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shark remains passive and the wrasse swims to it. It begins to scan the shark's body, sometimes stopping to inspect specific areas. Commonly, the wrasse would inspect the gills, labial regions, and skin. When the wrasse makes its way to the mouth of the shark, the shark often ceases breathing for up to two and a half minutes so that the fish is able to scan the mouth. Then, the fish passes further into the mouth to examine the gills, specifically the buccopharyngeal area, which typically holds the most parasites. When the shark begins to close its mouth, the wrasse finishes its examination and goes elsewhere. Male bull sharks exhibit slightly different behavior at cleaning stations: as the shark swims into a colony of wrasse fish, it drastically slows its speed to allow the cleaners to do their job. After approximately one minute, the shark returns to normal swimming speed.
824:
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1586:"Nach den erweiterten Kenntnissen, die wir in den letzten Jahren ßber das Zusammenleben zweier verschiedenartiger Wesen gewonnen haben, ist es ein dringendes Bedßrfniss, die einzelnen von einander abweichenden Formen dieser Verhältnisse mit besonderen Bezeichnungen to belegen, da man fast fßr alle bisher den Ausdruck Parasitsmus gebrauchte. Wir mßssen sämmtliche Fälle, wo ßberhaupt ein Auf- oder Ineinanderwohnen zweier verschiedener Species stattfindet, unter einen weitesten Begriff bringen, welcher die Rolle, die beide Wesen dabei spielen, noch nicht berßcksichtigt, also auf das blosse Zusammenleben begrßndet ist, und wofßr sich die Bezeichnung
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892:, the mimic and model have evolved to send a signal; the dupe has evolved to receive it from the model. This is to the advantage of the mimic but to the detriment of both the model, whose protective signals are effectively weakened, and of the dupe, which is deprived of an edible prey. For example, a wasp is a strongly-defended model, which signals with its conspicuous black and yellow coloration that it is an unprofitable prey to predators such as birds which hunt by sight; many hoverflies are Batesian mimics of wasps, and any bird that avoids these hoverflies is a dupe. In contrast,
430:(ORF) size. Species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. When endosymbiotic bacteria related with insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria go across many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes, as compared to the free-living bacteria. The incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate their wild type
1592:(In the aftermath of the expanded knowledge that we have acquired in recent years about the coexistence of two distinct living things, there is an urgent need to bestow specific designations on the different individual forms of these relationships, since up till now one has used for almost all the term "parasitism". We must bring all cases, wherever one of two different species lives on or in the other, under the broadest concept which does not consider the roles that the two living things play thereby ( thus is based on mere coexistence) and for which the designation
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746:. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger, the goby touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby quickly retreat into the burrow. Different species of gobies (
514:(or antibiosis). Competition is where a larger or stronger organism deprives a smaller or weaker one of a resource. Antagonism occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can rob the
2171:
Mus, Florence; Crook, Matthew B.; Garcia, Kevin; Garcia Costas, Amaya; Geddes, Barney A.; Kouri, Evangelia D.; Paramasivan, Ponraj; Ryu, Min-Hyung; Oldroyd, Giles E. D.; Poole, Philip S.; Udvardi, Michael K.; Voigt, Christopher A.; AnĂŠ, Jean-Michel; Peters, John W. (1 July 2016). Kelly, R. M. (ed.).
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quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In
1006:
between bacteria and archaea. It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the
929:
Cleaner fish play an essential role in the reduction of parasitism on marine animals. Some shark species participate in cleaning symbiosis, where cleaner fish remove ectoparasites from the body of the shark. A study by
Raymond Keyes addresses the atypical behavior of a few shark species when exposed
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of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process, the mature tree is unaffected by the sapling. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. An example of antagonism is
3721:
Brinkman, F.S.L.; Blanchard, J.L.; Cherkasov, A.; Av-gay, Y.; Brunham, R.C.; Fernandez, R.C.; Finlay, B.B.; Otto, S.P.; Ouellette, B.F.F.; Keeling, P.J.; et al. (2002), "Evidence That Plant-Like Genes in
Chlamydia Species Reflect an Ancestral Relationship between Chlamydiaceae, Cyanobacteria,
394:
provides. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto
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Evolution originated from changes in development where variations within species are selected for or against because of the symbionts involved. The hologenome theory relates to the holobiont and symbionts genome together as a whole. Microbes live everywhere in and on every multicellular organism.
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is an association between individuals of two species, where one (the cleaner) removes and eats parasites and other materials from the surface of the other (the client). It is putatively mutually beneficial, but biologists have long debated whether it is mutual selfishness, or simply exploitative.
879:
Mimicry is a form of symbiosis in which a species adopts distinct characteristics of another species to alter its relationship dynamic with the species being mimicked, to its own advantage. Among the many types of mimicry are
Batesian and MĂźllerian, the first involving one-sided exploitation, the
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and various shark species were placed in a tank together and observed. The different shark species exhibited different responses and behaviors around the wrasse. For example, Atlantic and
Pacific lemon sharks consistently react to the wrasse fish in a fascinating way. During the interaction, the
970:
Although symbiosis was once discounted as an anecdotal evolutionary phenomenon, evidence is now overwhelming that obligate or facultative associations among microorganisms and between microorganisms and multicellular hosts had crucial consequences in many landmark events in evolution and in the
550:
which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.
980:
Many organisms rely on their symbionts in order to develop properly, this is known as co-development. In cases of co-development the symbionts send signals to their host which determine developmental processes. Co-development is commonly seen in both arthropods and vertebrates.
926:, but also species in other genera – are specialized to feed almost exclusively by cleaning larger fish and other marine animals. In a supreme situation, the host species (fish or marine life) will display itself at a designated station deemed the "cleaning station".
263:, can generally live independently, and their part of the relationship is therefore described as facultative (optional), or non-obligate. When one of the participants in a symbiotic relationship is capable of photosynthesis, as with lichens, it is called photosymbiosis.
53:, and the fecal matter from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. The clownfish is protected from predators by the anemone's stinging cells, to which the clownfish is immune. The relationship is therefore classified as
1250:
colour, mass, and persistence correlated to particular seed dispersal agents. For example, plants may evolve conspicuous fruit colours to attract avian frugivores, and birds may learn to associate such colours with a food resource.
864:
like mosquitoes that visit intermittently. Parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life; about 40% of all animal species are parasites, and the average mammal species is host to 4 nematodes, 2 cestodes, and 2 trematodes.
1007:
origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria. Evidence for this includes the fact that
1166:) have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive
2696:
Klicpera, A.; Taylor, P.D.; Westphal, H. (1 Dec 2013). "Bryoliths constructed by bryozoans in symbiotic associations with hermit crabs in a tropical heterozoan carbonate system, Golfe d'Arguin, Mauritania".
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Amensalism is a non-symbiotic, asymmetric interaction where one species is harmed or killed by the other, and one is unaffected by the other. There are two types of amensalism, competition and
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Tamboia, Teri; Cipollini, Martin L.; Levey, Douglas J. (September 1996). "An evaluation of vertebrate seed dispersal syndromes in four species of black nightshade (Solanum sect. Solanum)".
