
25:
6039:
6028:Organizations established in 1940
5623:Executive Secretaries (1910–1964)
5561:
5264:Weigel, David (August 22, 2012).
4760:Kaczor, Bill (January 26, 1993).
4034:Wayne State University Law School
4032:. She is also the former Dean of
3996:New York University School of Law
3143:Johnson v. Railway Express Agency
2771:Allen v. State Board of Elections
2432:, began the desegregation of the
2295:Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada
2252:Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada
2096:Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada
1642:Places by plurality of population
308:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
298:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
251:Abolitionism in the United States
4781:
4751:
4594:History of the Federal Judiciary
4255:, a former federal judge of the
3765:Fisher v. University of Texas II
3166:, banned capital punishment for
3097:McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green
2751:Sniadach v. Family Finance Corp.
2184:, formerly restricted to whites.
1817:
339:Black Belt in the American South
38:
5625:Executive Directors (1964–1996)
5483:1979 86(6): 218–220. 0011–1422
5431:
5406:
5392:
5367:
5341:
5316:
5291:
5257:
5243:
5217:
5192:
5167:
5149:
5138:
5123:
5112:
5101:
5075:
5050:
5025:
5000:
4975:
4950:
4925:
4900:
4875:
4850:
4832:
4807:
4800:, The official site provides a
4791:
4697:
4369:Spottswood William Robinson III
4118:United States Solicitor General
3922:appellees in the Supreme Court.
1888:LDF has nearly two dozen staff
943:National Council of Negro Women
4639:
4616:
4554:
4529:
4193:United States Attorney General
4030:Secretary of State of Michigan
3847:Federal Advisory Committee Act
3606:, was resolved when President
2669:, established that prevailing
1740:Racism against Black Americans
104:President and Director-Counsel
13:
1:
5175:"The New York Times – Search"
4432:
4353:Republican National Committee
4320:, the first African-American
4191:, the first African-American
3737:Fisher v. University of Texas
3519:Robinson v. Shell Oil Company
3469:Lawson v. City of Los Angeles
3361:hospital's discrimination in
2829:, overruled a requirement in
2518:Willis v. Pickrick Restaurant
948:National Pan-Hellenic Council
5550:(2013) specific to the 1993
5524:Political Research Quarterly
4420:, and former counsel to the
4104:William Thaddeus Coleman Jr.
3895:United States Postal Service
3538:, determined that a general
3504:Supreme Court of Connecticut
3487:McKennon v. Nashville Banner
3475:Silva v. City of Los Angeles
3458:equal employment opportunity
3238:Bob Jones University v. U.S.
2978:cruel and unusual punishment
2935:Griggs v. Duke Power Company
2774:, guaranteed the right to a
2200:seating on interstate buses.
1880:LDF's national office is in
1750:School segregation in the US
1288:Black American Sign Language
1262:Languages and other dialects
84:40 Rector Street, 5th floor
7:
4778:– via Newspapers.com.
4748:– via Newspapers.com.
4221:, he represented President
4219:Williams & Connolly LLP
2957:Phillips v. Martin Marietta
2705:Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham
2695:Brown v. Board of Education
2474:Letter from Birmingham Jail
2322:Brown v. Board of Education
2079:, removed unconstitutional
2043:United States Supreme Court
2034:Brown v. Board of Education
1884:, with regional offices in
577:African-American businesses
10:
6044:
5568:NAACP-LDF Official Website
5538:Journal of Negro Education
5119:Mississippi Freedom Summer
4342:White House Chief of Staff
4273:, a federal judge for the
4259:and a former judge of the
4132:Mississippi Freedom Summer
4069:Assistant Attorney General
2831:Taliaferro County, Georgia
2708:, ruled against using the
2653:because they violated the
2541:. See also on this issue,
2250:, reaffirmed and extended
1115:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
790:Congressional Black Caucus
757:African Diaspora Religions
544:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
5937:
5832:
5622:
5615:
4398:, a federal judge on the
4330:, a federal judge on the
4322:Governor of Massachusetts
4312:New York Attorney General
4081:New York Attorney General
4008:, a federal judge in the
3862:, in September 2020, the
3225:, struck down a federal "
3188:Voting Rights Act of 1965
2814:Carter v. Jury Commission
2574:Hamm v. City of Rock Hill
2486:Watson v. City of Memphis
2454:University of Mississippi
1968:Employment discrimination
1622:US states and territories
923:American Life and History
645:Lift Every Voice and Sing
354:Treatment of the enslaved
191:(1961–1984), and founder
114:
102:
92:
80:
72:
54:
46:
37:
5980:National Negro Committee
5556:portions in Google Books
5517:Social Science Quarterly
5379:Office of Communications
4713:803 F. Supp. 393
3994:professor, professor at
3825:
3713:Lewis v. City of Chicago
3701:
3655:House of Representatives
3574:
3369:
3194:
3148:Civil Rights Act of 1866
2869:, upheld intra-district
2782:
2731:, ruled that low-income
2618:Quarles v. Philip Morris
2417:
2266:
2103:
2065:
1949:Political Participation
1824:United States portal
1231:African-American English
742:African-American Muslims
303:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
198:
159:Charles Hamilton Houston
18:NAACP Legal Defense Fund
5882:Stephen Gill Spottswood
5846:Oswald Garrison Villard
5490:(2012) Pulitzer Prize;
4627:. Encyclopedia Virginia
4253:Gabrielle Kirk McDonald
4227:impeachment proceedings
4225:during the President's
4128:Children's Defense Fund
3725:Shelby County v. Holder
3353:: in a belated coda to
3182:, provided that states
3050:, addressed deliberate
3023:Hawkins v. Town of Shaw
2894:, upheld the right of
2738:could not be summarily
2647:anti-miscegenation laws
2539:anti-miscegenation laws
2505:, ended segregation of
2489:, ruled segregation of
2233:racially discriminatory
1958:Felony disfranchisement
1745:Reparations for slavery
833:Back-to-Africa movement
732:Black Hebrew Israelites
610:African-American beauty
185:Julius Levonne Chambers
76:Non-profit organization
5870:Channing Heggie Tobias
5764:Presidents (1909–1996)
5748:Cornell William Brooks
5730:Dennis Courtland Hayes
5718:Dennis Courtland Hayes
5502:68.2 (2006): 221-240.
