531:, were already studying the leaked MAI draft and corresponding with the Canadian email discussion group MAI-NOT while deciding how to organise a national campaign to link with those of other countries. In January 1998 a national "STOP MAI" coalition was formed to research issues, lobby parliamentarians and conduct public meetings. In November 1998, prior to the opening of OECD negotiations in Paris, the coalition delivered to the meeting's chairman and to the Australian prime minister a protest letter endorsed by over 500 organisations and individuals. The letter was reinforced by a prominent advertisement in
375:, a graduate of Harvard Law School, became one of the strongest leading organizers of the international campaign against the MAI. Building on the credibility of her status as a lawyer, she transformed the legal OECD documents into accessible wording, often "ready for use" in the subsequent NGO campaigns. Her role as provider of information combined with her role as provider of explanation gave her a power-position in the campaign. She would launch the campaign under the name of the "Dracula Strategy" implying that simply exposing the MAI project to the light would be sufficient to kill it
350:, Director of the Third World Network based in Malaysia, obtained a document prepared for the OECD Ministerial meeting of May 1995 as well as for future WTO negotiations by the European Commission (Commission of the European Communities 1995: A Level Playing Field for Direct Investment World Wide, March 1, Brussels). From the document, Mr. Khor understood that multilateral investment negotiations, which his organisation as part of a large coalition opposed at the WTO, might be ongoing at the OECD. He informed some NGO colleagues, among whom was
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92:(OECD) between 1995 and 1998. It sought to establish a new body of universal investment laws that would grant corporations unconditional rights to engage in financial operations around the world, without any regard to national laws and citizens' rights. The draft gave corporations a right to sue governments if national health, labor or environment legislation threatened their interests. When its draft became public in 1997, it drew widespread criticism from
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405:" in environmental and labor standards. The MAI prompted criticism that it appeared to establish a new body of universal investment laws to guarantee corporations excessive powers to buy, sell and undertake financial operations all over the world, severely diluting national laws, e.g., on environmental protection, regulation of labour standards and human rights established in developed countries. By their arguments, the draft proposed a
567:. Madame Lalumière had also concluded that so many reservations were being incorporated into the agreement that any value for French investors would be limited. M. Jospin noted that, in February 1998, the French government had identified respect for cultural differences as a requirement for French support for the agreement. In particular, he was concerned that the French film industry needed protection against US imports.
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friend". Operation SalAMI demanded that Canada withdraw from the negotiations on the MAI. The presence of one key MAI player, Donald
Johnston (General Secretary of the OECD) at the conference helped to focus the action, one of the three most important anti-MAI events in the world. These mobilizations on an international scale actually led to the shelving of the agreement. The award-winning documentary
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MAI bars many types of performance requirements, or conditions, even if those conditions are imposed on local companies. Examples of forbidden conditions include requiring investors to form a partnership with a local company and requiring a minimum number of local employees—the types of policies governments use to help ensure that local people benefit from foreign investment."
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which should 'take full account of social and environmental concerns'. Yet despite these undertakings, the
Government is pushing for the WTO to cover foreign investment according to the same principles. It is a driving force behind the EU proposal on investment. In doing so it is ignoring the widespread opposition to the MAI and the mounting evidence of the WTO's abject failings.
437:"The MAI matters because its rules can be enforced. If a foreign investor thinks a country where it has invested is violating the MAI, the investor has a choice: to complain to its own government, which can take the host country to binding international arbitration, or to directly challenge the host country. In either case, the arbitration process is closed.
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outside the OECD committee structure consulting with the non-member countries. The chairperson of the negotiating group was Frans
Engering (Netherlands) and vice-chairpersons were Al Larson (United States) and A. Saiki (Japan). The target deadline to finish the negotiations, set by the OECD Ministerial Council, was mid-1997.
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create more consistent, secure and stable investment conditions and to regulate investment in a more uniform, transparent and enforceable manner. Although the agreement was to be negotiated between the member states, the intention was to have an open agreement to which non-OECD members could accede on a negotiated basis.
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opponents made heavy use of electronic mail and the World Wide Web in raising the alert, sharing information and coordinating actions. They worked collaboratively, flexibly and imaginatively towards their goals while MNCs and governments were working secretively and within more traditional hierarchical models.