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586:
Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the
English word
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or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the
Galapagos Islands and have since been found at
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where both individuals benefit. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both.
704:
reefs result from mutualism between coral organisms and various algae living inside them. Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualism between the plants, which
213:
defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms". The definition has varied among scientists, with some advocating that it should only refer to persistent
4383:
341:
is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include diverse
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Cordes, E.E.; Arthur, M.A.; Shea, K.; Arvidson, R.S.; Fisher, C.R. (2005), "Modeling the mutualistic interactions between tubeworms and microbial consortia",
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and DNA/RNA replication are retained. The decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or
1954:
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mimic each other, with similar warning coloration in combinations of black, white, red, and yellow, and all of them benefit from the relationship.
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some taxa of plants and insects, the relationship has become dependent, where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.
727:. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn, the anemone stinging tentacles protect the clownfish from its
2499:
GĂłmez, JosĂŠ M.; GonzĂĄlez-MegĂas, Adela (2002). "Asymmetrical interactions between ungulates and phytophagous insects: Being different matters".
1216:) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae.
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The term is sometimes more exclusively used in a restricted, mutualistic sense, where both symbionts contribute to each other's subsistence.
1504:"Symbiosis". Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2007. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012
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Symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution; many species have a long history of interdependent
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Relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, in
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to help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora comprises cellulose-digesting
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Mutualism improves both organism's competitive ability and will outcompete organisms of the same species that lack the symbiont.
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As the endosymbiont adapts to the host's lifestyle, the endosymbiont changes dramatically. There is a drastic reduction in its
2424:, Third Edition. Blackwell, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Chapters 5 "Intraspecific Competition" and 8 "Interspecific Competition"
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779:. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either
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phenomenon. Muller's ratchet phenomenon, together with less effective population sizes, leads to an accretion of deleterious
2551:"symbiosis." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.
1418:
3947:
2760:
Dobson, Andy; Lafferty, Kevin D.; Kuris, Armand M.; Hechinger, Ryan F.; Jetz, Walter; National
Research Council (2008).
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486:) used by both usually facilitates this type of interaction, although the competition can also be for other resources.
236:
proposed an integrative approach with a classification of "co-actions", later adopted by biologists as "interactions".
3634:
Lim, Ganges; Burns, Kevin C. (2021-11-24). "Do fruit reflectance properties affect avian frugivory in New
Zealand?".
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is an exploitative three-party interaction where one species, the mimic, has evolved to mimic another, the model, to
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symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live on their own. The algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as
17:
4344:
3861:
Golding, R.S.; Gupta, RS (1995), "Protein-based phylogenies support a chimeric origin for the eukaryotic genome",
1246:) vectors like birds. In order to attract animals, these plants evolved a set of morphological characters such as
3252:"Unprecedented genomic diversity of RNA viruses in arthropods reveals the ancestry of negative-sense RNA viruses"
2512:
2026:"The symbiotic playground of lichen thalli--a highly flexible photobiont association in rock-inhabiting lichens"
1644:
1034:'s notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claimed that evolution is strongly based on
217:, while others thought it should apply to all persistent biological interactions (in other words, to mutualism,
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In a parasitic relationship, the parasite benefits while the host is harmed. Parasitism takes many forms, from
809:) a helicospiral-tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell.
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The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution. Origins and evolution of life â An astrobiological perspective
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4445:
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3188:"Symbioses of Cyanobacteria in Marine Environments: Ecological Insights and Biotechnological Perspectives"
2024:
Muggia, Lucia; Vancurova, Lucie; Ĺ kaloud, Pavel; Peksa, Ondrej; Wedin, Mats; Grube, Martin (August 2013).
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is mutually beneficial as all participants are both models and mimics. For example, different species of
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503:
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Rosenberg, E.; Zilber-Rosenberg, I. (March 2011). "Symbiosis and development: the hologenome concept".
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31:
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2607:"The cleaning goby mutualism: a system without punishment, partner switching or tactile stimulation"
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1903:"Orienting the Interaction Compass: Resource Availability as a Major Driver of Context Dependence"
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Diagram of the six possible types of symbiotic relationship, from mutual benefit to mutual harm.
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is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as between the
4420:
4226:"Endobiotic Rugosan Symbionts in Stromatoporoids from the Sheinwoodian (Silurian) of Baltica"
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1967:
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generation of phenotypic diversity and complex phenotypes able to colonise new environments.
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457:
423:
198:
147:
Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment. Symbionts forming a single body live in
2353:
Wernegreen, J.J. (November 2002). "Genome evolution in bacterial endosymbionts of insects".
229:). In the 21st century, the latter has become the definition widely accepted by biologists.
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1679:] (in German). Strassburg, Germany (now: Strasbourg, France): Karl J. TrĂźbner. p.
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Nair, S. (2005), "Bacterial
Associations: Antagonism to Symbiosis", in Ramaiah, N. (ed.),
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8:
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613:), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (
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1394:"Intricate Relationship Allows the Other to Flourish: the Sea Anemone and the Clownfish"
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140:, which means that one, or both of the symbionts depend on each other for survival, or
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Saffo, M.B. (1993), "Coming to terms with a field: Words and concepts in symbiosis",
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Symbiosis: Mechanisms and
Systems. Dordercht/Boson/London, Kluwer Academic Publishers
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Wootton, J.T.; Emmerson, M. (2005). "Measurement of Interaction Strength in Nature".
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Martin, Bradford D.; Schwab, Ernest (2012), "Symbiosis: 'Living together' in chaos",
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in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria. This can be due to lack of
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is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the
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away from the parent plant. Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of
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Close, long-term biological interaction between distinct organisms (usually species)
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1572:[On the biological relationships of the thallus of some crustose lichens].
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divide independently of the cell, and that these organelles have their own genome.
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Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (
3781:
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3186:
Mutalipassi, Mirko; Riccio, Gennaro; Mazzella, Valerio; et al. (April 2021).
2846:"Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley (Lepidoptera: Heliconidae)"
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2093:"Lineage-specific variation in the evolutionary stability of coral photosymbiosis"
943:
185:
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2932:(2001). "Causes and consequences of a lack of coevolution in Mullerian mimicry".
2817:"Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley. Lepidoptera: Heliconidae"
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Harrison, Maria J. (2005), "Signaling in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis",
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Cleaning symbiosis is well known among marine fish, where some small species of
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secretes a chemical from its roots that harms neighboring plants, an example of
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repair and recombination, while important genes participating in the DNA-to-RNA
3446:. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1993. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.
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Vane-Wright, R. I. (1976). "A unified classification of mimetic resemblances".
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2174:"Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and the Challenges to Its Extension to Nonlegumes"
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Gault, Jordan A.; Bentlage, Bastian; Huang, Danwei; Kerr, Alexander M. (2021).
