Mushroom cloud - Knowledge

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deposit on surface of other particles. Larger particles usually originate from material aspired into the cloud. Particles aspired while the cloud is still hot enough to melt them mix with the fission products throughout their volume. Larger particles get molten radioactive materials deposited on their surface. Particles aspired into the cloud later, when its temperature is low enough, do not become significantly contaminated. Particles formed only from the weapon are fine enough to stay airborne for a long time and become widely dispersed and diluted to non-hazardous levels. Higher-altitude blasts which do not aspire ground debris, or which aspire dust only after cooling enough and where the radioactive fraction of the particles is therefore small, cause a much smaller degree of localized fallout than lower-altitude blasts with larger radioactive particles formed.

132: 1274: 1220: 176: 1298: 1239: 553:–fission ratio, burst altitude, terrain type, and weather. In general, lower-yield explosions have about 90% of their radioactivity in the mushroom head and 10% in the stem. In contrast, megaton-range explosions tend to have most of their radioactivity in the lower third of the mushroom cloud. The fallout may appear as dry, ash-like flakes, or as particles too small to be visible; in the latter case, the particles are often deposited by rain. Large amounts of newer, more radioactive particles deposited on skin can cause 1258: 1316: 745:

distributed evenly through the volume (or with a 10–30% volume of inactive core for larger particles between 0.5–2 mm), and irregular-shaped particles formed at the edges of the fireball by fusion of soil particles, with activity deposited in a thin surface layer. The amount of large irregular particles is insignificant. Particles formed from detonations above, or in, the ocean, will contain short-lived radioactive sodium isotopes, and salts from the

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Larger molten particles have the fission products diffused through the outer layers, and fused and non-melted particles that were not heated sufficiently but came in contact with the vaporized material or scavenged droplets before their solidification have a relatively thin layer of high activity material deposited on their surface. The composition of such particles depends on the character of the soil, usually a glass-like material formed from

312: 723:. Particles larger than 1–2 micrometers are very spherical, corresponding to vaporized material condensing into droplets and then solidifying. The radioactivity is evenly distributed throughout the particle volume, making total activity of the particles linearly dependent on particle volume. About 80% of activity is present in more volatile elements, which condense only after the fireball cools to considerable degree. For example, 282: 20: 36: 534: 1315: 696:

the altitude they are carried to, determines the length of their stay in the atmosphere, as larger particles are subject to dry precipitation. Smaller particles can be also scavenged by precipitation, either from the moisture condensing in the cloud or from the cloud intersecting with a rain cloud. The fallout carried down by rain is known as

1023:, with the minimal neutron energy needed being about 5.9 MeV. Considerable amounts of neptunium-239 and uranium-237 are indicators of a fission-fusion-fission explosion. Minor amounts of uranium-240 are also formed, and capture of large numbers of neutrons by individual nuclei leads to formation of small but detectable amounts of higher 888:. Too many condensation nuclei actually inhibit condensation, as the particles compete for a relatively insufficient amount of water vapor. Chemical reactivity of the elements and their oxides, ion adsorption properties, and compound solubility influence particle distribution in the environment after deposition from the atmosphere. 688:

lower than the volume of the deposited surface layers on larger particles. For higher-altitude blasts, the primary particle forming processes are condensation and subsequent coagulation. For lower-altitude and ground blasts, with involvement of soil particles, the primary process is deposition on the foreign particles.

497:. However, if the cloud reaches the tropopause, it may spread against the wind, because its convection speed is higher than the ambient wind speed. At the tropopause, the cloud shape is roughly circular and spread out. The initial color of some radioactive clouds can be colored red or reddish-brown, due to presence of 297:. Without gravity, or without a thick atmosphere, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball and 872:). The elements in the fireball are present as oxides, unless the temperature is above the decomposition temperature of a given oxide. Less refractory products condense on surfaces of solidified particles. Isotopes with gaseous precursors solidify on the surface of the particles as they are produced by decay. 633: 687:

The concentration of condensation products is the same for the small particles and for the deposited surface layers of larger particles. About 100 kg of small particles are formed per kiloton of yield. The volume, and therefore activity, of the small particles is almost three orders of magnitude

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that was "not unlike a mushroom in shape". The cloud had been observed by legation counselor Lichtenberg a few years earlier on a warm summer afternoon. It was interpreted as an irregular meteorological cloud and seemed to have caused a storm with rain and thunder from a new dark cloud that developed

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The radioactivity of the particles decreases with time, with different isotopes being significant at different timespans. For soil activation products, aluminium-28 is the most important contributor during the first 15 minutes. Manganese-56 and sodium-24 follow until about 200 hours. Iron-59 follows

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The most significant radiation sources are the fission products from the primary fission stage, and in the case of fission-fusion-fission weapons, from the fission of the fusion stage uranium tamper. Many more neutrons per unit of energy are released in a thermonuclear explosion in comparison with a

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A detonation significantly below ground level or deep below the water (for instance, a nuclear depth charge) does not produce a mushroom cloud, as the explosion causes the vaporization of a huge amount of earth or water, creating a bubble which then collapses in on itself; in the case of a less deep

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around the stem. If the water droplets become sufficiently large, the cloud structure they form may become heavy enough to descend; in this way, a rising stem with a descending bell around it can be produced. Layering of humidity in the atmosphere, responsible for the appearance of the condensation

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minerals. The particle sizes do not depend on the yield but instead on the soil character, as they are based on individual grains of the soil or their clusters. Two types of particles are present, spherical, formed by complete vaporization-condensation or at least melting of the soil, with activity

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For ground and low-altitude bursts, the cloud contains vaporized, melted and fused soil particles. The distribution of activity through the particles depends on their formation. Particles formed by vaporization-condensation have activity evenly distributed through volume as the air-burst particles.