4422:Mayor of New York City
4281:Constance Baker Motley
4201:, successfully argued
4000:Critical Race Theorist
3671:University of Michigan
3603:Smith v. United States
3010:, accepted the use of
3007:Alexander v. Louisiana
2364:Montgomery bus boycott
2325:, explicitly outlawed
2060:Martin Luther King Jr.
1215:Dialects and languages
375:Second Great Migration
88:, New York, 10006 U.S.
60:; 84 years ago
58:February 12, 1940
5906:Myrlie Evers-Williams
5540:1994 63(3): 323–335.
4846:on November 27, 2010.
4600:on February 21, 2014.
4247:Supreme Court Justice
4124:Marian Wright Edelman
4073:Civil Rights Division
4016:Jacqueline A. Berrien
3544:collective bargaining
3081:Ham v. South Carolina
3070:1964 Civil Rights Act
2923:Clay v. United States
2666:Newman v. Piggie Park
2596:Thomas v. Mississippi
2547:James A. Crumlin, Sr.
2534:McLaughlin v. Florida
2434:University of Georgia
2236:real estate covenants
2209:Patton v. Mississippi
2041:in 1954 in which the
1973:Environmental justice
1627:US metropolitan areas
1454:List of neighborhoods
1068:Alabama Creole people
1058:African-American Jews
990:Negro league baseball
953:National Urban League
905:Civic/economic groups
737:African-American Jews
627:African-American hair
489:, after the Civil War
318:Post–civil rights era
5945:NAACP Theatre Awards
5888:Margaret Bush Wilson
5744:(2013–2014, interim)
5732:(2007–2008, interim)
5720:(2004–2005, interim)
5676:James Weldon Johnson
5664:James Weldon Johnson
5526:1998 51(1): 191–219.
5519:1999 80(2): 325–340.
5508:Mosnier, L. Joseph.
5253:. December 27, 2023.
4768:Tallahassee Democrat
4136:Jackson, Mississippi
3964:Prominent LDF alumni
3814:City of Gardendale's
3289:Thornburg v. Gingles
2590:Abernathy v. Alabama
2124:public schools (see
2122:Louisville, Kentucky
2045:explicitly outlawed
1909:Educational outreach
1784:Criminal stereotypes
1559:District of Columbia
1276:Afro-Seminole Creole
718:Non-Christian groups
313:Black power movement
277:during the Civil War
246:Atlantic slave trade
5960:NAACP Youth Council
5894:Kelly Alexander Sr.
5858:Mary White Ovington
5852:Joel Elias Spingarn
5777:Joel Elias Spingarn
5652:Mary White Ovington
5640:Mary White Ovington
5328:Columbia Law School
4983:"Harding v. Ewards"
4363:Advancement Project
4301:Columbia Law School
4285:Federal Court Judge
4006:Victor Allen Bolden
3988:Derrick A. Bell Jr.
3880:, in May 2020, the
3653:was elected to the
3429:Thompson v. Raiford
3381:Missouri v. Jenkins
3283:Gingles v. Edmisten
3206:Luévano v. Campbell
3065:Adams v. Richardson
3035:Norwood v. Harrison
2907:Groppi v. Wisconsin
2606:Boynton v. Virginia
2562:Williams v. Wallace
2468:Birmingham, Alabama
2404:Central High School
2157:Chambers v. Florida
2116:, a suit argued by
1180:Sierra Leone Creole
1141:Specific ancestries
1026:Southwestern (SWAC)
549:Black History Month
380:New Great Migration
334:Agriculture history
34:
5950:NAACP Image Awards
5783:Arthur B. Spingarn
5658:Royal Freeman Nash
5552:Haynes v. Shoney's
5464:52 (2000): 1121+.