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The agreement would establish the principle of "national treatment" (in which government must treat foreign companies as favorably as domestic companies) as the norm for international investment. Indeed, in some cases, foreign corporations might have stronger protections than domestic investors. "The
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had vested interests in the MAI. Even their opponents ruefully acknowledged that the activists possessed highly qualified, eloquent analysts and leaders—and were able to use the new internet technology to devastating effect. French MEP Catherine Lalumière stated: "These organisations have refined and
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The negotiations on the
Multilateral Agreement on Investment were formally launched by the OECD's Ministerial Council in May 1995 and they commenced in September 1995. The negotiations were carried out by a high-level negotiating group consisting of officials from the OECD member states, but working
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A senior treasury officer, cited in a 1999 Australian parliamentary report, stated that "any future work on the matter known as the MAI needed to address the OECD Ministers' requirement to protect the sovereign right to regulate and to ensure citizens were not harmed by efforts to liberalise foreign
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Furthermore, the development of the internet has shaken up the environment of the negotiations. It allows the instant diffusion of the texts under discussion, whose confidentiality becomes more and more theoretical. It permits, beyond national boundaries, the sharing of knowledge and expertise. On a
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Minimise the diverse state regulations in governing the conditions under which investments by foreign corporations could take place. (In this connection, the agreement embodied acceptance of a compliance regime under which liberalization must proceed forward with no ability to be wound back —
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The UK Government appears to be taking a surprisingly complacent approach towards the WTO. When the MAI collapsed, then Trade
Minister Brian Wilson appeared to have understood some of the concerns raised. He called for any new negotiations to start with a 'blank sheet of paper' based on objectives
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Proponents of MAI (such as the United States, Canada, and several EU members) continue to promote investment provisions similar to MAI through regional trade agreements, bilateral investment treaties, bilateral free-trade agreements and discussion at the World Trade
Organization to be incorporated
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Multinational corporations (MNCs) enjoy enormous structural and resource advantages over employees and citizens. Yet when the MNCs and major governments tried to expand those advantages through the
Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), they were stymied by a global alliance of activists. MAI
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While authorizing the negotiations, the OECD Ministerial
Council aimed to reach a "broad multilateral framework for international investment with high standards for the liberalization of investment regimes and investment protection and with effective dispute-settlement procedures". The aim was to
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withdrew after pressure from a global movement of NGOs, citizens' groups and a number of governments of developing countries. In April 1998, the negotiations were formally suspended for six months. On 3 December 1998, the OECD announced that "negotiations on the MAI are no longer taking place".
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There was little public awareness of the details of MAI negotiations until a draft of the agreement was leaked in March 1997. The leaked material prompted criticism from different NGOs globally. As a result, the negotiations failed in 1998 when first France and then other countries successively
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For the first time, one is seeing the emergence of a global civil society represented by NGOs which are often based in several states and communicate beyond their frontiers. This evolution is doubtless irreversible. On one hand, organisations representing civil society have become aware of the
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In
Montreal, on May 25, 1998, the Montreal Conference on Globalized Economies was nonviolently blockaded for five hours by hundreds of activists in what was called Operation SalAMI, based on the French acronym of the proposed agreement, AMI, referring not only the sausage, but also to a "dirty
364:
Tony Clarke managed to get a copy of the MAI draft. After turning "the text into a readable document and adding an analysis and interpretation" , he posted it to an international email distribution list about globalization called le Forum international sur la globalization in
February
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and, on the other, the objections of the opponents would be just as fierce." France was followed by a succession of other nations including Canada and Australia whose governments had been under relentless pressure from civil society to abandon or radically revamp the MAI.
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provisions, to ensure that investors would have access to markets. These provisions required nations to eliminate regulations that violated MAI provisions — either immediately or over a set period of time — and to refrain from passing any such laws in the
527:(transcript) —a report about the silence of the Australian government and media on an issue which was arousing fierce controversy in the United States, Britain, Canada and New Zealand. However, Australian activists, including supporters of
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groups and developing countries, particularly over the possibility that the agreement would make it difficult to regulate foreign investors. After an intense global campaign was waged against the MAI by the treaty's critics, the host nation
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at the time, one of the main purposes of the agreement was to eliminate the "patchwork" of investment rules enshrined in the then-1300+ bilateral investment treaties. Contrary to many critics, he argued that the MAI would help prevent a
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in industries. "For example," he wrote, "the Philippines currently bans foreign investment in rural banking, and Honduras limits foreign investors in forestry to a minority stake". These restrictions would not be acceptable within the
337:. A particular concern was that the MAI would result in a "race to the bottom" among countries willing to lower their labor and environmental standards to attract foreign investment. The origin of organised opposition was traced by
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tribunal in which corporations could sue governments if legislation (e.g., for national health, labor or environment), threatened their interests or were considered to expropriate actual or potential assets and/or profits.
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has been taking place in various forms and to different degrees for over a century. Attempts to establish a framework for the protection of foreign investments dates back to the 1920s, most notably negotiating a
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argued that the OECD, as an organization made up solely of rich countries, was more susceptible to direct influence by transnational corporate forces than alternative fora with more universal membership such as
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300:. The internet was central both in gathering information and in promulgating critical materials among members of a vast worldwide network. The movement's main argument was that the most influential
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on 10 October 1998 and announced his decision to withdraw. He said the Lalumière Report had identified a number of fundamental problems with the agreement, particularly relating to matters of
655:, last revised in 2011. In addition, from May 2006, the OECD has promoted a non-binding set of "good practices" for attracting investment, known as The Policy Framework for Investment (PFI).