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meters/kiloton. However, even at these burst altitudes, fallout may be formed by other mechanisms. Airbursts produce white, steamy stems, while surface bursts produce gray to brown stems because large amounts of dust, dirt, soil, and debris are sucked into the mushroom cloud. Surface bursts produce

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The shape of the shock wave is influenced by variation of the speed of sound with altitude, and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds. Condensation rings around or above the fireball are a commonly observed feature. Rings around

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The particle sizes range from submicrometer- and micrometer-sized (created by condensation of plasma in the fireball), through 10–500 micrometers (surface material agitated by the blast wave and raised by the afterwinds), to millimeter and above (crater ejecta). The size of particles together with

526:. Yellow and orange hues have also been described. This reddish hue is later obscured by the white colour of water/ice clouds, condensing out of the fast-flowing air as the fireball cools, and the dark colour of smoke and debris sucked into the updraft. The ozone gives the blast its characteristic 1131:

out to a significant distance from the fireball, surrounding the head of the forming mushroom cloud. This light is most easily visible at night or under conditions of weak daylight. The brightness of the glow decreases rapidly with elapsed time since the detonation, becoming only barely visible

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will have less time to condense and coalesce into larger particles, resulting in greater degree of mixing in the volume of air and smaller particles. The particles produced immediately after the burst are small, with 90% of the radioactivity present in particles smaller than 300 nanometers. These

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A low-altitude detonation produces a cloud with a dust loading of 100 tons per megaton of yield. A ground detonation produces clouds with about three times as much dust. For a ground detonation, approximately 200 tons of soil per kiloton of yield is melted and comes in contact with radiation. The

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Initially, the fireball contains a highly ionized plasma consisting only of atoms of the weapon, its fission products, and atmospheric gases of adjacent air. As the plasma cools, the atoms react, forming fine droplets and then solid particles of oxides. The particles coalesce to larger ones, and

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products from the weapon materials, air, and the ground debris form only a minor fraction. Neutron activation starts during the neutron burst at the instant of the blast, and the range of this neutron burst is limited by the absorption of the neutrons as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere.

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causes a sudden rarefaction of the surrounding medium. This low pressure region causes an adiabatic drop in temperature, causing moisture in the air to condense in an outward moving shell surrounding the explosion. When the pressure and temperature return to normal, the Wilson cloud dissipates.

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decay the fastest. The smallest particles can reach the stratosphere and stay there for weeks, months, or even years, and cover an entire hemisphere of the planet via atmospheric currents. The higher danger, short-term, localized fallout is deposited primarily downwind from the blast site, in a

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The cloud contains three main classes of material: the remains of the weapon and its fission products, the material acquired from the ground (only significant for burst altitudes below the fallout-reducing altitude, which depends on the weapon yield), and water vapour. The bulk of the radiation

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gases changes shape due to atmospheric friction, and the surface of the fireball is cooled by energy radiation, turning from a sphere to a violently rotating spheroidal vortex. A Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed as the cool air underneath initially pushes the bottom fireball gases into an

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that draws up a central column, possibly with smoke, debris, condensed water vapor, or a combination of these, to form the "mushroom stem". The mass of gas plus entrained moist air eventually reaches an altitude where it is no longer of lower density than the surrounding air; at this point, it

1198:. The same effect above the top of the cloud, where the expansion of the rising cloud pushes a layer of warm, humid, low-altitude air upwards into cold, high-altitude air, first causes the condensation of water vapour out of the air and then causes the resulting droplets to freeze, forming 372:

inverted cup shape. This causes turbulence and a vortex that sucks more air into the center, creating external afterwinds and further cooling the fireball. The speed of rotation slows as the fireball cools and may stop entirely during later phases. The vaporized parts of the weapon and

473:, the first ~20 seconds, when the fireball forms and the fission products mix with the material aspired from the ground or ejected from the crater. The condensation of evaporated ground occurs in first few seconds, most intensely during fireball temperatures between 3500 and 4100 K. 273:" cloud, but a reporter present also spoke of "the mushroom, now the common symbol of the atomic age". Mushrooms have traditionally been associated both with life and death, food and poison, which made them a more powerful symbolic connection than, say, the "cauliflower" cloud. 875:

The largest and therefore most radioactive particles are deposited by fallout in the first few hours after the blast. Smaller particles are carried to higher altitudes and descend more slowly, reaching ground in a less radioactive state as the isotopes with the shortest

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The same kind of condensation is sometimes seen above the wings of jet aircraft at low altitude in high-humidity conditions. The top of a wing is a curved surface. The curvature (and increased air velocity) causes a reduction in air pressure, as given by

975:. The induced isotopes include cobalt-60, 57 and 58, iron-59 and 55, manganese-54, zinc-65, yttrium-88, and possibly nickel-58 and 62, niobium-63, holmium-165, iridium-191, and short-lived manganese-56, sodium-24, silicon-31, and aluminium-28. 577:, 41.4% of the fallout consisted of irregular opaque particles, slightly over 25% of particles with transparent and opaque areas, approximately 20% of microscopic marine organisms, and 2% of microscopic radioactive threads of unknown origin. 463:. The droplets of condensed water gradually evaporate, leading to the cloud's apparent disappearance. The radioactive particles, however, remain suspended in the air, and the invisible cloud continues depositing fallout along its path. 668:, which produced 97% of its 50-megaton yield from fusion, was a very clean weapon compared to what would typically be expected of a weapon of its yield (although it still produced 1.5 megatons of its yield from fission), as its fusion 1273: 1602: 593:

is not formed, and correspondingly lower amounts of dust and debris are produced. The fallout-reducing height, above which the primary radioactive particles consist mainly of the fine fireball condensation, is approximately

