31:
265:, in which plants use mycorrhizal fungi to exchange carbon and nutrients with other plants. In these systems, myco-heterotrophs play the role of "mycorrhizal cheaters", taking carbon from the common network, with no known reward. A special form of mycoheterotrophic association, which appears to be a chimera between the haustorial parasitism of a
282:
In congruence with older reports, it has been recently shown that some myco-heterotrophic orchids can be supported by saprotrophic fungi, exploiting litter- or wood-decaying fungi. In addition, several green plants (evolutionarily close to myco-heterotrophic species) have been shown to engage in
344:
stages. The fungi that are parasitized by myco-heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on, usually mycorrhizal fungi, though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks, such as
243:". It is now known that these plants are not physiologically capable of directly breaking down organic matter and that in order to get food, non-photosynthetic plants must engage in parasitism, either through myco-heterotrophy or direct parasitism of other plants.
208:) gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes. Partial (or facultative) myco-heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis, but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply. There are also plants, such as some
228:
of other plants. The partial or full loss of photosynthesis is reflected by extreme physical and functional reductions of plastid genomes in mycoheterophic plants, an ongoing evolutionary process.
934:
246:
The interface between the plant and fungal partners in this association is between the roots of the plant and the mycelium of the fungus. Myco-heterotrophy therefore closely resembles
989:
Gebauer, G; Meyer, M (2003). "15N and 13C natural abundance of autotrophic and myco-heterotrophic orchids provides insights into nitrogen and carbon gain from fungal association".
179:
363:
fungi. The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco-heterotrophic members, as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco-heterotrophs, suggests multiple
810:
250:(and indeed is thought to have evolved from mycorrhiza), except that in myco-heterotrophy, the flow of carbon is from the fungus to the plant, rather than vice versa.
1099:
216:, and photosynthetic and facultatively myco-heterotrophic or non-myco-heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle. Not all non-photosynthetic or "
575:
2127:
1380:
1129:"Arbuscular, ecto-related, orchid mycorrhizasâthree independent structural lineages towards mycoheterotrophy: implications for classification?"
1293:
689:"Nitrogen and carbon stable isotope abundances support the myco-heterotrophic nature and host-specificity of certain achlorophyllous plants"
2271:
744:
2341:
1352:
1225:
688:
283:
partial myco-heterotrophy, that is, they are able to take carbon from mycorrhizal fungi, in addition to their photosynthetic intake.
1913:
1878:
520:"Dense infraspecific sampling reveals rapid and independent trajectories of plastome degradation in a heterotrophic orchid complex"
1318:
1128:
2351:
2079:
1061:"Origin and relationships of the myco-heterotrophic liverwort Cryptothallus mirabilis Malmb. (Metzgeriales, Marchantiophyta)"
745:"Changing partners in the dark: isotopic and molecular evidence of ectomycorrhizal liaisons between forest orchids and trees"
2356:
1281:
640:
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1298:
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1961:
1373:
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1111:
292:
17:
2094:
1277:
2376:
2089:
1956:
1668:
641:"Plants parasitic on fungi: unearthing the fungi in myco-heterotrophs and debunking the 'saprophytic' plant myth"
2761:
2634:
2807:
2406:
2361:
2113:
1366:
1893:
2239:
935:"Independent recruitment of saprotrophic fungi as mycorrhizal partners by tropical achlorophyllous orchids"
933:
Martos, F; Dulormne, M; Pailler, T; Bonfante, P; Faccio, A; Fournel, J; Dubois, M-P; Selosse, M-A (2009).
2954:
2596:
1487:
1106:(Sanders IR, van der Heijden M, eds.), Ecological Studies vol. 157, pp 375â414. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
606:
200:
Full (or obligate) myco-heterotrophy exists when a non-photosynthetic plant (a plant largely lacking in
2661:
2381:
1868:
1585:
1482:
491:
Wicke, S.; Naumann, J. (2018). "Molecular evolution of plastid genomes in parasitic flowering plants".
332:
being fully myco-heterotrophic; in photosynthetic orchids; and in a number of other plant groups. Some
965:
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2842:
2454:
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811:"Communities and populations of sebacinoid basidiomycetes associated with the achlorophyllous orchid
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2169:
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1991:
1711:
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1311:
1024:
Selosse, M-A; Roy, M (2009). "Green plants eating fungi: facts and questions about mixotrophy".