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383:. NGOs showed that they were well interconnected. In no time, the document was distributed and action was taken in different parts of the world. The campaign against the MAI was born
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Of equal or greater significance was the importance accorded by Mme. Lalumière to the global protest movement which at that time she attributed to the work and influence of
321:(2005), "he most effective opposition to the MAI was launched by a wide-ranging coalition of civil society NGOs. These NGOs argued that the MAI would threaten protection of
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he start of the opposition against the MAI can be traced back to a couple of individuals, remained the leading figures in its further development. By the end of 1996,
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Using a variety of websites, NGOs mobilized a strong and diverse opposition composed of human rights groups, labor and environmental groups, and consumer advocates.
1294:"Making profit the world's highest law; the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's 1998 draft of the Multilateral Agreement on Investment National"
130:, was signed in 1959 and their numbers have grown steadily since then, although research suggests that BITs do little to increase foreign investment. In 1965, the
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investment. There was also a need to continue to engage "civil society", and to expand participation in the process by countries that were not members of the OECD"
122:(BIT), which are signed between two countries and which state the desired conditions under which investment can take place between them. The first BIT, between
165:(GATS) addressed only part of investment-related concerns and did not provide enough security for investors nor strong controls on host governments to regulate
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subject which is highly technical, the representatives of civil society seemed to us perfectly well informed, and their criticisms well argued on a legal level
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OECD, Negotiating Group on the Multilateral Agreement on Investment, Draft Consolidated Text of 11 February 1998, document DAFFE/MAI (98)7, pp. 58-64.
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265:(TUAC). While BIAC was interested in stable and consistent treatment of investment, TUAC was interested on setting standards on employment and
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announced in October 1998 that it would not support the agreement, effectively preventing its adoption due to the OECD's consensus procedures.
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Wood, David, "The international campaign against the Multilateral Agreement on Investment: a test case for the future of globalization?,"
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1918:- Non-official online translation of the report which advised the withdrawal of France from the OECD negotiations it was hosting in Paris
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in the OECD. "On the one hand, under these conditions it would be impossible to achieve the balancing of the concessions demanded by the
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diffused to all countries an anti-MAI position which is now expressed in similar terms throughout the diverse countries of the OECD."
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An attempt was made to insert the investment agenda into a new "Millennium Round" of trade liberalisation talks to be hosted by the
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draft convention. Starting from the second half of the twentieth century, the investment protection was developed through the
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Mme. Lalumière argued, however, that France should continue to pursue further liberalisation of investment régimes though
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Drohan, Madelaine. 1998. "How the net killed the MAI: grassroots groups used their own globalization to derail deal,"
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Enable compensation to corporations for proven unfair or discriminatory investment conditions causing loss of profit.
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of trade talks. One basis of such opposition is outlined in a critical analysis prepared for Canadian universities.
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796:"Linkages in International Investment Regulations: the Anatomies of the Draft Multilateral Agreement on Investment"
640:, Mexico, in September 2003, a group of more than twenty developing countries united to block the inclusion of the
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1751:"Background Paper on the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and Post-Secondary Education in Canada"
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Dolzer, Rudolf; Stevens, Margrete; Disputes, International Centre for Settlement of Investment (1995).
217:" that would undermine high standards of Canadian regulation. More specifically, the agreement would:
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The international protests against the MAI were the first example of such mass-activism to deploy the
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consequences of international economic negotiations. They are determined to leave their mark on them.
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France's withdrawal followed consideration of a report on the negotiations drawn up by a French MEP,
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The OECD promotes the Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises and the
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Mark Vallianatos (Friends of the Earth), July, 1997. From the IRC (International Relations Center)
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253:) to settle any disputes arising under the agreement, instead of national courts in the host state.
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1226:"The Failure of the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) and the Absence of a Global Public"
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The number of bilateral investment agreements increased rapidly during the 1990s as countries and
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1116:"Your Place or Mine? States, International Organizations and the Negotiation of Investment Rules"
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provided an example of a multilateral investment agreement, though limited to the energy sector.
1905:- In February 2002, the OECD released a large quantity of documents relating to the negotiations
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into the General Agreement on Trade in Services. Before the end of 1998, the UK trade minister
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1160:"Multilateral Agreement on Investment: Lessons for the WTO from the failed OECD-negotiations"
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for security, certainty and mobility for their investments after it became clear that the
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Marchi, Sergio (1997-11-10). "The MAI Debate: YES: Canada Needs Clear Investment Rules".
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In the United States, the NGO Public Citizen Global Watch put the draft on its web page.
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Shrybman, Steven, "The World Trade Organisation: the new world constitution laid bare,"
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Gatdula J. "Poor countries still don't have better market access (Cancun aftermath),"
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1412:. Queen's Printer, Parliament of British Columbia. December 29, 1998. Archived from
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MAI: The Multilateral Agreement on Investment and the Threat to Canadian Sovereignty
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Standing Guard: Protecting Foreign Capital in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
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Tartaglione, Nancy, "France’s left and right join to blast international treaty,"
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at OECD Directorate for Financial and Enterprise Affairs (Accessed 8 June 2008.)