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is also formed. It is estimated that each megaton of yield produces about 5,000 tons of nitrogen oxides. A higher-yield detonation can carry the nitrogen oxides from the burst high enough in atmosphere to cause significant

920:, present a long-term hazard. Intense beta radiation from the fallout particles can cause beta burns to people and animals coming in contact with the fallout shortly after the blast. Ingested or inhaled particles cause an 443:. The explosion raises a large amount of moisture-laden air from lower altitudes. As the air rises, its temperature drops and its water vapour first condenses as water droplets and later freezes as ice crystals. The 676:; otherwise, its yield would have been 100 megatons with 51 megatons produced from fission. Were it to be detonated at or near the surface, its fallout would comprise fully one-quarter of all the fallout from every 614:. An underwater detonation near the surface may produce a pillar of water which collapses to form a cauliflower-like shape, which is easily mistaken for a mushroom cloud (such as in the well-known pictures of the 599:

dark mushroom clouds containing irradiated material from the ground in addition to the bomb and its casing and therefore produce more radioactive fallout, with larger particles that readily deposit locally.

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Dog nuclear test. The streamers of smoke seen to the left of the explosion at detonation are vertical smoke flares used to observe the shockwave from the explosion, and are unrelated to the mushroom cloud.

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event; this "popcorning effect" results in more soil being lofted into the stem of the mushroom cloud than would otherwise be the case if the device had been placed above a more typical surface or soil.

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vortex core becomes yellow, then dark red, then loses visible incandescence. With further cooling, the bulk of the cloud fills in as atmospheric moisture condenses. As the cloud ascends and cools, its

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is a very good solvent for metal oxides and scavenges small particles easily; explosions above silica-containing soils will produce particles with isotopes mixed through their volume. In contrast,

439:, virtually identical to those created by intense stratosphere-penetrating thunderstorms. Smaller-scale explosions penetrating the tropopause generate waves of higher frequency, classified as 308:

One way to analyze the motion, once the hot gas has cleared the ground sufficiently, is as a "spherical cap bubble", as this gives agreement between the rate of rise and observed diameter.

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of alpha and beta radiation, which may lead to long-term effects, including cancer. The neutron irradiation of the atmosphere produces a small amount of activation, mainly as long-lived

392:, overshooting a large volume of overdense air to greater altitudes than the final stabilization altitude. Significantly smaller fireballs produce clouds with buoyancy-governed ascent. 881:

cigar-shaped area, assuming a wind of constant strength and direction. Crosswinds, changes in wind direction, and precipitation are factors that can greatly alter the fallout pattern.

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The resulting composite structures can become very complex. The Castle Bravo cloud had, at various phases of its development, 4 condensation rings, 3 ice caps, 2 skirts, and 3 bells.

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following a nuclear blast. The stabilization altitude depends strongly on the profiles of the temperature, dew point, and wind shear in the air at and above the starting altitude.

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The bomb casing can be a significant sources of neutron-activated radioisotopes. The neutron flux in the bombs, especially thermonuclear devices, is sufficient for high-threshold

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fireball volume is the same for a surface or an atmospheric detonation. In the first case, the fireball is a hemisphere instead of a sphere, with a correspondingly larger radius.

396: 423:(the bottom of the region of strong static stability) the cloud tends to slow and spread out. If it contains sufficient energy, the central part may continue rising up into the 1169:, water vapour condenses out of the air, producing droplets of water, which become visible as a white cloud. In technical terms, the "Wilson cloud" is also an example of the 1149:

Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a "Wilson cloud" because of its visual similarity to a Wilson

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A detonation high above the ground may produce a mushroom cloud without a stem. A double mushroom, with two levels, can be formed under certain conditions. For example, the

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is forming in the middle due to intense updrafts of moist air, and the forming partial stem can be seen below. The cloud exhibits the reddish-brown hue of nitrogen oxides.

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With surface and near-surface air bursts, the amount of debris lofted into the air decreases rapidly with increasing burst altitude. At a burst altitude of approximately 7

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coagulate with stratospheric aerosols. Coagulation is more extensive in the troposphere, and, at ground level, most activity is present in particles between 300

840:) are not condensed at that temperature. Intermediate elements have their (or their oxides) boiling points close to the solidification temperature of the particles ( 824:; these precipitate the fastest and at the time of particle solidification, at temperature of 1400 °C, are considered to be fully condensed. Volatile elements ( 912:, which represent the bulk of activity. Within 24 hours after a burst, the fallout gamma radiation level drops 60 times. Longer-life radioisotopes, typically 1194:

rings as opposed to a spherical cloud, also influences the shape of the condensation artifacts along the stem of the mushroom cloud, as the updraft causes

1360:"MDZ-Reader | Band | Physikalischer Kinderfreund / Vieth, Gerhard Ulrich Anton | Physikalischer Kinderfreund / Vieth, Gerhard Ulrich Anton" 354:, the ascent stops, and the cloud starts flattening to the characteristic mushroom shape, usually aided by surface growth due to the decaying turbulence. 1525:

National Research Council; Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences; Committee on the Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons (2005).