5462:Alabama Law Review
5444:The New York Times
5299:"Theodore M. Shaw"
5230:The New York Times
5179:topics.nytimes.com
5161:2009-05-15 at the
5008:"Thomas v. Andino"
4720:Haynes v. Shoney's
4708:Haynes v. Shoney's
4120:from 1993 to 1996.
4053:Julius L. Chambers
3992:Harvard Law School
3931:Robinson v. Ardoin
3666:Gratz v. Bollinger
3449:Haynes v. Shoney's
3131:Albemarle v. Moody
2642:Loving v. Virginia
2311:Shelley v. Kraemer
2306:Barrows v. Jackson
2228:Shelley v. Kraemer
2193:Morgan v. Virginia
2173:Smith v. Allwright
2052:racial segregation
1989:Opposition to the
1938:Affirmative action
1915:Coalition-building
1189:Sexual orientation
1063:Afro-Puerto Ricans
1016:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
651:Self-determination
615:Black is beautiful
281:Reconstruction era
136:Legal Defense Fund
32:
5995:
5994:
5933:
5932:
5828:
5827:
5819:Rupert Richardson
5646:May Childs Nerney
5529:Tushnet, Mark V.
5472:Greenberg, Jack.
5156:1997-Elaine Jones
4384:Innocence Project
4379:director-counsel.
4359:Constance L. Rice
4243:Thurgood Marshall
4203:Furman v. Georgia
4134:she headed LDF's
4126:, founder of the
4114:Drew S. Days, III
4084:Eric Schneiderman
3998:, and preeminent
3912:Voting Rights Act
3907:Allen v. Milligan
3640:Cromartie v. Hunt
3586:Rideau v. Whitley
3570:public hospitals.
3253:religious schools
3222:Enmund v. Florida
2969:Furman v. Georgia
2551:NAACP in Kentucky
2493:unconstitutional.
2452:admission to the
2393:Arkansas Governor
2338:Jackson v. Rawdon
2290:Sweatt v. Painter
2182:primary elections
2126:NAACP in Kentucky
2118:Thurgood Marshall
2076:Murray v. Pearson
1896:Areas of activity
1874:African Americans
1870:
1869:
1807:
1806:
1705:
1704:
1479:Dallas-Fort Worth
1296:
1295:
1206:
1205:
1150:Americo-Liberians
1033:
1032:
971:
970:
896:
895:
765:
764:
709:Womanist theology
659:
658:
601:Symbols and ideas
387:
386:
266:Antebellum period
261:Revolutionary War
216:African Americans
193:Thurgood Marshall
163:Thurgood Marshall
142:) is an American
124:
123:
16:(Redirected from
6035:
5975:Niagara Movement
5876:Robert C. Weaver
5771:Moorfield Storey
5761:
5760:
5634:Frances Blascoer
5620:
5619:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5579:
5578:
5546:Watkins, Steve.
5448:
5447:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5410:
5404:
5403:
5396:
5390:
5389:
5387:
5385:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5362:
5360:
5355:on July 28, 2010
5345:
5339:
5338:
5336:
5334:
5320:
5314:
5313:
5311:
5309:
5295:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5261:
5255:
5254:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5236:
5221:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5196:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5185:
5171:
5165:
5153:
5147:
5142:
5136:
5127:
5121:
5116:
5110:
5108:Robert L. Carter
5105:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5079:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5068:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5043:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5004:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4993:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4954:
4948:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4918:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4879:
4873:
4872:
4870:
4868:
4854:
4848:
4847:
4842:. Archived from
4836:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4811:
4805:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4779:
4777:
4775:
4765:
4756:
4755:
4749:
4747:
4745:
4735:
4722:
4710:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4676:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4654:, archived from
4653:
4643:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4620:
4614:
4611:
4602:
4601:
4586:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4558:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4547:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4522:
4512:
4499:
4498:
4496:
4494:
4489:
4481:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4456:
4328:Cornelia Pillard
4291:James Nabrit III
4271:Natasha C. Merle
4237:Chinese-American
4215:David E. Kendall
4209:Pamela S. Karlan
4157:Columbia College
4100:in modern times.
4040:Robert L. Carter
3878:Thomas v. Andino
3818:Jefferson County
3776:Veasey v. Abbott
3630:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3613:the sentence of
3564:Rudolph Giuliani
3499:Sheff v. O'Neill
3423:Matthews v. Coye
3393:Chisom v. Roemer
3318:McClesky v. Kemp
3163:Coker v. Georgia
3150:, passed during
3115:Truth in lending
2974:Eighth Amendment
2891:Haines v. Kerner
2826:Turner v. Fouche
2677:from the losing
2651:unconstitutional
2603:on the basis of
2543:Eilers v. Eilers
2537:, ruled against
2445:Meredith v. Fair
2429:Holmes v. Danner
2410:Little Rock Nine
2376:Fikes v. Alabama
2357:Gayle v. Browder
2062:, among others.
2056:public education
2027:Well-known cases
1996:Fourth Amendment
1985:Criminal justice
1964:Economic access
1927:Areas of concern
1886:Washington, D.C.