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1349:. Queen's Printer, Parliament of British Columbia. June 29, 1999. Archived from
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Mechanisms for standstill, rollback and listing of country specific reservations
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862:"Do Bilateral Investment Treaties Attract FDI? Only a bit...and they could bite"
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Parliament of Australia, Joint Standing Committee on Treaties, Report 18 (MAI)
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Leslie Sklair, "The Transnational Capitalist Class" (Blackwell, 2001), p. 90.
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adopted Guidelines on the Treatment of Foreign Direct Investment. In 1994 the
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1347:"SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON THE MULTILATERAL AGREEMENT ON INVESTMENT SECOND REPORT"
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Taglieri, Joe, "Pressure from citizens’ groups kills trade treaty for now,"
1410:"SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON THE MULTILATERAL AGREEMENT ON INVESTMENT FIRST REPORT"
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began to announce that investment negotiations could be shifted to the WTO.
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1718:. Institute for International Economics. January 2010. p. 2 (folio 16)
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and democracy and argued that it would involve participating nations in a "
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1231:. By K. Tieleman (2000). Archived from the original on February 14, 2012
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Martin, Brian. 1996. "Communication technology and nonviolent action,"
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See link in External Links section to access archived 1997-99 postings
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1894:- Official drafts at various stages of the final year's negotiations
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88:) was a draft agreement negotiated in secret between members of the
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States, Nonstate Actors, and Global Governance: Projecting Polities
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1890:"Multilateral Agreement on Investment: Draft Texts and Commentary"
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recorded the drama of this action where 100 people were arrested.
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Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
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1981:
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An Introduction to Australian Public Policy: Theory and Practice
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University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law
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1931:- a summary and update, with collection of links and resources
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Note by MAI Negotiating Group chairman, OECD, 15 February 1996
636:" protest actions in November 1999. At the WTO Ministerial in
491:, and a coordinated network ("50 Years is Enough') including
760:. Studies in international political economy. Vol. 11.
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Wheelwright, Ted, "Carte blanche for global corporations,"
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Geddes, John (1995-05-19). "Opening the Gates to Capital".
1713:"The MAI and the Politics of Failure: Who Killed the Dog?"
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International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
251:
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
132:
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
1616:
Volume 1: Making the Rules (2006), p.173, at Google Books
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The Economist, vol. 346, no. 8059, 14 March 1998, p. 81.
1628:"WORLD: Multinationals and the World Trade Organisation"
245:
Allow states and corporations recourse to international
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867:. World Bank Policy Research Paper № 3121, June 2003.
90:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
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The author notes that Brazil has never signed a BIT.
259:
Business and Industry Advisory Committee to the OECD
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Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf
1823:, vol. 83, no. 4, July–August 1998, pp. 16–17.
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UK Parliament Select Committee on European Scrutiny
523:'s radio programme "Background Briefing" presented
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1131:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
944:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
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753:
680:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
186:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
3254:Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa
1837:, vol. 14, no. 1, winter-spring 1999, p. 36.
1812:Pilger, John, "The rise of the ‘new democracy’,"
451:Contributors to the MAI-NOT newsgroup, including
427:limit the participation of foreign multinationals
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3202:Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia
3186:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
1972:MAI: Citizen groups say 'no' to its shift to WTO
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1339:
1249:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
1077:"Towards a Multilateral Agreement on Investment"
455:, mounted a campaign with the active backing of
169:. In addition to these instruments, in 1992 the
134:(ICSID) was established in the framework of the
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1500:"Pressure Point - Inside the Montreal Blockade"
929:"The OECD Multilateral Agreement on Investment"
425:The MAI would restrict governments' ability to
397:MAI opponents pointed to a perceived threat to
1830:, vol. 29, no. 4, July 1999, pp. 270–275.
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555:. After receiving this report, prime minister
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1997:
1819:Rauber, Paul, "All hail the multinationals!"
1626:World Development Movement (September 1999).
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685:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
653:OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises
1878:, vol. 111, no. 19, 11 May 1998, p. 42.
1851:, vol. 370, no. 8, 6 April 1998, p. 13.
1267:Global Political Economy Theory and Practice
469:Pressure Point: Inside the Montreal Blockade
463:(NAFTA) between the USA, Canada and Mexico.
319:Global Political Economy Theory and Practice
3181:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
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977:The international law on foreign investment
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1574:Maddison, Sarah; Denniss, Richard (2009).
1198:, Vol. 19, No. 1, January 2000, pp. 47-51.
1192:Net Resistance, Net Benefits: Opposing MAI
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733:. Global Policy Forum, New York, USA. 2021
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263:Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD
195:
45:. Please do not remove this message until
1964:"The 1997-98 MAI-NOT Newsgroup (archive)"
1858:, no. 34, April–May 1998, pp. 38–40.