1974: 1434: 1097:, a Japanese fishing boat located outside of the predicted danger zone, was also affected. Strontium-90 found in worldwide fallout later led to the 152:

Although the term appears to have been coined in the early 1950s, mushroom clouds generated by explosions were being described centuries before the

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The shape of the cloud is influenced by the local atmospheric conditions and wind patterns. The fallout distribution is predominantly a downwind

664:. Fusion products are typically non-radioactive. The degree of radiation fallout production is therefore measured in kilotons of fission. The 1467: 1400: 640:

Charlie, yield 14 kilotons (at 143 m • kt ), during the initial phase of stem formation. The toroidal fireball is visible at the top, a

624:, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth. 336: 1967: 293:

Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under Earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after

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imagines the first demonstration of an atomic weapon "clouds of steam from the boiling sea.. a gigantic mushroom of steam and debris".

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is a set of photographs by Kevin Tieskoetter, showing fine mushroom cloud structures generated by burning lightbulb filaments in air

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3rd edn. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Defense and Energy Research and Development Administration, 1977. (esp.

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shot formed the first head from the blast, followed by another one generated by the heat from the hot, freshly formed crater.

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and other weapon debris aerosols, and are usually dispersed by the wind, though weather patterns (especially rain) can produce

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Particles from air bursts are smaller than 10–25 micrometers, usually in the submicrometer range. They are composed mostly of

1757: 1730: 1698: 1671: 1641: 1536: 1461: 1428: 1385: 1995: 1157:. Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term "condensation cloud" in preference to "Wilson cloud". 131: 1900: 1827: 262:" out of the top of which came "a giant mushroom that increased the height of the pillar to a total of 45,000 feet". 161: 106:

Mushroom clouds result from the sudden formation of a large volume of lower-density gases at any altitude, causing a

1322: 258:, who accompanied one of the three aircraft that made the bombing run. He wrote of the bomb producing a "pillar of 1185:

of higher-humidity air, combined with the associated drop in pressure and temperature, leads to the formation of

1170: 736:. The coagulation offsets the fractionation processes at particle formation, evening out isotopic distribution. 324: 107: 1140:

Nuclear mushroom clouds are often accompanied by short-lived vapour clouds, known variously as "Wilson clouds",

301:. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a 1569: 1177:

the fireball may become stable, becoming rings around the rising stem. Higher-yield explosions cause intense

1153:; the cloud chamber uses condensation from a rapid pressure drop to mark the tracks of electrically charged 1961: 486: 1600:

Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: History: Pre Cold War: Manhattan Project: Trinity: Eyewitness Philip Morrison

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At the moment of a nuclear explosion, a fireball is formed. The ascending, roughly spherical mass of hot,

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beneath it. Lichtenberg stated to have later observed somewhat similar clouds, but none as remarkable.

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In 1798, Gerhard Vieth published a detailed and illustrated account of a cloud in the neighborhood of

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lessens, and its ascent slows. If the size of the fireball is comparable to the atmospheric density

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Radioactive fallout after nuclear explosions and accidents, Volume 3, I. A. Izraėl, Elsevier, 2002

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explosion at Bikini Atoll, March 1, 1954, showing multiple condensation rings and several ice caps.

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from an eruption on April 21, 1990. The mushroom-shaped plume rose from avalanches of hot debris (

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Inside a rising mushroom cloud: denser air rapidly forces itself into the bottom center of the

1773: 1747: 1631: 1397: 513:, and atmospheric moisture. In the high-temperature, high-radiation environment of the blast, 1895: 1720: 1688: 1661: 1526: 1074: 494: 479:, 20 seconds to 10 minutes, when the hot gases rise up and early large fallout is deposited. 2036: 1909: 1284: 1115:

The intense radiation in the first seconds after the blast may cause an observable aura of

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shape. When the detonation altitude is low enough, these afterwinds will draw in dirt and

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to the bomb casings, to allow identification of fallout produced by specific explosions.

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of London of 13 August 1945 as a "huge mushroom of smoke and dust". On 9 September 1945,

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is a unique thermonuclear explosion marker, as it is produced by a (n,2n) reaction from

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at 300 hours, and after 100–300 days, the significant contributor becomes cobalt-60.

758: 611: 351: 294: 255: 196: 68: 1629: 1144:, or vapor rings. The "negative phase" following the positive overpressure behind a 1057:

Radioactive particles can be carried for considerable distances. Radiation from the

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exploding with a mushroom cloud after the British defenders set it ablaze by firing

1999: 1954: 1921: 1917: 1580: 1120: 1110: 1046:. It diffuses easily in the cloud and undergoes two decays to rubidium-90 and then 972: 590: 574: 527: 498: 444: 373: 259: 165: 28: 884:

The condensation of water droplets in the mushroom cloud depends on the amount of

1958: 1606: 1587: 1418: 1404: 1165:. This reduction in air pressure causes cooling, and when the air cools past its 1000: 905: 889: 720: 712: 519: 460: 302: 120: 96: 1976:

Mechanisms by Which the Atmosphere Adjusts to an Extremely Large Explosive Event

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purely fission yield influencing the fission products composition. For example,

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resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with a

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test). An underground detonation at low depth produces a mushroom cloud and a

389: 2015: 1929: 1248: 1229: 1150: 1070: 932:-41. The elements most important for induced radioactivity for sea water are 821: 765: 716: 412: 404: 368: 92: 24: 1288: 1264: 1245: 1226: 1195: 1116: 1086: 1058: 1047: 917: 909: 805: 724: 562: 436: 428: 424: 385: 316: 224: 100: 76: 64: 1207: 1028: 1020: 1016: 913: 673: 523: 502: 452: 448: 432: 340: 286: 270: 169: 111: 1799: 1145: 1078: 1039: 861: 849: 813: 773: 708: 665: 632: 621: 440: 420: 327:

is formed, and air is drawn upwards and into the cloud (similar to the

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fireball, which turbulently mixes into the familiar cloud appearance.