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Bronstein, J.L. (2015). "The study of mutualism.". In Bronstein, J.L. (ed.).
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Tageblatt fĂźr die Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte (in Cassel)
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1210:) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (
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A spectacular example of obligate mutualism is the relationship between the
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The acacia ant protects at least 5 species of "Acacia", now all renamed to
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Wernegreen, J.J. (2004), "Endosymbiosis: lessons in conflict resolution",
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2910:; a remarkable case of mimicry in butterflies. (R. Meldola translation)".
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2017:
594:. It derives from a medieval Latin word meaning sharing food, formed from
529:, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone.
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Willey, Joanne M.; Sherwood, Linda M.; Woolverton, Cristopher J. (2013).
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1659:" ... des Zusammenlebens ungleichnamiger Organismen, der Symbiose, ... "
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feeds on small invertebrates, that otherwise have potential to harm the
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Losey, G.S. (1972). "The Ecological Importance of Cleaning Symbiosis".
2659:"Fungal endophyte symbiosis and plant diversity in successional fields"
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Soares, M.C.; CĂ´tĂŠ, I.M>; Cardoso, S.C.; Bshary, R. (August 2008).
1570:"Ăber die biologischen Verkältnisse des Thallus einiger Krustflechten"
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In endosymbiosis, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the
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symbiosis. When one organism lives on the surface of another, such as
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2254:"Accelerated evolution and Muller's rachet in endosymbiotic bacteria"
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This article is about the biological phenomenon. For other uses, see
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worldwide form symbiotic relationships with fungi, in particular in
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fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.
2366:
2236:
1661:( ... of the living together of unlike organisms, symbiosis, ... )
1260:
999:
951:
828:
784:
768:
728:
720:
673:
625:
shells to protect their bodies, and spiders building their webs on
546:
463:
441:
400:
346:
103:
3250:
Li, Ci-Xiu; Shi, Mang; Tian, Jun-Hua; et al. (January 2015).
1069:
565:
4435:
4399:
4392:
3233:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
2766:
In the Light of Evolution: Volume II: Biodiversity and Extinction
2492:
1239:
874:
743:
663:
606:
573:
526:
515:
448:
mechanisms prevailing in the relatively "rich" host environment.
367:
130:
defined symbiosis as "the living together of unlike organisms".
107:
3843:
Facey, Douglas E.; Helfman, Gene S.; Collette, Bruce B. (1997),
3720:
3386:
3185:
2695:
787:
hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.
163:; when one partner lives inside the tissues of another, such as
4327:
2880:(1878). "Ueber die Vortheile der Mimicry bei Schmetterlingen".
1271:
1147:
1059:
923:
626:
541:
407:
358:
250:
206:
4030:, Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology,
1107:
387:
that provide essential nutrients to about 10%â15% of insects.
3229:
1435:
1427:
1419:
1247:
1055:
732:
701:
662:
is a long-term relationship between individuals of different
479:
380:
376:
372:
170:
90:
84:
79:
73:
68:
4128:
Origins of sex: three billion years of genetic recombination
2759:
1713:"History of ecological sciences, Part 52: Symbiosis studies"
2524:
2522:
2513:
10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0203:AIBUAP]2.0.CO;2
2170:
2023:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1231:
1159:
1051:
1026:, contended that symbiosis is a major driving force behind
739:
475:
315:
1829:
Haskell, E. F. (1949). A clarification of social science.
735:
on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.
4096:, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, pp. 83â89
3300:
3017:"Cleaning symbiosis: proximate and adaptive explanations"
2762:"Homage to Linnaeus: How Many Parasites? How Many Hosts?"
1155:
1146:
them have co-evolved. Many plants that are pollinated by
415:
4178:
following Experimental and Disease-Associated Bleaching"
3680:
2768:. Washington (DC): National Academies Press. p. 4.
2645:
2519:
2457:
2318:(July 1998). "Reductive evolution of resident genomes".
1525:
1187:) with Beltian bodies that provide the ants with protein
715:
An example of mutualism is the relationship between the
4170:"Repopulation of Zooxanthellae in the Caribbean Corals
1230:
Seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of
974:
805:) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab (
3235:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
2451:
2237:
Latorre, A.; Durban, A.; Moya, A.; Pereto, J. (2011).
2090:
144:(optional), when they can also subsist independently.
4074:
Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations
3582:
3418:. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company. pp.
2764:. In Avise, J.C.; Hubbell, S.P.; Ayala, F.J. (eds.).
462:
Competition can be defined as an interaction between
266:
4223:
3842:
3011:
2912:
Proclamations of the Entomological Society of London
2593:
2498:
1955:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
1845:"Cooperation and Conflict among Primitive Organisms"
930:
to cleaner fish. In this experiment, cleaner wrasse
4357:
Symbiosis: a surprising tale of species cooperation
4167:
2560:
1605:
1470:
1046:among organisms. According to Margulis and her son
757:in other fish, possibly another kind of mutualism.
410:size, as many genes are lost during the process of
151:symbiosis, while all other arrangements are called
4147:
4125:
3804:
3532:
3118:"Sharks: An Unusual Example of Cleaning Symbiosis"
2422:Ecology: individuals, populations, and communities
1606:
1471:
700:or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines.
3522:
3520:
3068:"The Ecological Importance of Cleaning Symbiosis"
1811:
1752:
1750:
4547:
4150:Evolution by association: a history of symbiosis
4071:
3526:
3173:
2747:
2528:
2310:
1536:
994:One hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus in
4093:Marine Microbiology: Facets & Opportunities
3563:
3179:
1951:
1070:Major examples of co-evolutionary relationships
742:, a fish which sometimes lives together with a
197:was a matter of debate for 130 years. In 1877,
98:: living) is any type of a close and long-term
4168:Toller, W.W.; Rowan, R.; Knowlton, N. (2001),
3759:
3517:
3512:
3338:"What is the hologenome concept of evolution?"
2420:Begon, M.; Harper, J.L.; Townsend, C.R. 1996.
2005:
1747:
1238:to transport their propagules, including both
793:A facultative symbiosis is seen in encrusting
470:of one is lowered by the presence of another.
244:
4377:
4119:
4072:Paracer, Surindar; Ahmadjian, Vernon (2000),
4018:
3455:
3005:
2147:
1717:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
3860:
3397:
3303:Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today
3249:
1548:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
275:Alder tree root nodule houses endosymbiotic
205:to describe the mutualistic relationship in
2782:
2776:
676:document a mutualistic symbiosis between a
225:, but excluding brief interactions such as
4384:
4370:
4276:
4132:, New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press,
3829:, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
3460:
3245:
3243:
3162:
2922:
2352:
1842:
1191:
4302:
4292:
4259:
4249:
4002:
3874:
3780:
3743:
3704:
3694:
3363:
3353:
3277:
3267:
3213:
3203:
3035:
2945:
2861:
2850:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2786:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2656:
2287:
2277:
2213:
2124:
2049:
1928:
1918:
1873:
1774:
1756:
1736:
1507:
474:supply of at least one resource (such as
3917:
3890:
3633:
3501:
3466:
3408:
2571:
1968:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175535
1173:
1106:
1089:
942:
840:with hooks and suckers to attach to its
822:
668:
642:
564:
493:
326:, which attach themselves to the jaw of
270:
184:
36:
3824:
3802:
3240:
3111:
3109:
2414:
2011:
1900:
1817:
1805:
1639:
14:
4548:
3932:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123749
3335:
2928:
2898:
2876:
2397:"Species Interactions and Competition"
2178:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
1901:Pringle, Elizabeth G. (October 2016).