1844:, vol. 35, no. 13, 29 January 1999, p. 4.
1816:, vol. 24, no. 4, July 1999, pp. 242-243.
1770:The Policy Framework for Investment (PFI)
1580:. Cambridge University Press. p. 15.
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793:
65:Learn how and when to remove this message
3264:West African Economic and Monetary Union
1959:- from UK independent journal Red Pepper
1612:Devereaux C, Lawrence R. Z., Watkins M.
1291:
1157:
1151:
911:
778:
709:""Multilateral Agreement on Investment""
542:
41:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2875:
1833:Staples, Steven, "Militarism and MAI,"
3487:
3176:Association of Southeast Asian Nations
2996:UN Conference on Trade and Development
1923:"Multilateral Agreement on Investment"
1683:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1437:"Multilateral Agreement on Investment"
1285:
1201:
1113:
1107:
1074:
1068:
1059:
1021:
1015:
751:
731:"Multilateral Agreement on Investment"
228:. This would be enforced by so-called
163:General Agreement on Trade in Services
2941:Import substitution industrialization
2849:
1985:
1901:"Official OECD MAI document database"
853:
745:
3469:
3195:Europe, Central Asia, and North Asia
2367:New international division of labour
1614:Case Studies in US Trade Negotiation
1263:
312:
82:Multilateral Agreement on Investment
15:
3155:Central American Integration System
1941:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1795:Routledge UK, USA and Canada 2013.
1257:
521:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
461:North American Free Trade Agreement
459:which had earlier opposed the 1994
407:North American Free Trade Agreement
285:
13:
1778:
1760:(29 November 1999). Online version
1549:Global Web Builders (July 1999). "
822:
632:(WTO). This led to the historic "
257:The MAI was supported by both the
14:
3541:
3018:International Chamber of Commerce
2921:Export-oriented industrialization
2011:
1910:"The Lalumière Report in English"
1882:
1702:Le Monde diplomatique (May 1999).
1591:Copy for Stop MAI's advertisement
1082:Cornell International Law Journal
860:Hallward-Driemeier, Mary (1995).
411:investor-state dispute settlement
317:According to Theodore H. Cohn in
155:Trade Related Investment Measures
3468:
3459:
3458:
2828:
2818:
2817:
2028:
1292:Taglieri, Joe (9 October 1998).
644:, including investments, in the
509:Democratic Socialists of America
474:
442:Some component country campaigns
20:
2029:
1809:, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 3–9.
1763:
1743:
1730:
1705:
1692:
1645:
1619:
1606:
1595:
1584:
1567:
1556:
1543:
1511:
1493:
1475:
1466:
1454:
1428:
1320:
1218:
1184:
1053:
1044:
535:newspaper on 11 November 1998.
272:
210:Minister of International Trade
3510:History of international trade
3505:International factor movements
3259:Southern African Customs Union
998:
927:Witherell, William H. (1995).
762:University of California Press
723:
701:
377:(sourced to an interview with
1:
1951:"A civil-society perspective"
1863:Ethics, Place and Environment
1700:"Watch Out for MAI Mark Two,"
1167:Wirtschaftspolitische Blätter
832:Bilateral investment treaties
695:
479:A strong campaign was led by
120:bilateral investment treaties
104:
3416:Telecommunications equipment
3221:Middle East and North Africa
3212:European Union Customs Union
1936:"MAI–The Quiet Debate"
1874:"Alive - and kicking back,"
514:
392:
7:
3530:Anti-globalization movement
3145:Andean Community of Nations
3023:Bilateral investment treaty
2991:International Monetary Fund
2085:Environmental globalization
2060:Anti-globalization movement
1213:Lalumiere Report in English
837:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
665:Bilateral investment treaty
658:
507:, the Preamble Center, the
341:in her 2000 UN case study:
249:(for instance, through the
204:According to MAI supporter
47:conditions to do so are met
10:
3546:
3011:International Trade Centre
2233:Offshore financial centres
1868:"The Sinking of the MAI,"
1865:, Volume 3, Issue 1, 2000.
1842:National Catholic Reporter
1740:, December 1, 2003, p. 22.
1264:Cohn, Theodore H. (2005).
1123:Transnational Corporations
1114:Smythe, Elizabeth (1998).
982:Cambridge University Press
936:Transnational Corporations
167:multinational corporations
3525:1990s in economic history
3500:Foreign direct investment
3454:
3286:Aircraft & Spacecraft
3276:
3241:
3220:
3194:
3168:
3137:
3128:
3071:
2979:
2931:Foreign exchange reserves
2883:
2813:
2771:
2646:
2581:
2498:
2489:
2416:
2253:
2174:
2167:
2047:
2019:
1012:May 1998, at chomsky.info
670:Foreign direct investment
538:
446:
335:least developed countries
3006:World Trade Organization
2075:Democratic globalization
1788:(Toronto), 29 April 1998
1553:". Retrieved 8 June 2010
752:Lipson, Charles (1995).