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Waging Nuclear Peace: The Technology and Politics of Nuclear Weapons

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The distribution of radiation in the mushroom cloud varies with the

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published an eyewitness account of the Nagasaki bombing, written by

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Thomas Carlyle Jones; Ronald Duncan Hunt; Norval W. King (1997).

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contained in the cloud consists of the nuclear fission products;

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The evolution of a nuclear mushroom cloud; 19 kt at 120 m • kt .

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Vue du siège de Gibraltar et explosion des batteries flottantes

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from the ground below to form the stem of the mushroom cloud.

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will produce a similar effect. They can be caused by powerful

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published a report on 1 October 1937 of a Japanese attack on

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and the Explosion of the Floating Batteries, artist unknown,

1206:), similar in both appearance and mechanism of formation to 733: 533: 1908:(3). Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 74. 961: 892:

influences the propagation of fallout radioisotopes in the

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and "Description of Air and Surface Bursts" in Chapter II)

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A Nuclear Winter's Tale: Science and Politics in the 1980s

1609:. Nuclearfiles.org (1945-07-16). Retrieved on 2010-02-08. 1232:

test, showing multiple condensation rings, March 1, 1954.

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hydrogen bomb test, showing multiple condensation rings.

761:, tends to adsorb radioactive particles on its surface. 565:

test had the appearance of white dust and was nicknamed

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A mushroom cloud undergoes several phases of formation.

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has many photographs of nuclear tests conducted at the

1828:"The Night the World Changed: The Trinity Nuclear Test" 1686: 435:

to the stratosphere leads to the formation of acoustic

1423:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1011:-109, and cadmium-113m are also mentioned as tracers. 561:

on the backs of exposed animals. The fallout from the

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Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons

223:, that generated "a great mushroom of smoke". During 126: 1590:. Nuclearweaponarchive.org. Retrieved on 2010-02-08. 580: 179:

Mushroom cloud in an engraving from Gerhard Vieth's

31:) that cascaded down the north flank of the volcano. 704:if absorbed into already formed falling raindrops. 1659: 1407:hiroshima-remembered.com. Retrieved on 2010-08-09. 768:during particle formation, due to their different 948:. For ground bursts, the elements of concern are 2013: 1447: 1069:. This was deduced, and the origin traced, when 16:Cloud of debris and smoke from a large explosion 1718: 1663:Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing 1398:Eyewitness Account of Atomic Bomb Over Nagasaki 660:produce a significant part of their yield from 573:, stuck to surfaces, and had a salty taste. In 269:nuclear bomb tests were described as having a " 1745: 1416: 1085:. Unanticipated winds carried lethal doses of 376:cool into visible gases, forming a cloud; the 254:, the official newspaper correspondent of the 1655: 1653: 227:, the destruction of the Japanese battleship 1251:test, showing a prominent condensation ring. 979:-152 and 154 can be present, as well as two 1968:"Chronological development of an air-burst" 1456:. Cambridge University Press. p. 470. 1325:The formation of a mushroom cloud from the 557:, often presenting as discolored spots and 335:), producing strong air currents known as " 1714: 1712: 1710: 1650: 999:-188 were produced from elements added as 1619:The Mushroom Cloud, by Virginia L. Snitow 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1038:One of the important fission products is 700:if scavenged during raincloud formation, 1531:. National Academies Press. p. 53. 1303:The mushroom cloud from the 225-kiloton 1263:The mushroom cloud from the 6.9-megaton 631: 532: 394: 350:After the mass of hot gases reaches its 310: 280: 174: 130: 63:of debris, smoke, and usually condensed 34: 18: 1992:has many photographs of mushroom clouds 1990:Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapon Archive 1862: 1707: 1244:The mushroom cloud from the 11-megaton 1225:The mushroom cloud from the 15-megaton 1135: 610:underground explosion, this produces a 162:1782 Franco-Spanish attack on Gibraltar 2014: 1825: 1545: 1093:, forcing its evacuation. The crew of 357: 1893: 1279:The water column from the 21-kiloton 537:Mushroom cloud size as a function of 103:can produce natural mushroom clouds. 1511: 1509: 1507: 1307:test, showing a well-developed bell. 627: 1774:"Strontium limits in peace and war" 1450:"6.11, Large Gas Bubbles in Liquid" 1104: 431:. A mass of air ascending from the 407:soil is "popcorned" by the intense 199:produced a mushroom cloud. In 1930 164:shows one of the attacking force's 13: 569:; the tiny white flakes resembled 549:of the explosion, type of weapon, 127:Early accounts and origins of term 14: 2048: 1983: 1901:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1803:. 28 October 1999. Archived from 1778:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1504: 1454:An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics 1420:Nuclear Fear: A History of Images 1287:, showing a prominent, spherical 581:Differences with detonation types 489:, and scavenged by precipitation. 71:, but any sufficiently energetic 1942:Glasstone and Dolan 1977, p. 631 1863:Feynman, Richard (21 May 2005). 1687:Constantin Papastefanou (2008). 1636:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 690. 1470:from the original on 2016-04-28. 1437:from the original on 2016-06-10. 1314: 1296: 1272: 1256: 1237: 1218: 899: 505:, formed from initially ionized 1948: 1936: 1887: 1865:"'This is how science is done'" 1856: 1826:Nobles, Ralph (December 2008). 1819: 1787: 1766: 1739: 1680: 1666:. Two-Sixty Press. p. 32. 1623: 1612: 1593: 1574: 388:, the whole cloud rise will be 1963:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 1922:10.1080/00963402.1953.11457386 1518: 1474: 1441: 1410: 1391: 1370: 1352: 904:The primary fallout hazard is 362: 1: 1835:Los Alamos Historical Society 1772:Ralph E. Lapp (October 1956) 1581:Effects of Nuclear Explosions 1364:reader.digitale-sammlungen.de 1346: 1132:after a few tens of seconds. 1073:found x-ray films were being 711:, with smaller proportion of 143: 672:was made of lead instead of 477:Rise and stabilization phase 160:by an unknown artist of the 7: 1894:Borst, Lyle B. (Apr 1953). 1752:. SUNY Press. p. 175. 1660:Richard Lee Miller (1986). 1334: 1171:Prandtl–Glauert singularity 427:as an analog of a standard 325:Rayleigh–Taylor instability 236:The atomic bomb cloud over 233:produced a mushroom cloud. 181:Physikalischer Kinderfreund 108:Rayleigh–Taylor instability 47:, Japan, on August 9, 1945. 10: 2053: 1376:Reynolds, Clark G (1982). 1283:test, involving a nuclear 1108: 1081:packaging produced in the 276: 240:, Japan, was described in 1725:. MIT Press. p. 25. 1448:Batchelor, G. K. (2000). 455:particles, primarily the 1719:Lawrence Badash (2009). 1693:. Elsevier. p. 41. 1515:Glasstone and Dolan 1977 636:The mushroom cloud from 411:of light emitted by the 39:Mushroom cloud from the 1795:"The Legacy of Trinity" 1746:Robert Ehrlich (1985). 1417:Weart, Spencer (1987). 1121:blue-violet-purple glow 1099:Partial Test Ban Treaty 413:prompt supercriticality 1996:DOE Nevada Site Office 995:-185, 181 and 187 and 645: 542: 416: 320: 290: 184: 149: 48: 32: 1896:"Nevada Weapons Test" 1025:transuranium elements 764:The elements undergo 658:Thermonuclear weapons 635: 536: 398: 314: 284: 178: 134: 38: 23:Ascending cloud from 22: 1875:on February 16, 2009 1690:Radioactive Aerosols 1633:Veterinary Pathology 1482:"The Mushroom Cloud" 1285:underwater explosion 1136:Condensation effects 1061:was washed out by a 487:deposited by gravity 267:Operation Crossroads 81:conventional weapons 1914:1953BuAtS...9c..73B 1844:on 28 December 2010 1380:. Time-Life Books. 