434:via a recombination process is called
330:; and mutualist ectosymbionts such as
4365:
4106:
3980:
3962:
3876:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040178
3539:. Harvard University Press. pp.
3115:
3065:
2976:
2840:
2811:
2805:
2251:
2000:
1988:
1567:
1520:
1466:
1464:
1242:vectors such as the wind and living (
903:
302:, including the inner surface of the
4145:
4089:
4021:"Morphological aspects of symbiosis"
3106:
2540:
2158:
1627:participating institution membership
1492:participating institution membership
975:Hologenome development and evolution
938:
852:that live within the host's body to
3945:
3760:Danforth, B.N.; Ascher, J. (1997),
2822:Transactions of the Linnean Society
2582:
1880:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1757:Wilkinson, David M. (August 2001).
1094:Pollination is a mutualism between
365:, nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as
24:
3467:SchĂźĂler, A.; et al. (2001).
2863:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1981.tb01842.x
2835:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1860.tb00146.x
2799:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00240.x
2772:from the original on Mar 22, 2023.
2594:Facey, Helfman & Collette 1997
2462:(9th ed.). pp. 713â738.
1711:Egerton, Frank N. (January 2015).
1574:Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen
1461:
1391:
267:Ectosymbiosis versus endosymbiosis
78:: living with, companionship <
25:
4572:
4320:
3981:Moran, N.A. (2006), "Symbiosis",
3893:"Balanced mutual use (symbiosis)"
3444:Bloomsbury Guide to Human Thought
2561:Toller, Rowan & Knowlton 2001
1698:Revue Internationale des Sciences
1551:Studies in the History of Biology
1219:
1135:Reproductive coevolution in Ficus
880:second providing mutual benefit.
209:. In 1878, the German mycologist
4338:
4326:
4019:Nardon, P.; Charles, H. (2002),
3228:
3055:from the original on 2004-10-12.
2635:from the original on 2022-10-09.
2626:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00489.x
2489:". Retrieved September 30, 2014.
983:
4224:Vinn, O.; MĂľtus, M.-A. (2014).
4067:from the original on 2022-10-09
3792:from the original on 2022-10-09
3627:
3576:
3557:
3506:
3495:
3449:
3436:
3402:
3391:
3380:
3329:
3294:
3167:
3156:
3059:
2970:
2892:
2870:
2753:
2741:
2689:
2650:
2639:
2598:
2587:
2576:
2565:
2554:
2545:
2534:
2476:
2427:
2389:
2346:
2304:
2245:
2230:
2164:
2152:
2141:
2084:
2066:
1994:
1982:
1945:
1894:
1867:
1836:
1831:Main Currents in Modern Thought
1823:
1799:
1633:
1332:
1115:is pollinated by the fig wasp,
888:a third, the dupe. In terms of
554:
3967:, London: Chapman & Hall,
3762:"Flowers and Insect Evolution"
3355:10.12688/f1000research.14385.1
2433:Toepfer, G. "Amensalism". In:
1599:
1561:
1542:
1412:
1385:
1102:
1002:) is that it developed from a
617:). Examples of metabiosis are
451:
253:, which consist of fungal and
13:
1:
4343:The dictionary definition of
3847:, Oxford: Blackwell Science,
3782:10.1126/science.283.5399.143a
3648:10.1080/0028825X.2021.2001664
3636:New Zealand Journal of Botany
2675:10.1126/science.285.5434.1742
2332:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01312-2
1379:
1098:and their animal pollinators.
1074:
998:(plants, animals, fungi, and
860:that live on its surface and
812:
489:
180:
4294:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020068
4251:10.1371/journal.pone.0090197
3897:Quarterly Journal Biohistory
3696:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030077
3174:Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000
2748:Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000
2529:Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000
1920:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000891
1672:Die Erscheinung der Symbiose
1537:Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000
632:
375:root nodules; single-celled
110:. The two organisms, termed
85:
74:
7:
4154:, Oxford University Press,
4076:, Oxford University Press,
3811:, Oxford University Press,
3415:Symbiosis in Cell Evolution
3336:Morris, J.J. (2018-10-19).
2252:Moran, N. A. (April 1996).
1677:The Phenomenon of Symbiosis
1276:
1254:
310:. Examples of this include
245:Obligate versus facultative
10:
4577:
4461:Behavior-altering parasite
3673:
3513:Danforth & Ascher 1997
3473:: phylogeny and evolution"
3469:"A new fungal phylum, the
3116:Keyes, Raymond S. (1982).
1436:
1428:
1420:
1400:. The Biomimicry Institute
1269:
1265:
1258:
1223:
1195:
1181:ant on bull thorn acacia (
1124:
987:
956:
907:
872:
868:
816:
807:Pseudopagurus granulimanus
658:Mutualism or interspecies
636:
558:
525:(black walnut), secreting
455:
322:ectosymbionts such as the
288:
282:
91:
80:
69:
32:Symbiosis (disambiguation)
29:
4471:Hostâparasite coevolution
4406:
4004:10.1016/j.cub.2006.09.019
3965:Fungal-plant interactions
3489:10.1017/S0953756201005196
3456:Sagan & Margulis 1986
3066:Losey, George S. (1972).
3015:; Grutter, A. S. (1996).
2719:10.1007/s12526-013-0173-4
2148:Nardon & Charles 2002
2030:FEMS Microbiology Ecology
1843:Burkholder, P.R. (1952).
1738:10.1890/0012-9623-96.1.80
1614:Oxford English Dictionary
1479:Oxford English Dictionary
1022:, famous for her work on
738:A further example is the
708:carbon from the air, and
579:Pseudolynchia canariensis
466:or species, in which the
3891:Harrison, Rhett (2002),
3825:Douglas, Angela (2010),
3803:Douglas, Angela (1994),
3398:Golding & Gupta 1995
2355:Nature Reviews. Genetics
1696:[On symbiosis].
1647:[On Symbiosis].