690:World Trade Organization
630:World Trade Organization
457:the Council of Canadians
190:World Trade Organization
3207:Eurasian Economic Union
3095:Repeal of the Corn Laws
2357:Investor-state disputes
2310:Illicit financial flows
2154:Political globalization
2102:Global financial system
1946:- (Click on Transcript)
1158:Neumayer, Eric (1999).
1075:Geiger, Rainer (1998).
1005:Domestic Constituencies
903:CS1 maint: postscript (
794:Picciotto, Sol (1998).
603:Subsequent developments
331:environmental standards
196:Purposes and provisions
77:Proposed OECD agreement
3249:East African Community
3130:Regional organizations
2698:Christopher Chase-Dunn
2466:Primitive accumulation
2149:Military globalization
2080:Economic globalization
2065:Cultural globalization
1540:v.1 No.1, January 1998
1520:MAI: NAFTA on Steroids
892:Cite journal requires
619:
588:
548:
519:In November 1997, the
497:Alliance for Democracy
387:
294:
3090:The Wealth of Nations
3048:Special economic zone
2911:Comparative advantage
1978:No. 99, November 1998
1531:Economic Justice News
1463:Archived 1999 website
1316:on 27 September 2007.
614:
576:
546:
417:Mark Vallianatos, of
343:
289:
175:Energy Charter Treaty
109:International direct
3110:Economic nationalism
3028:Economic integration
2763:Immanuel Wallerstein
2424:Capital accumulation
2290:Endangered languages
1974:Third World Network
1916:on October 27, 2009.
1835:Earth Island Journal
1791:Fogarty E. A. 2013.
1190:Varney W; Martin B.
565:national sovereignty
493:Friends of the Earth
419:Friends of the Earth
399:national sovereignty
267:industrial relations
208:, who was Canada's
3520:Commercial treaties
3366:Integrated circuits
3150:Caribbean Community
2946:Net capital outflow
2896:Balance of payments
2877:International trade
2835:Business portal
2394:Transnational crime
2300:Forced displacement
2285:Economic inequality
2159:Trade globalization
2055:Alter-globalization
1944:. 29 November 1997.
1929:Global Policy Forum
1698:Christian de Brie,
1563:1999 campaign brief
1353:on 15 November 2004
1196:Social Alternatives
561:Assemblée Nationale
553:Catherine Lalumière
547:Catherine Lalumière
34:of this article is
3278:Exports by product
3228:Arab Customs Union
2891:Absolute advantage
2608:Andre Gunder Frank
2382:Race to the bottom
2372:North–South divide
2090:Global citizenship
1756:2007-09-28 at the
1536:2009-10-28 at the
1525:2008-08-29 at the
1505:2008-11-21 at the
1487:2011-07-16 at the
1215:at webcitation.org
549:
511:and other groups.
489:Global Trade Watch
403:race to the bottom
354:, Director of the
215:race to the bottom
3515:Proposed treaties
3482:
3481:
3272:
3271:
3242:Subsaharan Africa
3073:Political economy
2843:
2842:
2809:
2808:
2668:K. Anthony Appiah
2663:Daniele Archibugi
2412:
2411:
2201:COVID-19 pandemic
2107:Global governance
1807:Media Development
1689:page 3, para 1.12
1461:MAI NOT newsgroup
1298:Catholic Reporter
991:978-0-521-54556-3
846:978-90-411-0065-8
771:978-0-520-03468-6
634:Battle of Seattle
501:Witness for Peace
356:Polaris Institute
313:Active opposition
188:(UNCTAD) and the
116:League of Nations
75:
74:
67:
3537:
3472:
3471:
3462:
3461:
3135:
3134:
3001:World Bank Group
2901:Balance of trade
2870:
2863:
2856:
2847:
2846:
2833:
2832:
2821:
2820:
2774:
2683:Jean Baudrillard
2651:
2598:Giovanni Arrighi
2586:
2543:Branko Milanović
2523:Jagdish Bhagwati
2501:
2496:
2495:
2387:pollution havens
2352:Invasive species
2256:
2177:
2172:
2171:
2122:Global workforce
2032:
2031:
2006:
1999:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1967:
1958:
1953:. Archived from
1945:
1926:
1917:
1912:. Archived from
1904:
1893:
1786:Globe & Mail
1773:
1767:
1761:
1747:
1741:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
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1717:
1709:
1703:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1682:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1665:
1659:. Archived from
1658:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1623:
1617:
1610:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1588:
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1571:
1565:
1560:
1554:
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1541:
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1509:
1497:
1491:
1482:Operation SalAMI
1479:
1473:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1439:. Archived from
1432:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1416:on 30 March 2005
1406:
1400:
1399:
1372:
1363:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1343:
1334:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1312:. Archived from
1289:
1283:
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1261:
1255:
1254:
1248:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1230:
1222:
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1101:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1025:Montreal Gazette
1019:
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996:
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968:
962:
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759:
749:
743:
742:
740:
738:
727:
721:
720:
718:
716:
705:
642:Singapore issues
525:the Quiet Debate
286:Protest movement
153:'s Agreement on
70:
63:
59:
56:
50:
24:
23:
16:
3545:
3544:
3540:
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3536:
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3485:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3450:
3396:Pharmaceuticals
3268:
3237:
3216:
3190:
3164:
3124:
3120:Dedollarisation
3067:
3053:Trade agreement
3043:Free-trade zone
2984:
2982:
2975:
2916:Current account
2906:Capital account
2879:
2874:
2844:
2839:
2827:
2805:
2786:Thomas Friedman