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2001:
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In the past, non-photosynthetic plants were mistakenly thought to get food by breaking down
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1114:. (NOTE: this PDF is from the page proofs, and is not identical to the published version)
902:"A unique mode of parasitism in the conifer coral tree Parasitaxus ustus (Podocarpaceae)"
387:
plants of eastern
Massachusetts form mycorrhizae with a diversity of russulacean fungi".
262:
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species, that are non-photosynthetic and obligately myco-heterotrophic for part of their
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Noteworthy Plant For June 1997: Fungus
Flowers â Flowering Plants that Resemble Fungi
1250:
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351:. Examples of fungi parasitized by myco-heterotrophic plants can be found among the
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468:
Dawson, JH; Musselman, LJ; Wolswinkel, P; Dörr, I (1994). "Biology and control of
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2016:
2006:
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232:
140:
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Leake, JR (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants".
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1716:
1608:
1442:
1397:
1324:
1195:
Hershey, DR (1999). "Myco-heterophytes and parasitic plants in food chains".
51:
155:
relationship and myco-heterotrophs are sometimes informally referred to as "
2882:
2867:
2524:
2494:
2439:
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841:
781:
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715:
602:
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408:
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236:
39:, an obligate myco-heterotroph known to parasitize fungi belonging to the
2174:
1721:
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1658:
1648:
1613:
1560:
1540:
341:
271:
205:
201:
167:
40:
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173:
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partner in this relationship. Myco-heterotrophy is considered a kind of
2887:
2464:
2429:
2069:
2021:
1966:
1936:
1842:
1759:
1703:
1580:
1530:
1216:
347:
337:
302:
276:
257:, since they take energy from fungi that in turn get their energy from
247:
240:
136:
743:
Bidartondo, MI; Burghardt, B; Gebauer, G; Bruns, TD; Read, DJ (2004).
535:
261:. Indeed, much myco-heterotrophy takes place in the context of common
220:" plants are myco-heterotrophic â some non-photosynthetic plants like
2792:
2746:
2474:
1918:
1888:
1688:
1643:
1618:
1555:
1545:
1520:
1512:
1457:
1388:
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109:
79:
59:
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1208:
30:
2847:
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2307:
2135:
1814:
1726:
1673:
1628:
194:
1100:
Mycorrhizal specificity and function in myco-heterotrophic plants.
2837:
2644:
2514:
2509:
2136:
2084:
1744:
1389:
879:"Common Mycorrhizal Networks: An Important Ecological Phenomenon"
306:
253:
Most myco-heterotrophs can therefore be seen as ultimately being
221:
178:
742:
328:
297:
Myco-heterotrophs are found among several plant groups, mainly
209:
128:
1355:â images of myco-heterotrophs by mycologist MartĂn Bidartondo.
932:
467:
132:
333:
163:, though this term is also used for plants that engage in
309:
are full myco-heterotrophs, as is the non-photosynthetic
1052:
815:(L.) L.C.M. Rich. and neighbouring tree ectomycorrhizae"
686:
135:, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from
808:
287:
Species diversity of myco-heterotrophs and host fungi
174:
Relationship between myco-heterotrophs and host fungi
27:
Symbiotism between certain parasitic plants and fungi
1278:
Myco-heterotrophs: hacking the mycorrhizal network.
809:Selosse, M-A; Weiss, M; Jany, J; Tilier, A (2002).
367:of myco-heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors.
159:". This relationship is sometimes referred to as
2926:
687:Trudell, SA; Rygiewicz, PT; Edmonds, RL (2003).
517:
1058:
881:. MykoWeb (originally published on Mycena News)
576:"The evolutionary ecology of myco-heterotrophy"
382:
1098:Taylor DL, Bruns TD, Leake JR, Read DJ. 2002.
322:). Partial myco-heterotrophy is common in the
2121:
1374:
899:
876:
1289:Dr. Martin Bidartondo: Selected publications
988:
752:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B
490:
1312:The Strange and Wonderful Myco-heterotrophs
1059:Wickett, Norman; Goffinet, Bernard (2008).