1862:
1855:
1848:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1769:media depictions
1718:
1717:
1613:Population count
1309:
1308:
1243:Liberian English
1222:English dialects
1219:
1218:
1175:Samaná Americans
1100:Creoles of color
1046:
1045:
984:
983:
928:Black conductors
909:
908:
778:
777:
752:Louisiana Voodoo
674:
673:
419:Family structure
402:
401:
349:Military history
344:Business history
275:military history
230:
229:
203:
202:
119:www.naacpldf.org
68:
66:
61:
42:
35:
31:
21:
6043:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6036:
6034:
6033:
6032:
5998:
5997:
5996:
5991:
5929:
5924:Leon W. Russell
5864:Louis T. Wright
5840:English Walling
5824:
5807:Enolia McMillan
5759:
5754:Derrick Johnson
5742:Lorraine Miller
5724:Bruce S. Gordon
5706:Earl Shinhoster
5700:Benjamin Chavis
5626:
5624:
5611:
5606:
5564:
5486:King, Gilbert.
5457:
5455:Further reading
5452:
5451:
5436:
5432:
5422:
5420:
5412:
5411:
5407:
5398:
5397:
5393:
5383:
5381:
5373:
5372:
5368:
5358:
5356:
5347:
5346:
5342:
5332:
5330:
5322:
5321:
5317:
5307:
5305:
5303:www.law.unc.edu
5297:
5296:
5292:
5282:
5280:
5262:
5258:
5249:
5248:
5244:
5234:
5232:
5222:
5218:
5208:
5206:
5198:
5197:
5193:
5183:
5181:
5173:
5172:
5168:
5163:Wayback Machine
5154:
5150:
5143:
5139:
5128:
5124:
5117:
5113:
5106:
5102:
5092:
5090:
5080:
5076:
5066:
5064:
5056:
5055:
5051:
5041:
5039:
5031:
5030:
5026:
5016:
5014:
5006:
5005:
5001:
4991:
4989:
4981:
4980:
4976:
4966:
4964:
4956:
4955:
4951:
4941:
4939:
4931:
4930:
4926:
4916:
4914:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4891:
4889:
4881:
4880:
4876:
4866:
4864:
4856:
4855:
4851:
4838:
4837:
4833:
4823:
4821:
4813:
4812:
4808:
4796:
4792:
4780:
4773:
4771:
4750:
4743:
4741:
4730:
4718:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4688:
4686:
4678:
4677:
4666:
4661:on July 6, 2020
4658:
4651:
4645:
4644:
4640:
4630:
4628:
4623:Tarter, Brent.
4621:
4617:
4612:
4605:
4588:
4587:
4580:
4570:
4568:
4560:
4559:
4555:
4545:
4543:
4535:
4534:
4530:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4513:
4502:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4483:
4482:
4478:
4468:
4466:
4458:
4457:
4440:
4435:
4396:Holly A. Thomas
4217:, a partner at
4142:Jean E. Fairfax
4018:, chair of the
3966:
3828:
3704:
3627:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3577:
3372:
3350:Cook v. Ochsner
3286:, continued as
3267:, overturned a
3197:
2976:prohibition of
2785:
2717:First Amendment
2675:attorneys' fees
2549:) – details in
2420:
2388:Cooper v. Aaron
2269:
2106:
2068:
2029:
2011:
2001:Sixth Amendment
1929:
1898:
1866:
1818:
1816:
1809:
1808:
1803:
1759:
1715:
1707:
1706:
1701:
1646:
1608:
1584:Omaha, Nebraska
1549:Historic places
1543:
1435:
1306:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1257:
1216:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1184:
1136:
1078:Black Seminoles
1043:
1042:Sub-communities
1035:
1034:
1021:Southern (SIAC)
981:
973:
972:
967:
922:
906:
898:
897:
892:
809:
775:
767:
766:
761:
747:Nation of Islam
713:
690:
671:
661:
660:
655:
596:
563:
530:
502:
463:
439:Musical theater
399:
389:
388:
370:Great Migration
227:
201:
173:Sherrilyn Ifill
105:
95:
64:
62:
59:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6041:
6031:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6010:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5989:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5970:Spingarn Medal
5967:
5962:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5941:
5939:
5935:
5934:
5931:
5930:
5928:
5927:
5926:(2017–present)
5921:
5915:
5909:
5903:
5900:William Gibson
5897:
5891:
5885:
5879:
5873:
5867:
5861:
5855:
5849:
5843:
5836:
5834:
5830:
5829:
5826:
5825:
5823:
5822:
5816:
5810:
5804:
5798:
5792:
5786:
5780:
5774:
5767:
5765:
5758:
5757:
5756:(2017–present)
5751:
5745:
5739:
5733:
5727:
5721:
5715:
5709:
5703:
5697:
5694:Benjamin Hooks
5691:
5685:
5679:
5673:
5667:
5661:
5655:
5649:
5643:
5637:
5630:
5628:
5617:
5613:
5612:
5605:
5604:
5597:
5590:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5570:
5563:
5562:External links
5560:
5559:
5558:
5544:
5534:
5527:
5520:
5513:
5506:
5495:
5494:
5484:
5477:
5469:
5468:
5456:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5430:
5405:
5391:
5366:
5340:
5315:
5290:
5256:
5242:
5216:
5191:
5166:
5148:
5137:
5122:
5111:
5100:
5074:
5049:
5024:
4999:
4974:
4949:
4924:
4899:
4874:
4849:
4831:
4806:
4790:
4788:
4787:
4757:
4728:
4716:
4696:
4664:
4638:
4615:
4603:
4578:
4553:
4528:
4500:
4476:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4426:Bill de Blasio
4414:The New School
4403:
4393:
4380:
4376:
4366:
4356:
4338:Reince Priebus
4335:
4325:
4315:
4304:
4294:
4288:
4278:
4268:
4265:United Nations
4250:
4240:
4230:
4212:
4206:
4196:
4186:
4180:
4166:
4160:
4153:Brown v. Board
4148:Jack Greenberg
4145:
4139:
4121:
4111:
4101:
4098:Alabama Senate
4087:
4065:Kristen Clarke
4062:
4050:
4044:Brown v. Board
4037:
4026:Jocelyn Benson
4023:
4013:
4003:
3985:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3948:
3923:
3899:
3886:
3871:
3850:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3812:, blocked the
3799:
3787:
3769:
3757:
3745:
3729:
3717:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3698:
3686:
3674:
3669:, ordered the
3658:
3632:
3595:
3591:Wilbert Rideau
3576:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3566:'s attempt to
3547:
3527:
3511:
3491:
3479:
3461:
3441:
3438:lead poisoning
3415:
3403:
3385:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3366:
3363:emergency room
3342:
3335:district court
3322:
3310:
3306:district court
3293:
3275:
3264:Major v. Treen
3256:
3230:
3214:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3191:
3171:
3155:
3152:Reconstruction
3135:
3123:
3101:
3089:
3073:
3057:
3039:
3027:
3015:
2999:
2981:
2961:
2949:
2927:
2915:
2899:
2883:
2858:
2846:
2818:
2806:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2763:
2743:
2733:public housing
2720:
2697:
2682:
2658:
2634:
2622:
2610:
2601:Freedom Riders
2582:
2566:
2554:
2526:
2510:
2494:
2478:
2457:
2450:James Meredith
2437:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2380:
2368:
2349:
2330:
2314:
2298:
2282:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2254:, ruling that
2239:
2220:
2201:
2185:
2165:
2149:
2129:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2088:
2067:
2064:
2028:
2025:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1897:
1894:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1850:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1730:Black genocide
1726:
1723:
1722:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1637:US communities
1634:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1594:South Carolina
1591:
1589:North Carolina
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1411:South Carolina
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1391:North Carolina
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1279:
1278:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1248:Samaná English
1245:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1200:
1198:LGBT community
1194:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1155:Creek Freedmen
1152:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1125:Carmel Indians
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1080:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1006:Central (CIAA)
1000:
999:
995:
994:
993:
992:
982:
979:
978:
975:
974:
969:
968:
966:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
917:
914:
913:
907:
904:
903:
900:
899:
894:
893:
891:
890:
885:
880:
875:
873:Pan-Africanism
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
819:
816:
815:
811:
810:
808:
807:
802:
797:
792:
786:
783:
782:
776:
773:
772:
769:
768:
763:
762:
760:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
723:
720:
719:
715:
714:
712:
711:
706:
704:Black theology
700:
697:
696:
692:
691:
689:
688:
682:
679:
678:
672:
667:
666:
663:
662:
657:
656:
654:
653:
648:
641:
636:
635:
634:
624:
619:
618:
617:
606:
603:
602:
598:
597:
595:
594:
589:
584:
579:
573:
570:
569:
568:Economic class
565:
564:
562:
561:
556:
551:
546:
540:
537:
536:
532:
531:
529:
528:
523:
518:
512:
509:
508:
507:Academic study
504:
503:
501:
500:
495:
490:
484:
479:
473:
470:
469:
465:
464:
462:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
410:
407:
406:
400:
395:
394:
391:
390:
385:
384:
383:
382:
377:
372:
364:
363:
359:
358:
357:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
328:
327:
323:
322:
321:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
289:
288:
278:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
235:
234:
228:
223:
222:
219:
218:
212:
211:
200:
197:
189:Jack Greenberg
161:in the 1930s,
122:
121:
116:
112:
111:
106:
103:
100:
99:
96:
94:Region served
93:
90:
89:
82:
78:
77:
74:
70:
69:
56:
52:
51:
48:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6040:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6005:
6003:
5988:
5987:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5942:
5940:
5936:
5925:
5922:
5919:
5916:
5913:
5910:
5907:
5904:
5901:
5898:
5895:
5892:
5889:
5886:
5883:
5880:
5877:
5874:
5871:
5868:
5865:
5862:
5859:
5856:
5853:
5850:
5847:
5844:
5841:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5831:
5820:
5817:
5814:
5811:
5808:
5805:
5802:
5799:
5796:
5795:Montague Cobb
5793:
5790:
5787:
5784:
5781:
5778:
5775:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5766:
5762:
5755:
5752:
5749:
5746:
5743:
5740:
5737:
5734:
5731:
5728:
5725:
5722:
5719:
5716:
5713:
5710:
5707:
5704:
5701:
5698:
5695:
5692:
5689:
5686:
5683:
5680:
5677:
5674:
5671:
5670:John Shillady
5668:
5665:
5662:
5659:
5656:
5653:
5650:
5647:
5644:
5641:
5638:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5629:
5621:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5603:
5598:
5596:
5591:
5589:
5584:
5583:
5580:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5532:
5528:
5525:
5521:
5518:
5514:
5511:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5500:The Historian
5497:
5496:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5478:
5475:
5471:
5470:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5458:
5445:
5441:
5434:
5419:
5415:
5409:
5401:
5395:
5380:
5376:
5370:
5354:
5350:
5344:
5329:
5325:
5319:
5304:
5300:
5294:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5260:
5252:
5246:
5231:
5227:
5220:
5205:
5201:
5195:
5180:
5176:
5170:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5152:
5146:
5141:
5135:
5131:
5126:
5120:
5115:
5109:
5104:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5063:
5059:
5053:
5038:
5034:
5028:
5013:
5009:
5003:
4988:
4984:
4978:
4963:
4959:
4958:"LDF v. Barr"
4953:
4938:
4934:
4928:
4913:
4909:
4903:
4888:
4884:
4878:
4863:
4859:
4853:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4820:
4816:
4810:
4803:
4799:
4794:
4784:
4769:
4764:
4758:
4754:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4726:
4725: WL 19915
4721:
4717:
4714:
4709:
4705:
4704:
4700:
4685:
4681:
4675:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4657:
4650:
4649:
4642:
4626:
4619:
4610:
4608:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4583:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4542:
4538:
4532:
4517:
4511:
4509:
4507:
4505:
4486:
4480:
4465:
4461:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4438:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4404:
4401:
4397:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4389:Buck v. Davis
4385:
4381:
4377:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4364:
4360:
4357:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4336:
4333:
4329:
4326:
4323:
4319:
4318:Deval Patrick
4316:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4302:
4298:
4297:Kellis Parker
4295:
4292:
4289:
4286:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4251:
4248:
4244:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4233:Bill Lann Lee
4231:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4210:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4197:
4194:
4190:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4154:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4137:
4133:
4130:. During the
4129:
4125:
4122:
4119:
4115:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4102:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4038:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3978:Debo Adegbile
3976:
3975:
3974:
3971:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3932:
3927:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3908:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3890:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3860:
3854:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3839:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3795:Buck v. Davis
3791:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3754:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3633:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3560:New York City
3557:
3556:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3524:job reference
3521:
3520:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3430:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3394:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3331:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3314:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3227:felony murder
3224:
3223:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3180:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3146:, upheld the
3145:
3144:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3116:
3112:, upheld the
3111:
3110:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2893:
2892:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2843:real property
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2776:write-in vote
2773:
2772:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2523:Lester Maddox
2520:
2519:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2430:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2412:
2411:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:, reaffirmed
2308:
2307:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:, overturned
2230:
2229:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2174:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2142:public school
2139:
2138:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2039:landmark case
2036:
2035:
2024:
2021:
2015:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1991:death penalty
1988:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1953:Voting rights
1951:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1943:Desegregation
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1921:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1875:
1863:
1858:
1856:
1851:
1849:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1800:
1799:Minstrel show
1797:
1795:
1794:Magical Negro
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1711:
1710:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1605:
1604:West Virginia
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1540:
1539:San Francisco
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1519:New York City
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1302:
1301:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1260:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1212:
1211:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1170:Nova Scotians
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1073:Black Indians
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1039:
1038:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1011:HBCU (HBCUAC)
1009:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1002:
1001:
997:
996:
991:
988:
987:
986:
985:
977:
976:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
919:
918:
916:
915:
912:Organizations
911:
910:
902:
901:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
820:
818:
817:
813:
812:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
787:
785:
784:
781:Organizations
780:
779:
771:
770:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
722:
721:
717:
716:
710:
707:
705:
702:
701:
699:
698:
694:
693:
687:
684:
683:
681:
680:
676:
675:
670:
665:
664:
652:
649:
646:
642:
640:
637:
633:
630:
629:
628:
625:
623:
620:
616:
613:
612:
611:
608:
607:
605:
604:
600:
599:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
574:
572:
571:
567:
566:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
541:
539:
538:
534:
533:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
513:
511:
510:
506:
505:
499:
496:
494:
491:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
474:
472:
471:
467:
466:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
449:Neighborhoods
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
409:
408:
404:
403:
398:
393:
392:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
367:
366:
365:
361:
360:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
331:
330:
329:
325:
324:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
287:
284:
283:
282:
279:
276:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
238:
237:
236:
232:
231:
226:
221:
220:
217:
214:
213:
209:
205:
204:
196:
195:(1940–1961).