1325:
1294:Human Microbiome Project
351:nitrogen-fixing bacteria
277:nitrogen-fixing bacteria
239:
159:on humans, it is called
4396:biological interactions
4182:The Biological Bulletin
4040:10.1007/0-306-48173-1_2
3845:The Diversity of Fishes
2956:10.1023/a:1011060330515
2483:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
2460:Prescott's Microbiology
2051:10.1111/1574-6941.12120
1690:de Bary, Heinrich Anton
1667:de Bary, Heinrich Anton
1641:de Bary, Heinrich Anton
1619:Oxford University Press
1484:Oxford University Press
1452:A GreekâEnglish Lexicon
1314:Specificity (symbiosis)
1309:Socio-ecological system
1226:Seed dispersal syndrome
1208:Pseudomyrmex ferruginea
1198:Pseudomyrmex ferruginea
1192:Acacia ants and acacias
803:Acanthodesia commensale
801:. The bryozoan colony (
126:relationship. In 1879,
3952:, Animal Diversity Web
3807:Symbiotic interactions
3722:and the Chloroplast",
2320:Trends in Microbiology
2279:10.1073/pnas.93.7.2873
2117:10.1126/sciadv.abh4243
1319:Symbiotic fermentation
1188:
1122:
1099:
1085:arbuscular mycorrhizas
1054:did not take over the
954:
932:(Labroides dimidiatus)
845:
755:clean up ectoparasites
685:
655:
583:
507:
306:tract or the ducts of
280:
211:Heinrich Anton de Bary
190:
128:Heinrich Anton de Bary
100:biological interaction
58:
4172:Montastraea annularis
3963:Isaac, Susan (1992),
3920:Annu. Rev. Microbiol.
3564:National Geographic.
2882:Zoologischer Anzeiger
1643:(14 September 1878).
1443:Liddell, Henry George
1177:
1142:and the animals that
1125:Further information:
1110:
1093:
957:Further information:
946:
826:
719:that dwell among the
672:
646:
568:
497:
458:Competition (biology)
397:vertical transmission
379:inside reef-building
289:Further information:
274:
199:Albert Bernhard Frank
188:
114:, can be either in a
40:
4486:Parasitic castration
4426:Deception in animals
4335:at Wikimedia Commons
3387:Brinkman et al. 2002
2934:Evolutionary Ecology
2657:Clay; Holah (1999).
2487:Amensalism (biology)
2198:10.1128/AEM.01055-16
1687:French translation:
1596:might be suggested.)
1568:Frank, A.B. (1877).
1299:Microbial consortium
858:parasitic castrators
725:Ritteri sea anemones
4353:TED-Education video
4242:2014PLoSO...990197V
3995:2006CBio...16.R866M
3903:(2), archived from
3827:The Symbiotic Habit
3597:1996Oecol.107..522T
3269:10.7554/eLife.05378
3198:(4). MDPI AG: 227.
2842:Bates, Henry Walter
2813:Bates, Henry Walter
2711:2013MarBd..43..429K
2699:Marine Biodiversity
2669:(5434): 1742â1744.
2316:Kurland, Charles G.
2270:1996PNAS...93.2873M
2241:. pp. 326â339.
2190:2016ApEnM..82.3698M
2109:2021SciA....7.4243G
2042:2013FEMME..85..313M
1759:"At cross purposes"
1729:2015BuESA..96...80E
1617:(Online ed.).
1482:(Online ed.).
1184:Vachellia cornigera
717:ocellaris clownfish
660:reciprocal altruism
652:Calcinus laevimanus
639:Mutualism (biology)
4525:Cleaning symbiosis
4146:Sapp, Jan (1994),
3949:Amphiprion percula
3605:10.1007/bf00333944
3566:"Acacia Ant Video"
3527:HĂślldobler, Bert;
3315:10.1002/bdrc.20196
3205:10.3390/md19040227
2646:Cordes et al. 2005
2614:Journal of Zoology
2444:2017-12-09 at the
2312:Andersson, Siv G.E
1849:American Scientist
1590:empfehlen dĂźrfte."
1289:Cheating (biology)
1189:
1123:
1118:Blastophaga psenes
1100:
955:
915:Cleaning symbiosis
910:Cleaning symbiosis
904:Cleaning symbiosis
846:
773:hydrothermal vents
686:
656:
654:, with sea anemone
609:) or for housing (
592:social interaction
584:
572:mites travelling (
508:
428:open reading frame
395:the offspring via
281:
193:The definition of
191:
59:
43:cleaning symbiosis
4543:
4542:
4331:Media related to
4161:978-0-19-508821-2
4139:978-0-300-03340-3
4083:978-0-19-511806-3
4049:978-1-4020-0189-5
3974:978-0-412-36470-9
3854:978-0-86542-256-8
3836:978-0-691-11341-8
3818:978-0-19-854294-0
3736:10.1101/gr.341802
3550:978-0-674-04075-5
3529:Wilson, Edward O.
3483:(12): 1413â1421.
3429:978-0-7167-1256-5
2469:978-0-07-751066-4
2184:(13): 3698â3710.
1887:978-0-19-967565-4
1625:(Subscription or
1490:(Subscription or
1369:V. sphaerocephala
1236:dispersal vectors
1044:mutual dependence
1030:. She considered
939:Role in evolution
894:MĂźllerian mimicry
890:signalling theory
827:Head (scolex) of
692:have mutualistic
136:Symbiosis can be
16:(Redirected from
4568:
4534:
4527:
4513:
4506:
4481:Kleptoparasitism
4466:Brood parasitism
4386:
4379:
4372:
4363:
4362:
4342:
4330:
4315:
4306:
4296:
4273:
4263:
4253:
4220:
4164:
4153:
4142:
4131:
4116:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4086:
4068:
4066:
4025:
4015:
4006:
3977:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3946:Lee, J. (2003),
3942:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3887:
3878:
3863:Mol. Biol. Evol.
3857:
3839:
3821:
3810:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3791:
3784:
3766:
3756:
3747:
3730:(8): 1159â1167,
3717:
3708:
3698:
3668:
3667:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3568:. Archived from
3561:
3555:
3554:
3538:
3524:
3515:
3510:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3464:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3406:
3400:
3395:
3389:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3367:
3357:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3281:
3271:
3247:
3238:
3232:
3227:
3217:
3207:
3183:
3177:
3171:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3113:
3104:
3103:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3039:
3021:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2949:
2940:(7â8): 777â806.
2926:
2920:
2919:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2838:
2809:
2803:
2802:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2757:
2751:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2654:
2648:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2611:
2602:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2580:
2574:
2569:
2563:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2526:
2517:
2516:
2496:
2490:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2455:
2449:
2431:
2425:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2291:
2281:
2264:(7): 2873â2878.
2249:
2243:
2242:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2217:
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2128:
2103:(39): eabh4243.
2097:Science Advances
2088:
2082:
2081:
2078:Oxford Reference
2074:"photosymbiosis"
2070:
2064:
2063:
2053:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1932:
1922:
1913:(10): e2000891.