104:
74:
54:
2342:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2128:
2114:
1381:
1367:
1122:
1120:
1023:
573:
239:fungi. Such plants were therefore called "
1076:
917:
771:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
543:
518:Barrett, C.; Wicke, S.; Sass, C. (2018).
420:
418:
2240:Predatorâprey (LotkaâVolterra) equations
1879:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1092:
1065:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
926:
177:
29:
2272:Random generalized LotkaâVolterra model
1223:
1194:
1117:
569:
567:
565:
563:
14:
2927:
2080:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1341:Fungus of the Month for October 2002:
1294:D. Lee Taylor Lab: Recent Publications
623:
415:
127:relationship between certain kinds of
2109:
1362:
1126:
1017:
982:
802:
680:
638:
461:
424:
269:and mycoheterotrophy, is observed in
2095:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
900:Field, T.S.; Brodripp, T.J. (2005).
736:
560:
318:(previously considered a species of
2545:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
24:
2298:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1187:
870:
439:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x
204:or otherwise lacking a functional
25:
2971:
1634:Generalist and specialist species
1305:
293:List of myco-heterotrophic genera
2357:Occupancyâabundance relationship
1226:"When good relationships go bad"
1078:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00743.x
1003:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00872.x
954:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02987.x
919:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01378.x
834:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01553.x
708:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00876.x
595:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01429.x
2377:Relative abundance distribution
2090:Plant defense against herbivory
1957:Competitive exclusion principle
1669:Mesopredator release hypothesis
893:
877:Peter Kennedy (November 2005).
1962:Consumerâresource interactions
1315:The Parasitic Plant Connection
511:
493:Advances in Botanical Research
484:
383:Yang, S; DH Pfister. (2006). "
376:
13:
1:
2808:Biological data visualization
2635:Environmental niche modelling
2362:Population viability analysis
1038:10.1016/j.tplants.2008.11.004
370:
275:, the only mycoheterotrophic
2293:Density-dependent inhibition
1299:M.-A. Selosse's publications
326:, with a few genera such as
182:Myco-heterotrophic roots of
139:upon fungi rather than from
110:
80:
60:
7:
2762:Liebig's law of the minimum
2597:Resource selection function
1488:Metabolic theory of ecology
10:
2976:
2662:Niche apportionment models
2382:Relative species abundance
1586:Primary nutritional groups
1483:List of feeding behaviours
505:10.1016/bs.abr.2017.11.014
401:10.3852/mycologia.98.4.535
290:
2911:
2843:Ecosystem based fisheries
2785:
2685:
2610:
2483:
2455:Interspecific competition
2420:
2347:Minimum viable population
2280:
2205:Maximum sustainable yield
2190:Intraspecific competition
2185:Effective population size
2148:
2065:Anti-predator adaptations
2050:
1929:
1856:
1813:
1735:
1702:
1599:
1576:Photosynthetic efficiency
1511:
1405:
1148:10.1007/s00572-009-0240-7
660:10.1017/S0269915X05003046
105:
75:
55:
2833:Ecological stoichiometry
2798:Alternative stable state
1197:American Biology Teacher
340:have myco-heterotrophic
224:directly parasitize the
2677:Ontogenetic niche shift
2540:Ideal free distribution
2450:Ecological facilitation
2200:Malthusian growth model
2170:Consumer-resource model
2027:Paradox of the plankton
1992:Energy systems language
1712:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1679:Optimal foraging theory
1654:Heterotrophic nutrition
1353:MartĂn's Treasure Chest
1026:Trends in Plant Science
574:Bidartondo, MI (2005).
474:Reviews of Weed Science
305:and non-photosynthetic
235:in a manner similar to
2823:Ecological forecasting
2767:Marginal value theorem
2565:Landscape epidemiology
2500:Cross-boundary subsidy
2435:Biological interaction
1785:Microbial intelligence
1473:Green world hypothesis
764:10.1098/rspb.2004.2807
357:arbuscular mycorrhizal
197:
44:
2828:Ecological humanities
2727:Ecological energetics
2672:Niche differentiation
2535:Habitat fragmentation
2303:Ecological extinction
2250:Small population size
2002:Feed conversion ratio
1982:Ecological succession
1914:San Francisco Estuary
1828:Ecological efficiency
1770:Microbial cooperation
1321:, College of Science.