194:
190:
187:(1984–1993),
186:
183:(1993–2004),
182:
178:
175:(2012–2022),
174:
170:
166:
164:
160:
156:
151:
149:
148:New York City
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
120:
117:
113:
110:
107:
101:
98:United States
97:
91:
87:
86:New York City
83:
79:
75:
71:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
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5833:Board Chairs
5789:Kivie Kaplan
5712:Kweisi Mfume
5682:Walter White
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5062:www.eeoc.gov
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4683:
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4598:the original
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4493:November 19,
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4387:
4349:Donald Trump
4340:, served as
4235:, the first
4223:Bill Clinton
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4169:Vanita Gupta
4163:Lani Guinier
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2030:
2016:
2012:
1978:Fair housing
1920:scholarships
1879:
1871:
1697:Sierra Leone
1529:Philadelphia
1499:Jacksonville
1095:Brass Ankles
848:Conservatism
823:Afrocentrism
795:Joint Center
686:Black church
677:Institutions
592:Billionaires
582:Middle class
535:Celebrations
498:Fraternities
181:Elaine Jones
169:Janai Nelson
167:
152:
144:civil rights
139:
135:
131:
127:
125:
109:Janai Nelson
81:Headquarters
47:Abbreviation
29:
5920:(2010–2017)
5914:(1998–2010)
5912:Julian Bond
5908:(1995–1998)
5902:(1985–1995)
5896:(1983–1984)
5890:(1975–1983)
5884:(1961–1975)
5878:(1960–1961)
5872:(1953–1960)
5866:(1934–1953)
5860:(1919–1934)
5854:(1914–1919)
5848:(1911–1914)
5842:(1910–1911)
5821:(1992–1996)
5815:(1990–1992)
5813:Hazel Dukes
5809:(1984–1990)
5797:(1976–1982)
5791:(1966–1975)
5785:(1940–1965)
5779:(1930–1939)
5773:(1909–1929)
5750:(2014–2017)
5738:(2008–2013)
5736:Ben Jealous
5726:(2005–2007)
5714:(1996–2004)
5708:(1994–1996)
5702:(1993–1994)
5696:(1977–1992)
5690:(1955–1977)
5688:Roy Wilkins
5684:(1929–1955)
5678:(1920–1929)
5672:(1918–1920)
5666:(1917–1918)
5660:(1916–1917)
5648:(1912–1916)
5642:(1911–1912)
5636:(1910–1911)
5384:October 25,
5359:December 9,
5333:October 25,
5308:October 25,
5283:October 25,
5235:October 25,
5209:October 25,
5184:October 25,
5067:October 25,
4917:October 25,
4867:October 25,
4824:October 25,
4189:Eric Holder
4108:Gerald Ford
3857:Harding v.
3821:separation.
3615:Kemba Smith
3540:arbitration
3359:New Orleans
3272:gerrymander
3012:statistical
2941:prima facie
2912:misdemeanor
2797:, restored
2760:garnishment
2756:due process
2754:, required
2545:(argued by
2400:Little Rock
2162:confessions
1765:Stereotypes
1692:Nova Scotia
1574:Mississippi
1534:San Antonio
1514:Los Angeles
1449:Black mecca
1376:Mississippi
1283:Negro Dutch
1105:Dominickers
1049:Multiethnic
958:TransAfrica
868:Nationalism
838:Black power
622:Black pride
587:Upper class
286:Politicians
177:John Payton
6002:Categories
5986:The Crisis
5801:James Kemp
5423:August 27,
5204:www.wc.com
5017:October 1,
4967:October 1,
4631:August 24,
4433:References
4406:Maya Wiley
3782:, sitting
3434:California
3251:status to
3249:tax exempt
3247:, denied
3229:" statute.
2835:grand jury
2713:permitting
2671:plaintiffs
2260:law school
1902:Litigation
1331:California
1305:Population
878:Patriotism
863:Liberalism
843:Capitalism
814:Ideologies
695:Theologies
554:Juneteenth
526:Literature
454:Newspapers
362:Migrations
293:Juneteenth
65:1940-02-12
5278:1091-2339
4774:April 15,
4744:April 15,
4738:The Times
4562:"History"
4546:April 28,
4346:President
3893:NAACP v.
3568:privatize
3558:, barred
3460:measures.
3269:Louisiana
2896:prisoners
2762:of wages.
2679:defendant
2507:hospitals
2408:see also
2362:see also
2343:see also
2083:from the
2081:color bar
1933:Education
1918:Provides
1882:Manhattan
1789:Hollywood
1779:Blackface
1714:Prejudice
1632:US cities
1509:Lexington
1484:Davenport
1464:Baltimore
1440:US cities
1416:Tennessee
1366:Louisiana
1312:US states
1120:Melungeon
1090:Blaxicans
888:Socialism
853:Garveyism
828:Anarchism
632:Good hair
459:Soul food
429:Folktales
132:NAACP LDF
55:Formation
5938:See also
5542:in JSTOR
5159:Archived
4071:for the
3945:Robinson
3940:Milligan
3936:Milligan
3920:Milligan
3916:Milligan
3868:COVID-19
3651:Mel Watt
3611:commuted
3508:Hartford
3454:Shoney's
3053:de facto
2946:aptitude
2805:license.