1898:
1892:
1891:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1840:
1834:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1778:
1776:10.1038/35087676
1754:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1705:
1694:"De la symbiose"
1684:
1656:
1645:"Ueber Symbiose"
1637:
1631:
1630:
1622:
1610:
1603:
1597:
1581:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1523:
1518:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1487:
1475:
1468:
1459:
1439:
1438:
1431:
1430:
1423:
1422:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1389:
1373:
1336:
1140:Flowering plants
1096:flowering plants
922:– notably
882:Batesian mimicry
781:hydrogen sulfide
590:, used of human
437:Muller's ratchet
383:; and bacterial
371:, which live in
94:
93:
89:: together; and
88:
83:
82:
77:
72:
71:
21:
18:Mutual symbiosis
4576:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4566:
4565:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4539:
4530:
4523:
4509:
4502:
4402:
4390:
4323:
4318:
4194:10.2307/1543614
4162:
4140:
4120:Sagan, Dorion;
4099:
4097:
4084:
4064:
4050:
4023:
3989:(20): 866â871,
3983:Current Biology
3975:
3955:
3953:
3910:
3908:
3855:
3837:
3819:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3764:
3724:Genome Research
3676:
3671:
3632:
3628:
3581:
3577:
3562:
3558:
3551:
3525:
3518:
3511:
3507:
3500:
3496:
3465:
3461:
3454:
3450:
3441:
3437:
3430:
3407:
3403:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3381:
3334:
3330:
3299:
3295:
3248:
3241:
3184:
3180:
3172:
3168:
3163:Wernegreen 2004
3161:
3157:
3134:10.2307/1444305
3114:
3107:
3084:10.2307/1442741
3064:
3060:
3052:
3037:10.2307/1312929
3019:
3010:
3006:
2991:10.2307/1442741
2975:
2971:
2947:10.1.1.508.2755
2927:
2923:
2897:
2893:
2875:
2871:
2810:
2806:
2781:
2777:
2758:
2754:
2746:
2742:
2694:
2690:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2640:
2632:
2609:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2566:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2520:
2497:
2493:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2456:
2452:
2446:Wayback Machine
2432:
2428:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2361:(11): 850â861.
2351:
2347:
2309:
2305:
2250:
2246:
2235:
2231:
2169:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2142:
2089:
2085:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2022:
2018:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1995:
1987:
1983:
1950:
1946:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1872:
1868:
1841:
1837:
1828:
1824:
1820:, pp. 5â12
1816:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1755:
1748:
1710:
1688:
1665:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1604:
1600:
1566:
1562:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1526:
1519:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1489:
1469:
1462:
1457:Perseus Project
1417:
1413:
1403:
1401:
1392:Miller, Allie.
1390:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1376:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1279:
1274:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1228:
1222:
1200:
1194:
1137:
1105:
1081:vascular plants
1077:
1072:
992:
986:
977:
961:
941:
912:
906:
877:
871:
821:
815:
680:and encrusting
641:
635:
563:
557:
492:
460:
454:
337:Contrastingly,
308:exocrine glands
293:
287:
269:
247:
242:
183:
173:, it is termed
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4574:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4535:
4528:
4516:
4515:
4514:
4507:
4495:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4389:
4388:
4381:
4374:
4366:
4360:
4359:
4350:
4336:
4322:
4321:External links
4319:
4317:
4316:
4274:
4221:
4188:(3): 360â373,
4165:
4160:
4143:
4138:
4122:Margulis, Lynn
4117:
4104:
4087:
4082:
4069:
4048:
4016:
3978:
3973:
3960:
3943:
3915:
3888:
3858:
3853:
3840:
3835:
3822:
3817:
3800:
3757:
3718:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3642:(3): 319â329.
3626:
3591:(4): 522â532.
3575:
3572:on 2007-11-07.
3556:
3549:
3516:
3505:
3494:
3459:
3448:
3435:
3428:
3410:Margulis, Lynn
3401:
3390:
3379:
3328:
3293:
3239:
3178:
3176:, pp. 3â4
3166:
3155:
3128:(1): 225â227.
3105:
3078:(4): 820â833.
3058:
3030:(7): 512â517.
3013:Poulin, Robert
3004:
2985:(4): 820â833.
2969:
2921:
2891:
2869:
2829:(3): 495â566.
2804:
2775:
2752:
2740:
2705:(4): 429â444.
2688:
2649:
2638:
2620:(3): 306â312.
2597:
2586:
2575:
2564:
2553:
2544:
2533:
2518:
2491:
2475:
2468:
2450:
2426:
2413:
2388:
2367:10.1038/nrg931
2345:
2326:(7): 263â268.
2303:
2244:
2229:
2163:
2151:
2140:
2083:
2065:
2036:(2): 313â323.
2016:
2004:
1993:
1981:
1944:
1893:
1886:
1866:
1855:(4): 601â631.
1835:
1822:
1810:
1798:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1707:
1685:
1664:Reprinted in:
1632:
1598:
1560:
1541:
1524:
1506:
1497:
1460:
1411:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1304:Photosymbiosis
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1270:Main article:
1267:
1264:
1259:Main article:
1256:
1253:
1224:Main article:
1221:
1220:Seed dispersal
1218:
1196:Main article:
1193:
1190:
1104:
1101:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1018:The biologist
988:Main article:
985:
982:
976:
973:
940:
937:
908:Main article:
905:
902:
873:Main article:
870:
867:
862:micropredators
836:is adapted to
817:Main article:
814:
811:
767:and symbiotic
637:Main article:
634:
631:
559:Main article:
556:
553:
491:
488:
456:Main article:
453:
450:
283:Main article:
268:
265:
255:photosynthetic
246:
243:
241:
238:
234:Edward Haskell
201:used the term
182:
179:
120:commensalistic
102:, between two
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4573:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4533:
4529:
4526:
4522:
4521:
4520:
4517:
4512:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4496:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4476:Hyperparasite
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4394:
4393:Inter-species
4387:
4382:
4380:
4375:
4373:
4368:
4367:
4364:
4358:
4354:
4351:
4349:at Wiktionary
4348:
4347:
4341:
4337:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4314:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4281:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4236:(2): e90197.
4235:
4231:
4227:
4222:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4163:
4157:
4152:
4151:
4144:
4141:
4135:
4130:
4129:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4095:
4094:
4088:
4085:
4079:
4075:
4070:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4022:
4017:
4014:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3976:
3970:
3966:
3961:
3951:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3907:on 2009-12-10
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3856:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3838:
3832:
3828:
3823:
3820:
3814:
3809:
3808:
3801:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3775:(5399): 143,
3774:
3770:
3763:
3758:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3679:
3678:
3665:
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3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3630:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3579:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3552:
3546:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3530:
3523:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3503:
3502:Harrison 2002
3498:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3472:
3471:Glomeromycota
3463:
3457:
3452:
3445:
3442:"Symbiosis".
3439:
3431:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3399:
3394:
3388:
3383:
3375:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3342:F1000Research
3339:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3246:
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3231:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3175:
3170:
3164:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3110:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2930:Mallet, James
2925:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2900:MĂźller, Fritz
2895:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2878:MĂźller, Fritz
2873:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2818:
2814:
2808:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2787:
2779:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2749:
2744:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2692:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2647:
2642:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2601:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2579:
2573:
2572:Harrison 2005
2568:
2562:
2557:
2548:
2542:
2537:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2514:
2510:
2507:(1): 203â11.