2772:
2767:
2718:Anthony Giddens
2693:Manuel Castells
2658:Arjun Appadurai
2649:
2647:
2642:
2584:
2582:
2577:
2573:Joseph Stiglitz
2513:Richard Baldwin
2499:
2491:
2485:
2444:Fiscal localism
2408:
2362:McDonaldization
2280:Development aid
2254:
2249:
2218:Multilingualism
2213:Labor arbitrage
2189:Climate justice
2175:
2163:
2117:Global politics
2070:Deglobalization
2043:
2015:
2010:
1962:
1949:
1934:
1921:
1908:
1899:
1888:
1885:
1781:
1779:Further reading
1776:
1768:
1764:
1758:Wayback Machine
1749:Clift, Robert.
1748:
1744:
1735:
1731:
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1715:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1697:
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1676:
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1656:
1654:"Archived copy"
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1600:
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1548:
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1538:Wayback Machine
1527:Wayback Machine
1516:
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1507:Wayback Machine
1498:
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1489:Wayback Machine
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984:. p. 291.
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261:(BIAC) and the
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3291:Aircraft parts
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2971:Trading nation
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2688:Zygmunt Bauman
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2595:
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2565:
2560:
2555:
2553:Thomas Piketty
2550:
2548:Kevin O'Rourke
2545:
2540:
2538:Michael Hudson
2535:
2530:
2528:Robert Brenner
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2504:
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2399:Westernization
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2238:Tax inversions
2235:
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2220:
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2210:
2208:Digital divide
2205:
2204:
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2193:
2192:
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2184:Climate change
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2020:
2017:
2016:
2009:
2008:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1968:
1960:
1957:on 2007-07-01.
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1883:External links
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3106:Protectionism
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2981:Organizations
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2961:Trade justice
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2754:
2753:Saskia Sassen
2751:
2749:
2748:George Ritzer
2746:
2744:
2743:Antonio Negri
2741:
2739:
2738:L. H. M. Ling
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2723:Michael Hardt
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2633:Susan Strange
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2603:Robert W. Cox
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2563:Jeffrey Sachs
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2112:Global health
2110:
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2100:
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2027:
2025:
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2018:
2014:
2013:Globalization
2007:
2002:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1956:
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1924:
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1828:The Ecologist
1825:
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1814:The Ecologist
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1801:9780415655941
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1666:on 2007-06-10
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1517:Lisa McGowan
1514:
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1443:on 2007-04-11
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839:. p. 1.
838:
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790:
788:
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773:
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764:. p. ?.
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557:Lionel Jospin
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206:Sergio Marchi
202:
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27:
18:
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3376:Live animals
3356:Gas turbines
3169:Asia-Pacific
3101:Mercantilism
3088:
2983:and policies
2796:John R. Saul
2781:Noam Chomsky
2773:Non–academic
2713:Susan George
2708:Nancy Fraser
2678:Walden Bello
2623:David Harvey
2613:Stephen Gill
2533:Jayati Ghosh
2439:Earth system
2305:Human rights
2245:Water crisis
2142:early modern
1975:
1970:Oh, Cecilia
1955:the original
1939:
1914:the original
1875:
1869:
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1827:
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1813:
1806:
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1765:
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1737:
1732:
1720:. Retrieved
1707:
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1661:the original
1647:
1635:. Retrieved
1631:
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1586:
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1569:
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1545:
1518:
1513:
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1456:
1445:. Retrieved
1441:the original
1430:
1418:. Retrieved
1414:the original
1404:
1388:. Stoddart.