1155:subatomic particles 1142:condensation clouds 886:condensation nuclei 678:nuclear weapon test 604:Buster-Jangle Sugar 419:After reaching the 401:Tumbler-Snapper Dog 358:Nuclear detonations 295:nuclear detonations 252:William L. Laurence 119:, which results in 85:thermobaric weapons 61:flammagenitus cloud 1784:(8): 287–289, 320. 1605:2014-07-21 at the 1586:2014-04-28 at the 1403:2011-01-06 at the 1095:Daigo Fukuryu Maru 989:Operation Hardtack 651:neutron activation 646: 642:condensation cloud 589:meters/kiloton, a 543: 417: 321: 291: 247:The New York Times 206:Last and First Men 185: 166:floating batteries 150: 140:Siege of Gibraltar 117:drifting back down 97:volcanic eruptions 49: 33: 1955:Glasstone, Samuel 1759:978-0-87395-919-3 1732:978-0-262-25799-2 1700:978-0-08-044075-0 1673:978-0-02-921620-0 1643:978-0-683-04481-2 1538:978-0-309-09673-7 1463:978-0-521-66396-0 1430:978-0-674-62836-6 1386:978-0-8094-3304-9 1341:Rope trick effect 1305:Greenhouse George 1173:in aerodynamics. 1089:fallout over the 987:-102. During the 973:nuclear reactions 908:from short-lived 759:calcium carbonate 757:debris, based on 628:Cloud composition 612:subsidence crater 352:equilibrium level 256:Manhattan Project 197:Halifax Explosion 156:. A contemporary 69:nuclear explosion 55:is a distinctive 29:pyroclastic flows 2044: 2000:Nevada Test Site 1973:Vigh, Jonathan. 1959:Dolan, Philip J. 1943: 1940: 1934: 1933: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1871:. Archived from 1860: 1854: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1843: 1837:. Archived from 1832: 1823: 1817: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1791: 1785: 1770: 1764: 1763: 1743: 1737: 1736: 1716: 1705: 1704: 1684: 1678: 1677: 1657: 1648: 1647: 1627: 1621: 1616: 1610: 1597: 1591: 1578: 1572: 1562: 1543: 1542: 1522: 1516: 1513: 1502: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1488:. Archived from 1478: 1472: 1471: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1414: 1408: 1395: 1389: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1356: 1318: 1300: 1281:Crossroads Baker 1276: 1260: 1241: 1222: 1111:Ionized air glow 1105:Fluorescent glow 1042:, a radioactive 956:-31, sodium-24, 928:and short-lived 721:plutonium oxides 617:Crossroads Baker 597: 588: 575:Operation Wigwam 528:corona discharge 499:nitrogen dioxide 457:fission products 148: 145: 2052: 2051: 2047: 2046: 2045: 2043: 2042: 2041: 2022:Nuclear weapons 2012: 2011: 1986: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1892: 1888: 1878: 1876: 1861: 1857: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1830: 1824: 1820: 1810: 1808: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1771: 1767: 1760: 1744: 1740: 1733: 1717: 1708: 1701: 1685: 1681: 1674: 1658: 1651: 1644: 1628: 1624: 1617: 1613: 1607:Wayback Machine 1598: 1594: 1588:Wayback Machine 1579: 1575: 1563: 1546: 1539: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1505: 1495: 1493: 1480: 1479: 1475: 1464: 1446: 1442: 1431: 1415: 1411: 1405:Wayback Machine 1396: 1392: 1378:The Carrier War 1375: 1371: 1358: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1337: 1332: 1331: 1330: 1327:Tumbler-Snapper 1324: 1319: 1308: 1301: 1292: 1277: 1268: 1261: 1252: 1242: 1233: 1223: 1163:Bernoulli's Law 1138: 1113: 1107: 981:nuclear isomers 906:gamma radiation 902: 890:Bioaccumulation 713:aluminium oxide 630: 595: 586: 583: 461:nuclear fallout 365: 360: 323:As it rises, a 303:hot-air balloon 279: 146: 129: 25:Redoubt Volcano 17: 12: 11: 5: 2050: 2040: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1993: 1985: 1984:External links 1982: 1981: 1980: 1971: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1944: 1935: 1886: 1855: 1818: 1786: 1765: 1758: 1738: 1731: 1706: 1699: 1679: 1672: 1649: 1642: 1622: 1611: 1592: 1573: 1544: 1537: 1517: 1503: 1486:Atomic Archive 1473: 1462: 1440: 1429: 1409: 1390: 1369: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1336: 1333: 1321: 1320: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1302: 1295: 1293: 1278: 1271: 1269: 1262: 1255: 1253: 1243: 1236: 1234: 1224: 1217: 1137: 1134: 1109:Main article: 1106: 1103: 1091:Rongelap Atoll 901: 898: 822:boiling points 662:nuclear fusion 629: 626: 582: 579: 491: 490: 480: 474: 364: 361: 359: 356: 278: 275: 201:Olaf Stapledon 128: 125: 53:mushroom cloud 41:atomic bombing 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2049: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2017: 2007: 2006:Burning bulbs 2004: 2002:and elsewhere 2001: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1978: 1977: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1953: 1952: 1939: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1890: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1859: 1840: 1836: 1829: 1822: 1807:on 9 May 2008 1806: 1802: 1801: 1796: 1790: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1769: 1761: 1755: 1751: 1750: 1742: 1734: 1728: 1724: 1723: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1702: 1696: 1692: 1691: 1683: 1675: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1656: 1654: 1645: 1639: 1635: 1634: 1626: 1620: 1615: 1608: 1604: 1601: 1596: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1577: 1571: 1567: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1549: 1540: 1534: 1530: 1529: 1521: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1492:on 2013-08-30 1491: 1487: 1483: 1477: 1469: 1465: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1444: 1436: 1432: 1426: 1422: 1421: 1413: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1394: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1365: 1361: 1355: 1351: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1328: 1323: 1317: 1306: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1275: 1270: 1266: 1259: 1254: 1250: 1249:hydrogen bomb 1247: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1230:hydrogen bomb 1228: 1221: 1216: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1151:cloud chamber 1147: 1143: 1133: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1112: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1071:Eastman Kodak 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 969: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 922:internal dose 919: 915: 911: 910:radioisotopes 907: 900:Radioisotopes 897: 895: 891: 887: 882: 879: 873: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 766:fractionation 762: 760: 756: 752: 748: 743: 737: 735: 731: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 705: 703: 699: 693: 689: 685: 681: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 652: 643: 639: 638:Buster-Jangle 634: 625: 623: 619: 618: 613: 607: 605: 600: 592: 578: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 540: 535: 531: 530:-like smell. 