181:
33:
2853:Evolutionary ecology
2818:Ecological footprint
2813:Ecological economics
2737:Ecological threshold
2732:Ecological indicator
2602:Sourceâsink dynamics
2555:Land change modeling
2550:Insular biogeography
2402:Species distribution
2141:Modelling ecosystems
1800:Microbial metabolism
1639:Intraguild predation
1428:Biogeochemical cycle
1394:Modelling ecosystems
1224:Hibbett, DS (2002).
263:mycorrhizal networks
157:mycorrhizal cheaters
2903:Theoretical ecology
2878:Natural environment
2742:Ecosystem diversity
2712:Ecological collapse
2702:Bateman's principle
2657:Limiting similarity
2570:Landscape limnology
2392:Species homogeneity
2230:Population modeling
2225:Population dynamics
2042:Trophic state index
1104:Mycorrhizal Ecology
758:(1550): 1799â1806.
365:parallel evolutions
2955:Parasites of fungi
2914:Outline of ecology
2863:Industrial ecology
2858:Functional ecology
2722:Ecological deficit
2667:Niche construction
2630:Ecosystem engineer
2407:Speciesâarea curve
2328:Introduced species
2143:: Other components
2075:Deimatic behaviour
1977:Ecological network
1909:North Pacific Gyre
1894:hydrothermal vents
1833:Ecological pyramid
1780:Microbial food web
1591:Primary production
1536:Foundation species
1343:Monotropa uniflora
1333:2006-08-24 at the
906:Plant Cell Environ
813:Neottia nidus-avis
639:Leake, JR (2005).
385:Monotropa uniflora
361:orchid mycorrhizal
198:
185:Monotropa uniflora
45:
36:Monotropa uniflora
2920:
2919:
2803:Balance of nature
2560:Landscape ecology
2445:Community ecology
2387:Species diversity
2323:Indicator species
2318:Gradient analysis
2195:Logistic function
2103:
2102:
2060:Animal coloration
2037:Trophic mutualism
1775:Microbial ecology
1566:Photoheterotrophs
1551:Myco-heterotrophy
1463:Ecosystem ecology
1448:Carrying capacity
1413:Abiotic component
1276:Werner PG. 2006.
1241:(6905): 345â346.
1127:Imhof, S (2009).
912:(10): 1316â1325.
822:Molecular Ecology
536:10.1111/nph.15072
48:Myco-heterotrophy
18:Myco-heterotrophs
16:(Redirected from
2967:
2950:Parasitic plants
2620:Ecological niche
2592:selection theory
2412:Umbrella species
2397:Species richness
2333:Invasive species
2313:Flagship species
2220:Population cycle
2215:Overexploitation
2180:Ecological yield
2130:
2123:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2012:Mesotrophic soil
1952:Climax community
1884:Marine food webs
1823:Biomagnification
1624:Chemoorganotroph
1478:Keystone species
1438:Biotic component
1383:
1376:
1369:
1360:
1359:
1348:TomVolkFungi.net
1337:by WP Armstrong.
1273:
1271:
1265:. Archived from
1230:
1220:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1172:
1166:. Archived from
1133:
1124:
1115:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1080:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1021:
1015:
1014:
986:
980:
979:
977:
976:
970:
964:. Archived from
939:
930:
924:
923:
921:
897:
891:
890:
888:
886:
874:
868:
867:
865:
864:
858:
852:. Archived from
828:(9): 1831â1844.
819:
806:
800:
799:
797:
796:
790:
784:. Archived from
775:
749:
740:
734:
733:
731:
730:
724:
718:. Archived from
693:
684:
678:
677:
675:
674:
668:
662:. Archived from
645:
636:
621:
620:
618:
617:
611:
605:. Archived from
580:
571:
558:
557:
547:
530:(3): 1192â1204.