2758:for the
2464:contempt
2256:Oklahoma
2214:criminal
1906:Advocacy
1829:Category
1652:Diaspora
1579:Missouri
1504:Kentucky
1431:Virginia
1401:Oklahoma
1386:New York
1381:Nebraska
1371:Maryland
1346:Illinois
1326:Arkansas
1165:Merikins
1110:Freedmen
1083:Mascogos
883:Populism
774:Politics
669:Religion
639:Stepping
405:Lifeways
241:Timeline
208:a series
206:Part of
5616:Leaders
5512:(2005).
5492:excerpt
5418:Twitter
5093:June 3,
4942:June 3,
4892:June 3,
4689:June 3,
4469:June 3,
4183:Dale Ho
4028:is the
3859:Edwards
3836:LDF v.
3784:en banc
3626:⁄
3608:Clinton
3309:office.
3211:Latinos
2740:evicted
2736:tenants
2719:rights.
2579:sit-ins
2391:barred
2327:de jure
2048:de jure
1890:lawyers
1687:Liberia
1569:Georgia
1564:Florida
1494:Houston
1489:Detroit
1474:Chicago
1459:Atlanta
1351:Indiana
1341:Georgia
1336:Florida
1321:Alabama
1253:Tutnese
1132:Redbone
858:Leftism
559:Kwanzaa
516:Studies
468:Schools
397:Culture
326:Aspects
271:Slavery
233:Periods
225:History
115:Website
63: (
5803:(1983)
5654:(1916)
5554:case.
5533:(1994)
5481:Crisis
5476:(2004)
5466:online
5276:
4992:May 4,
4723:,
4711:,
4171:, the
4067:, the
3841:, the
3808:, The
3778:, The
3594:2005.)
3562:mayor
3502:: The
2871:busing
2803:boxing
2710:parade
2448:, won
2217:juries
2037:, the
1721:Racism
1682:Israel
1672:France
1667:Canada
1662:Africa
1469:Boston
1406:Oregon
1361:Kansas
1271:Gullah
1160:Gullah
980:Sports
727:Hoodoo
134:, the
6018:NAACP
5270:Slate
4802:Flash
4659:(PDF)
4652:(PDF)
4488:(PDF)
3826:2020s
3702:2010s
3575:2000s
3370:1990s
3195:1980s
2833:that
2783:1970s
2418:1960s
2267:1950s
2178:Texas
2104:1940s
2066:1930s
1834:Index
1677:Ghana
1599:Texas
1524:Omaha
1421:Texas
933:NAACP
444:Names
434:Music
414:Dance
199:About
155:NAACP
138:, or
5425:2018
5386:2018
5361:2010
5335:2018
5310:2018
5285:2018
5274:ISSN
5237:2018
5211:2018
5186:2018
5095:2019
5088:Vice
5069:2018
5044:2020
5019:2020
4994:2022
4969:2020
4944:2019
4919:2018
4894:2019
4869:2018
4826:2018
4776:2018
4746:2018
4703:...
4691:2019
4633:2015
4573:2018
4548:2022
4523:2010
4495:2010
4471:2019
4344:for
3951:2024
3926:2024
3902:2023
3889:2020
3874:2020
3853:2020
3838:Barr
3832:2020
3802:2018
3790:2017
3772:2016
3760:2016
3748:2014
3732:2013
3720:2013
3708:2010
3689:2009
3677:2007
3661:2003
3643:and
3635:2000
3598:2000
3581:2000
3550:1999
3530:1998
3514:1997
3494:1996
3482:1995
3472:and
3464:1994
3444:1993
3426:and
3418:1992
3406:1991
3396:and
3388:1991
3376:1990
3345:1989
3333:: a
3325:1988
3313:1987
3304:: a
3296:1986
3278:1984
3259:1983
3241:and
3233:1982
3217:1980
3201:1980
3174:1977
3168:rape
3158:1977
3138:1975
3126:1975
3120:loan
3104:1973
3092:1973
3076:1973
3060:1973
3042:1973
3030:1973
3018:1972
3002:1972
2992:and
2984:1972
2964:1972
2952:1971
2930:1971
2918:1971
2902:1971
2886:1971
2878:and
2861:1971
2849:1971
2837:and
2821:1970
2809:1970
2789:1970
2766:1969
2746:1969
2723:1969
2700:1969
2685:1969
2661:1968
2637:1967
2625:1967
2613:1967
2593:and
2585:1965
2569:1965
2557:1965
2529:1964
2513:1964
2497:1963
2481:1963
2472:See
2460:1963
2440:1962
2424:1961
2383:1958
2371:1957
2352:1956
2333:1956
2317:1954
2301:1953
2285:1950
2273:1950
2242:1948
2223:1948
2204:1947
2188:1946
2168:1944
2152:1940
2146:race
2132:1940
2110:1940
2091:1938
2072:1935
1767:and
1426:Utah
1396:Ohio
1356:Iowa
963:UNCF
424:Film
273:and
126:The
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