529: 525: 521: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 488: 484: 481: 478: 475: 472: 469: 468: 467: 464: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 437:gravity waves 434: 430: 426: 422: 414: 410: 406: 405:Nevada desert 402: 397: 393: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 370: 355: 353: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 318: 313: 309: 306: 304: 300: 296: 288: 283: 274: 272: 268: 265:In 1946, the 263: 261: 257: 253: 249: 248: 243: 239: 234: 232: 231: 226: 222: 218: 214: 213: 208: 207: 203:in his novel 202: 198: 193: 190: 182: 177: 173: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 141: 137: 133: 124: 122: 118: 113: 109: 104: 102: 101:impact events 98: 94: 93:GBU-43/B MOAB 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 46: 42: 37: 30: 26: 21: 1975: 1962: 1949:Bibliography 1938: 1905: 1899: 1889: 1877:. Retrieved 1873:the original 1869:Dimaggio.org 1868: 1858: 1846:. Retrieved 1839:the original 1834: 1821: 1809:. Retrieved 1805:the original 1798: 1789: 1781: 1777: 1768: 1748: 1741: 1721: 1689: 1682: 1662: 1632: 1625: 1614: 1595: 1576: 1527: 1520: 1494:. Retrieved 1490:the original 1485: 1476: 1453: 1443: 1419: 1412: 1393: 1377: 1372: 1363: 1354: 1289:Wilson cloud 1265:Castle Union 1246:Castle Romeo 1227:Castle Bravo 1212: 1208:scarf clouds 1203: 1199: 1196:laminar flow 1190: 1186: 1175: 1159: 1139: 1117:fluorescence 1114: 1087:Castle Bravo 1059:Trinity test 1056: 1052: 1048:strontium-90 1037: 1013: 970: 918:strontium-90 903: 883: 874: 763: 738: 725:strontium-90 706: 701: 697: 694: 690: 686: 682: 680:, combined. 656: 647: 615: 608: 601: 584: 566: 563:Castle Bravo 544: 492: 482: 476: 470: 465: 445:phase change 429:thunderstorm 425:stratosphere 418: 408: 403:. The sandy 386:scale height 369:incandescent 366: 349: 322: 317:Castle Bravo 307: 292: 264: 245: 241: 235: 228: 225:World War II 210: 204: 194: 186: 180: 151: 138:View of the 135: 105: 87:such as the 83:, including 77:deflagration 65:water vapour 52: 50: 2037:Cloud types 1848:15 February 1496:January 14, 1183:entrainment 1146:shock front 1123:of ionized 1029:einsteinium 1021:uranium-238 1017:uranium-237 914:caesium-137 732:and 1 709:iron oxides 674:uranium-238 567:Bikini snow 524:ozone layer 503:nitric acid 453:radioactive 449:latent heat 433:troposphere 374:ionized air 363:Description 315:15-megaton 271:cauliflower 260:purple fire 170:heated shot 147: 1782 115:disperses, 112:vortex ring 2032:Explosions 2016:Categories 1879:8 February 1811:8 February 1800:ABQjournal 1570:0080438555 1347:References 1040:krypton-90 878:half-lives 820:with high 776:elements ( 774:Refractory 770:volatility 666:Tsar Bomba 622:base surge 571:snowflakes 555:beta burns 471:Early time 441:infrasound 421:tropopause 337:afterwinds 299:blast wave 154:Atomic Age 73:detonation 1930:0096-3402 1388:. p. 169. 1167:dew point 1079:cardboard 1063:rainstorm 1044:noble gas 1031:-255 and 966:cobalt-60 964:-59, and 958:manganese 950:aluminium 942:magnesium 926:carbon-14 894:biosphere 749:. Molten 747:sea water 520:depletion 483:Late time 447:releases 390:ballistic 378:white-hot 242:The Times 212:The Times 195:The 1917 2027:Vortices 1603:Archived 1584:Archived 1468:Archived 1435:Archived 1401:Archived 1335:See also 1200:ice caps 1179:updrafts 1129:nitrogen 1067:Illinois 1005:Antimony 993:tungsten 977:Europium 938:chlorine 742:silicate 698:rain-out 507:nitrogen 382:buoyancy 341:toroidal 287:toroidal 238:Nagasaki 217:Shanghai 158:aquatint 59:-shaped 57:mushroom 45:Nagasaki 1979:, 2001. 1910:Bibcode 1204:icecaps 1083:Midwest 1033:fermium 1027:, e.g. 1009:cadmium 1001:tracers 997:rhenium 985:rhodium 954:silicon 946:bromine 816:) form 717:uranium 702:washout 559:lesions 522:of the 333:chimney 329:updraft 277:Physics 121:fallout 95:. Some 1957:, and 1928: 1756: 1729: 1697: 1670: 1640: 1568: 1535: 1460: 1427: 1384: 1187:skirts 1125:oxygen 1119:, the 1075:fogged 1035:-255. 1007:-124, 944:, and 934:sodium 818:oxides 751:silica 715:, and 670:tamper 596: 591:crater 587: 551:fusion 511:oxygen 345:debris 230:Yamato 183:(1798) 1842:(PDF) 1831:(PDF) 1191:bells 960:-56, 952:-28, 936:-24, 930:argon 755:coral 547:yield 539:yield 515:ozone 495:plume 409:flash 331:of a 221:China 189:Gotha 89:ATBIP 1926:ISSN 1881:2010 1850:2019 1813:2010 1754:ISBN 1727:ISBN 1695:ISBN 1668:ISBN 1638:ISBN 1566:ISBN 1533:ISBN 1498:2018 1458:ISBN 1425:ISBN 1382:ISBN 1202:(or 1189:and 1127:and 962:iron 916:and 719:and 501:and 99:and 91:and 1918:doi 1077:by 1065:in 983:of 75:or 43:of 2018:: 1924:. 1916:. 1904:. 1898:. 1867:. 1833:. 1797:. 1782:12 1780:, 1776:, 1709:^ 1652:^ 1547:^ 1506:^ 1484:. 1466:. 1452:. 1433:. 1362:. 1210:. 1101:. 991:, 968:. 940:, 896:. 870:Te 868:, 866:Sb 864:, 862:Tc 860:, 858:Rh 856:, 854:Ru 852:, 850:Mo 848:, 846:Cs 844:, 842:Rb 838:Br 836:, 832:, 830:Xe 828:, 826:Kr 814:Pm 812:, 810:Nd 808:, 806:Pr 804:, 802:Ce 800:, 798:La 796:, 794:Ba 792:, 790:Nb 788:, 786:Zr 784:, 780:, 778:Sr 772:. 734:μm 730:nm 594:55 509:, 305:. 219:, 172:. 144:c. 51:A 1932:. 1920:: 1912:: 1906:9 1883:. 1852:. 1815:. 1762:. 1735:. 1703:. 1676:. 1646:. 1541:. 1500:. 1366:. 1291:. 834:I 782:Y 541:.

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