515:
509:
508:
488:
482:
481:
465:
459:
458:
422:
413:
412:
380:
315:Aneura mirabilis
299:flowering plants
272:Parasitaxus usta
191:Russula brevipes
145:myco-heterotroph
122:
119:
116:
113:
108:
107:
102:
99:
96:
92:
89:
86:
83:
78:
77:
72:
69:
66:
63:
58:
57:
21:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2916:
2907:
2893:Systems ecology
2781:
2752:Extinction debt
2717:Ecological debt
2707:Bioluminescence
2688:
2681:
2650:marine habitats
2625:Ecological trap
2606:
2486:
2479:
2422:
2416:
2372:Rapoport's rule
2367:Priority effect
2308:Endemic species
2276:
2235:Population size
2151:
2144:
2134:
2104:
2099:
2052:
2046:
2032:Trophic cascade
1942:Bioaccumulation
1925:
1852:
1809:
1731:
1698:
1595:
1507:
1468:Ecosystem model
1401:
1387:
1335:Wayback Machine
1308:
1303:
1269:
1247:10.1038/419345a
1228:
1209:10.2307/4450771
1190:
1188:Further reading
1185:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1131:
1125:
1118:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1081:
1057:
1053:
1022:
1018:
991:New Phytologist
987:
983:
974:
972:
968:
942:New Phytologist
937:
931:
927:
898:
894:
884:
882:
875:
871:
862:
860:
856:
817:
807:
803:
794:
792:
788:
747:
741:
737:
728:
726:
722:
696:New Phytologist
691:
685:
681:
672:
670:
666:
643:
637:
624:
615:
613:
609:
583:New Phytologist
578:
572:
561:
524:New Phytologist
516:
512:
489:
485:
466:
462:
427:New Phytologist
423:
416:
381:
377:
373:
353:ectomycorrhizal
295:
289:
267:parasitic plant
259:vascular plants
226:vascular tissue
218:achlorophyllous
176:
170:relationships.
149:parasitic plant
120:
117:
114:
100:
97:
94:
90:
87:
84:
70:
67:
64:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2973:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2918:
2917:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2873:Microecosystem
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2772:Thorson's rule
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2697:Assembly rules
2693:
2691:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2616:
2614:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2582:
2580:Patch dynamics
2577:
2575:Metapopulation
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2470:Storage effect
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2352:Neutral theory
2349:
2344:
2339:
2337:Native species
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2210:Overpopulation
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2156:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2133:
2132:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2056:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2017:Nutrient cycle
2014:
2009:
2007:Feeding frenzy
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1987:Energy quality
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1947:Cascade effect
1944:
1939:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1819:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1790:Microbial loop
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1755:Lithoautotroph
1752:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1737:Microorganisms
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1708:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1696:
1694:Prey switching
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1571:Photosynthesis
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1526:Chemosynthesis
1523:
1517:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1418:Abiotic stress
1415:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1402:
1386:
1385:
1378:
1371:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1350:
1338:
1322:
1319:SIU Carbondale
1307:
1306:External links
1304:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1274:
1272:on 2008-12-16.
1221:
1203:(8): 575â578.
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1142:(6): 357â363.
1116:
1091:
1051:
1016:
997:(1): 209â223.
981:
948:(3): 668â681.
925:
892:
869:
801:
735:
702:(2): 391â401.
679:
622:
589:(2): 335â352.
559:
510:
499:(1): 315â347.
483:
460:
433:(2): 171â216.
414:
395:(4): 535â540.
374:
372:
369:
324:Gentian family
288:
285:
233:organic matter
175:
172:
141:photosynthesis
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2972:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2923:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2898:Urban ecology
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
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2816:
2814:
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2809:
2806:
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2801:
2799:
2796:
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2790:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2757:Kleiber's law
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
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2718:
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2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2684:
2678:
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2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
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2638:
2636:
2633:
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2628:
2626:
2623:
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2618:
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2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
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2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:Foster's rule
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
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2476:
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2400:
2398:
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2383:
2380:
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2343:
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2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