2506:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2471:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2447:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2423:
2417:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2299:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2240:
2233:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2161:, p. 142
2160:
2155:
2149:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2013:
2008:
2002:
1997:
1991:, p. 266
1990:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1956:
1948:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1897:
1889:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1826:
1819:
1814:
1807:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1769:(6846): 485.
1768:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1751:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1723:(1): 80â139.
1722:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1703:
1700:(in French).
1699:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1657:From p. 121:
1654:
1651:(in German).
1650:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1615:
1609:
1602:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1576:(in German).
1575:
1571:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1501:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1474:
1467:
1465:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1447:Scott, Robert
1444:
1440:
1432:
1424:
1415:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1384:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1346:
1345:V. chiapensis
1341:
1335:
1331:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1273:
1262:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1079:About 80% of
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1024:endosymbiosis
1021:
1020:Lynn Margulis
1016:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1004:symbiogenesis
1001:
997:
991:
990:Symbiogenesis
984:Symbiogenesis
981:
972:
968:
966:
960:
953:
950:protected by
949:
945:
936:
933:
927:
925:
921:
916:
911:
901:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
876:
866:
863:
859:
855:
854:ectoparasites
851:
850:endoparasites
843:
839:
835:
834:
833:Taenia solium
830:
825:
820:
810:
808:
804:
800:
796:
791:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
771:that live at
770:
766:
763:
758:
756:
752:
750:
745:
741:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
713:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
665:
661:
653:
649:
645:
640:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
581:
580:
575:
571:
567:
562:
552:
549:
548:
544:of the genus
543:
539:
535:
530:
528:
524:
523:
522:Juglans nigra
517:
513:
505:
501:
496:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
459:
449:
447:
443:
439:
438:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:transcription
417:
413:
409:
404:
402:
398:
393:
388:
386:
385:endosymbionts
382:
378:
374:
370:
369:
364:
363:actinomycetes
360:
356:
353:that live in
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:endosymbiosis
335:
333:
329:
328:baleen whales
325:
321:
317:
313:
312:ectoparasites
309:
305:
301:
297:
296:Ectosymbiosis
292:
286:
285:Ectosymbiosis
278:
273:
264:
262:
261:
256:
252:
237:
235:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
187:
178:
176:
175:endosymbiosis
172:
168:
167:
162:
161:ectosymbiosis
158:
154:
150:
145:
143:
139:
134:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
106:of different
105:
101:
97:
87:
76:
67:
66:Ancient Greek
63:
56:
52:
48:
44:
39:
33:
19:
4518:
4416:Commensalism
4345:
4284:
4280:PLOS Biology
4278:
4233:
4229:
4185:
4181:
4176:M. faveolata
4175:
4171:
4149:
4127:
4112:
4108:
4098:, retrieved
4092:
4073:
4031:
4027:
3986:
3982:
3964:
3954:, retrieved
3948:
3923:
3919:
3909:, retrieved
3905:the original
3900:
3896:
3866:
3862:
3844:
3826:
3806:
3794:, retrieved
3772:
3768:
3727:
3723:
3686:
3682:
3639:
3635:
3629:
3588:
3584:
3578:
3570:the original
3559:
3534:
3508:
3497:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3462:
3451:
3443:
3438:
3414:
3404:
3393:
3382:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3309:(1): 56â66.
3306:
3302:
3296:
3259:
3255:
3195:
3192:Marine Drugs
3191:
3181:
3169:
3158:
3125:
3121:
3075:
3071:
3061:
3027:
3023:
3007:
2982:
2978:
2972:
2937:
2933:
2924:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2894:
2885:
2881:
2872:
2856:(1): 41â54.
2853:
2849:
2826:
2820:
2807:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2765:
2755:
2743:
2702:
2698:
2691:
2666:
2662:
2652:
2641:
2617:
2613:
2600:
2589:
2578:
2567:
2556:
2547:
2536:
2504:
2500:
2494:
2482:
2478:
2459:
2453:
2434:
2429:
2421:
2416:
2404:. Retrieved
2400:
2391:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2323:
2319:
2306:
2261:
2257:
2247:
2238:
2232:
2181:
2177:
2166:
2154:
2143:
2100:
2096:
2086:
2077:
2068:
2033:
2029:
2019:
2012:Douglas 2010
2007:
1996:
1984:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1910:
1907:PLOS Biology
1906:
1896:
1876:
1869:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1830:
1825:
1818:Douglas 2010
1813:
1806:Douglas 1994
1801:
1766:
1762:
1720:
1716:
1701:
1697:
1676:
1671:
1658:
1652:
1648:
1635:
1612:
1601:
1594:symbiotismus
1593:
1589:
1588:Symbiotismus
1585:
1583:From p. 195:
1577:
1573:
1563:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1539:, p. 12
1500:
1477:
1450:
1414:
1402:. Retrieved
1397:
1387:
1367:
1361:
1357:V. cornigera
1355:
1351:V. collinsii
1349:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1284:Aposymbiotic
1229:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1182:
1179:Pseudomyrmex
1178:
1164:ornithophily
1138:
1131:Ornithophily
1116:
1078:
1048:Dorion Sagan
1036:co-operation
1017:
1013:chloroplasts
1009:mitochondria
993:
978:
969:
965:co-evolution
962:
959:Co-evolution
931:
928:
920:cleaner fish
913:
878:
847:
831:
806:
802:
799:hermit crabs
792:
789:
759:
747:
737:
731:. A special
714:
687:
657:
651:
619:hermit crabs
604:
599:
595:
585:
577:
576:) on a fly (
561:Commensalism
555:Commensalism
545:
538:Spanish ibex
533:
531:
520:
509:
500:black walnut
461:
435:
405:
392:endosymbiont
389:
366:
355:root nodules
336:
332:cleaner fish
294:
291:Endosymbiont
260:Trentepohlia
258:
248:
231:
219:commensalism
202:
194:
192:
166:Symbiodinium
164:
152:
148:
146:
141:
137:
135:
132:
111:
95:
61:
60:
4451:Synnecrosis
4431:Inquilinism
4421:Competition
3689:(3): 1â10,
2839:; Reprint:
2750:, p. 7
2531:, p. 6
2435:BioConcepts
2014:, p. 4
1808:, p. 1
1706:See p. 301.
1608:"symbiosis"
1473:"symbiosis"
1404:15 February
1152:entomophily
1127:Entomophily
1103:Pollination
1040:interaction
948:Leafhoppers
710:mycorrhyzal
678:hermit crab
648:Hermit crab
611:inquilinism
598:(with) and
452:Competition
424:translation
343:microbiomes
153:disjunctive
149:conjunctive
142:facultative
116:mutualistic
55:mutualistic
51:sea anemone
4550:Categories
4532:Mycorrhiza
4511:Intraguild
4491:Parasitoid
4456:Parasitism
4446:Neutralism
4411:Amensalism
4287:(3): e68,
4100:2007-10-12
3956:2007-09-29
3911:2007-09-25
3869:(1): 1â6,
3796:2007-09-25
3477:Mycol. Res
3024:BioScience
2406:5 February
2001:Saffo 1993
1989:Isaac 1992
1962:: 419â44.