1384:
1376:Maude Barlow
1355:. Retrieved
1351:the original
1322:
1314:the original
1301:
1297:
1287:
1266:
1259:
1233:. Retrieved
1220:
1195:
1186:
1175:. Retrieved
1173:(6): 618–628
1170:
1166:
1153:
1142:. Retrieved
1126:
1122:
1109:
1098:. Retrieved
1086:
1080:
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1034:
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1017:
1007:
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976:
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955:. Retrieved
939:
935:
885:cite journal
873:. Retrieved
855:
831:
824:
813:. Retrieved
811:(3): 731–768
808:
802:
755:
747:
735:. Retrieved
725:
713:. Retrieved
703:
650:
627:
623:
620:
615:
610:Brian Wilson
606:
591:
589:
582:
578:
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569:
550:
532:
518:
481:Lori Wallach
478:
468:
465:
453:Maude Barlow
450:
416:
396:
388:
382:
379:Susan George
373:Lori Wallach
370:
369:
363:
362:
345:
344:
323:human rights
318:
316:
295:
290:
280:
276:
273:Negotiations
256:
235:
229:
223:
203:
199:
181:Noam Chomsky
179:
161:(TRIPS) and
145:sought more
140:
124:West Germany
108:
85:
81:
79:
61:
52:
30:
3381:Natural gas
3346:Electronics
3341:Electricity
2951:Outsourcing
2884:Terminology
2791:Naomi Klein
2673:Ulrich Beck
2648:Politics /
2638:Robert Wade
2628:Ronen Palan
2618:Peter Gowan
2568:Amartya Sen
2558:Dani Rodrik
2508:David Autor
2434:Development
2315:Imperialism
2263:Brain drain
1637:6 September
1380:Tony Clarke
505:Sierra Club
352:Tony Clarke
348:Martin Khor
306:politicians
247:arbitration
3489:Categories
3421:Telephones
3085:Adam Smith
3081:Free trade
3063:Trade bloc
3038:ATA Carnet
2926:Fair trade
2733:Paul Hirst
2728:David Held
2593:Samir Amin
2583:Political
2518:Ravi Batra
2459:history of
2454:ecological
2429:Dependency
2377:Offshoring
2340:scientific
2330:linguistic
2295:Fair trade
2275:Care drain
2228:Tax havens
2223:Population
2132:History of
1976:Resurgence
1670:2007-04-22
1447:2007-04-03
1332:0631224629
1177:2010-01-16
1144:2010-01-16
1100:2010-01-16
1009:Z Magazine
957:2010-01-16
875:16 January
869:World Bank
815:2010-01-16
696:References
646:Doha Round
302:mass media
236:standstill
171:World Bank
147:regulation
111:investment
105:Background
32:neutrality
3316:Computers
3301:Car parts
3296:Aluminium
3033:Incoterms
2966:Trade war
2758:John Urry
2650:sociology
2500:Economics
2404:World war
2127:Globality
2095:education
1876:Maclean's
1310:0027-8939
1304:(43): 3.
1235:March 24,
1139:1014-9562
1095:0010-8812
952:1014-9562
515:Australia
393:Arguments
358:in Canada
157:(TRIMS),
143:investors
55:June 2024
43:talk page
3464:Category
3436:Vehicles
3426:Textiles
3371:Iron ore
3336:Diamonds
3160:Mercosur
3138:Americas
2823:Category
2492:scholars
2417:Theories
2325:cultural
2320:academic
2024:Journals
1754:Archived
1679:cite web
1534:Archived
1523:Archived
1503:Archived
1485:Archived
1382:(1997).
1245:cite web
974:(2004).
946:: 1–14.
659:See also
298:Internet
239:future.)
231:rollback
128:Pakistan
36:disputed
3474:Commons
3351:Engines
3114:Autarky
2585:economy
2490:Notable
2268:reverse
2196:Disease
2137:archaic
2048:Aspects
2039:Studies
2034:Outline
1849:Variety
1722:13 June
1551:The MAI
1420:30 July
1357:30 July
1133:: 112.
1089:(467).
737:13 June
715:13 June
409:-style
192:(WTO).
3431:Trucks
3391:Petrol
3331:Cotton
3321:Copper
3311:Coffee
2956:Tariff
2345:social
2176:Global
2168:Issues
1821:Sierra
1799:
1392:
1330:
1308:
1282:p. 350
1274:
1137:
1093:
988:
950:
843:
768:
711:. OECD
638:Cancún
539:France
503:, the
495:, the
447:Canada
333:, and
99:France
3441:Wheat
3411:Steel
3406:Ships
2335:media
2255:Other
1927:- at
1856:Arena
1716:(PDF)
1664:(PDF)
1657:(PDF)
1229:(PDF)
1163:(PDF)
1129:(3).
1119:(PDF)
1064:: 14.
1028:: B3.
942:(2).
932:(PDF)
865:(PDF)
799:(PDF)
596:firms
327:labor
3446:Wine
3361:Gold
3326:Corn
3306:Coal
1797:ISBN
1724:2024
1685:link
1639:2019
1422:2015
1390:ISBN
1359:2015
1328:ISBN
1306:ISSN
1272:ISBN
1251:link
1237:2014
1135:ISSN
1091:ISSN
986:ISBN
948:ISSN
905:link
898:help
877:2010
841:ISBN
766:ISBN
739:2024
717:2024
572:NGOs
430:MAI.
365:1997
329:and
304:and
234:and
126:and
80:The
29:The
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1194:in
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