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2304:
2301:
2299:
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2285:
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2279:
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2266:
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2258:
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2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
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2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
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2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2126:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
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1907:
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1900:
1897:
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1892:
1890:
1887:
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1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1848:Trophic level
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1805:Phage ecology
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1795:Microbial mat
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1750:Bacteriophage
1748:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1717:Decomposition
1715:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1664:Mesopredators
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1609:Apex predator
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1443:Biotic stress
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:by Tom Volk,
1345:
1344:
1339:
1336:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1309:
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1279:
1275:
1268:
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1256:
1252:
1248:
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1236:
1235:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1173:on 2016-03-03
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1123:
1121:
1113:
1112:3-540-00204-9
1109:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
985:
971:on 2020-04-30
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
936:
929:
920:
915:
911:
907:
903:
896:
880:
873:
859:on 2020-04-30
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
816:
814:
805:
791:on 2011-03-31
787:
783:
779:
774:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
746:
739:
725:on 2015-09-24
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
690:
683:
669:on 2012-03-14
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
642:
635:
633:
631:
629:
627:
612:on 2020-01-11
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
577:
570:
568:
566:
564:
555:
551:
546:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
514:
506:
502:
498:
494:
487:
479:
475:
471:
464:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
421:
419:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
379:
375:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
349:
343:
339:
335:
331:
330:
325:
321:
320:Cryptothallus
317:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
294:
284:
280:
278:
274:
273:
268:
264:
260:
256:
251:
249:
244:
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
196:
193:
192:
187:
186:
180:
171:
169:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
112:
82:
62:
53:
49:
42:
38:
37:
32:
19:
2922:
2883:Regime shift
2868:Macroecology
2589:
2585:
2525:Edge effects
2495:Biogeography
2440:Commensalism
2288:Biodiversity
2165:Allee effect
1904:kelp forests
1857:Example webs
1722:Detritivores
1561:Organotrophs
1550:
1541:Kinetotrophs
1493:Productivity
1347:
1342:
1326:Wayne's Word
1325:
1314:
1280:
1267:the original
1238:
1232:
1200:
1196:
1175:. Retrieved
1168:the original
1139:
1135:
1103:
1094:
1082:. Retrieved
1068:
1064:
1054:
1032:(2): 64â70.
1029:
1025:
1019:
994:
990:
984:
973:. Retrieved
966:the original
945:
941:
928:
909:
905:
895:
883:. Retrieved
872:
861:. Retrieved
854:the original
825:
821:
812:
804:
793:. Retrieved
786:the original
755:
751:
738:
727:. Retrieved
720:the original
699:
695:
682:
671:. Retrieved
664:the original
651:
647:
614:. Retrieved
607:the original
586:
582:
527:
523:
513:
496:
492:
486:
477:
473:
469:
463:
430:
426:
392:
388:
384:
378:
346:
327:
319:
313:
296:
281:
270:
255:epiparasites
252:
245:
237:saprotrophic
230:
199:
189:
183:
160:
156:
144:
47:
46:
34:
2520:Disturbance
2423:interaction
2245:Recruitment
2175:Depensation
1967:Copiotrophs
1838:Energy flow
1760:Lithotrophy
1704:Decomposers
1684:Planktivore
1659:Insectivore
1649:Heterotroph
1614:Bacterivore
1581:Phototrophs
1531:Chemotrophs
1503:Restoration
1453:Competition
1285:57(3): 1,8.
1282:Mycena News
1071:(1): 1â12.
885:January 19,
654:: 113â122.
342:gametophyte
241:saprophytes
206:photosystem
202:chlorophyll
168:mycorrhizal
165:mutualistic
41:Russulaceae
2929:Categories
2888:Sexecology
2465:Parasitism
2430:Antibiosis
2265:Resistance
2260:Resilience
2150:Population
2070:Camouflage
2022:Oligotroph
1937:Ascendency
1899:intertidal
1889:cold seeps
1843:Food chain
1644:Herbivores
1619:Carnivores
1546:Mixotrophs
1521:Autotrophs
1400:components
1177:2011-11-19
1136:Mycorrhiza
1084:23 October
975:2010-12-29
863:2010-12-29
795:2020-08-19
729:2006-05-21
673:2010-12-29
648:Mycologist
616:2010-12-29
480:: 265â317.
371:References
348:Armillaria
338:clubmosses
303:monotropes
291:See also:
277:gymnosperm
248:mycorrhiza
214:life cycle
161:mycotrophy
137:parasitism
2960:Symbiosis
2793:Allometry
2747:Emergence
2475:Symbiosis
2460:Mutualism
2255:Stability
2160:Abundance
1972:Dominance
1930:Processes
1919:tide pool
1815:Food webs
1689:Predation
1674:Omnivores
1601:Consumers
1556:Mycotroph
1513:Producers
1458:Ecosystem
1423:Behaviour
389:Mycologia
311:liverwort
125:symbiotic
118:nutrition
98:different
2945:Mycology
2848:Endolith
2777:Xerosere
2689:networks
2505:Ecocline
2051:Defense,
1727:Detritus
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