1709:See also:
1704:: 301â309.
1655:: 121â126.
1629:required.)
1580:: 123â200.
1521:Moran 2006
1494:required.)
1380:References
1363:V. hindsii
1204:acacia ant
1168:speciation
1075:Mycorrhiza
1064:networking
996:eukaryotes
838:parasitism
819:Parasitism
813:Parasitism
777:cold seeps
765:tube worms
762:siboglinid
749:Elacatinus
698:protozoans
690:herbivores
615:metabiosis
534:amensalism
512:antagonism
504:antagonism
490:Amensalism
422:, protein
412:metabolism
223:parasitism
215:mutualisms
181:Definition
138:obligatory
4556:Symbiosis
4519:Symbiosis
4504:Carnivore
4498:Predation
4441:Mutualism
4346:symbiosis
4333:Symbiosis
4109:Symbiosis
4034:: 15â44,
3926:: 19â42,
3683:PLOS Biol
3664:244683146
3656:0028-825X
3585:Oecologia
3142:0045-8511
3092:0045-8511
2942:CiteSeerX
2902:(1879). "
2793:: 25â56.
2727:1867-1616
2541:Nair 2005
2206:0099-2240
2159:Sapp 1994
1877:Mutualism
1833:7: 45â51.
1557:(4): 7â25
1421:ĎĎ
ΟβίĎĎΚĎ
1398:AskNature
1340:Vachellia
1213:Vachellia
1144:pollinate
1062:, but by
1028:evolution
952:meat ants
898:bumblebee
795:bryozoans
729:predators
721:tentacles
694:gut flora
682:bryozoans
674:Bryoliths
633:Mutualism
623:gastropod
602:(table).
588:commensal
570:Commensal
532:The term
484:territory
464:organisms
446:selection
442:mutations
432:phenotype
324:barnacles
320:commensal
304:digestive
232:In 1949,
227:predation
203:symbiosis
195:symbiosis
157:head lice
124:parasitic
112:symbionts
104:organisms
75:symbĂĹsis
70:ĎĎ
ΟβίĎĎΚĎ
62:Symbiosis
47:clownfish
4313:15024418
4270:24587277
4230:PLOS ONE
4210:11751248
4124:(1986),
4062:archived
4058:83397151
4013:17055966
3940:16153162
3787:archived
3754:12176923
3715:15736979
3621:21341759
3613:28307396
3535:The Ants
3531:(1990).
3412:(1981).
3374:30410727
3348:: 1664.
3323:21425442
3288:25633976
3224:33923826
3050:Archived
2964:40597409
2918:: 20â29.
2908:Thyridia
2888:: 54â55.
2844:(1981).
2815:(1861).
2770:Archived
2735:15841444
2683:10481011
2630:Archived
2583:Lee 2003
2442:Archived
2383:29136336
2375:12415315
2224:27084023
2135:34550731
2060:23530593
1976:30033811
1939:27732591
1861:27826458
1785:11484028
1692:(1879).
1669:(1879).
1277:See also
1261:Rhizobia
1255:Rhizobia
1000:protists
829:tapeworm
785:deep-sea
769:bacteria
547:Timarcha
401:heredity
347:rhizobia
314:such as
4561:Ecology
4436:Mimicry
4400:ecology
4261:3934990
4238:Bibcode
4218:7765487
4202:1543614
3991:Bibcode
3885:7877484
3769:Science
3706:1044833
3674:Sources
3593:Bibcode
3420:206â227
3365:6198262
3279:4384744
3215:8074062
3150:1444305
3100:1442741
3046:1312929
2999:1442741
2707:Bibcode
2663:Science
2501:Ecology
2340:9717214
2298:8610134
2266:Bibcode
2215:4907175
2186:Bibcode
2126:8457658
2105:Bibcode
2038:Bibcode
1930:5061325
1793:5231135
1725:Bibcode
1455:at the
1266:Lichens
1240:abiotic
1148:insects
924:wrasses
886:deceive
875:Mimicry
869:Mimicry
753:) also
664:species
607:phoresy
574:phoresy
542:weevils
527:juglone
516:sapling
472:Limited
468:fitness
368:Frankia
361:roots;
251:lichens
207:lichens
169:within
122:, or a
108:species
4311:
4304:368163
4301:
4268:
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4216:
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4200:
4158:
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3072:Copeia
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2979:Copeia
2962:
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2401:Nature
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1763:Nature
1437:βίĎĎΚĎ
1272:Lichen
1244:biotic
1133:, and
1060:combat
1042:, and
1032:Darwin
744:shrimp
627:plants
621:using
482:, and
414:, and
408:genome
381:corals
359:legume
221:, and
96:bĂĹsis
92:βίĎĎΚĎ
45:, the
4214:S2CID
4198:JSTOR
4115:(1â3)
4065:(PDF)
4054:S2CID
4024:(PDF)
3790:(PDF)
3765:(PDF)
3660:S2CID
3617:S2CID
3256:eLife
3146:JSTOR
3096:JSTOR
3053:(PDF)
3042:JSTOR
3020:(PDF)
2995:JSTOR
2960:S2CID
2904:Ituna
2731:S2CID
2633:(PDF)
2610:(PDF)
2379:S2CID
2289:39726
1972:JSTOR
1857:JSTOR
1789:S2CID
1675:[
1623:
1488:
1326:Notes
1248:fruit
1232:seeds
1160:birds
1158:, or
1056:globe
733:mucus
702:Coral
688:Many
600:mensa
480:water
377:algae
373:alder
240:Types
171:coral
41:In a
4309:PMID
4266:PMID
4206:PMID
4174:and
4156:ISBN
4134:ISBN
4078:ISBN
4044:ISBN
4009:PMID
3969:ISBN
3936:PMID
3881:PMID
3849:ISBN
3831:ISBN
3813:ISBN
3750:PMID
3711:PMID
3652:ISSN
3609:PMID
3545:ISBN
3424:ISBN
3370:PMID
3319:PMID
3284:PMID
3220:PMID
3138:ISSN
3126:1982
3088:ISSN
3076:1972
2983:1972
2916:1879
2906:and
2723:ISSN
2679:PMID
2464:ISBN
2439:link
2408:2023
2371:PMID
2336:PMID
2294:PMID
2220:PMID
2202:ISSN
2131:PMID
2056:PMID
1935:PMID
1882:ISBN
1781:PMID
1406:2015
1366:and
1202:The
1162:(in
1156:bats
1150:(in
1052:Life
1011:and
856:and
842:host
797:and
775:and
751:spp.
740:goby
596:com-
540:and
498:The
476:food
316:lice
300:host
118:, a
4398:in
4299:PMC
4289:doi
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4246:doi
4190:doi
4186:201
4036:doi
3999:doi
3928:doi
3871:doi
3777:doi
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3740:PMC
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1964:doi
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