Multi-junction solar cell

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shaded area under the red line represents the maximum work done by ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells. Hence, the limiting efficiency of ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells is evaluated to be 68.8% by comparing the shaded area defined by the red line with the total photon-flux area determined by the black line. (This is why this method is called "graphical" QE analysis.) Although this limiting efficiency value is consistent with the values published by Parrott and Vos in 1979: 64% and 68.2% respectively, there is a small gap between the estimated value in this report and literature values. This minor difference is most likely due to the different ways how to approximate the photon flux over 0–0.3096

3803: 28: 5687: 415: 3826:

their bandgap energy. This assumption accounts for the first intrinsic loss in the efficiency of solar cells, which is caused by the inability of single-junction solar cells to properly match the broad solar energy spectrum. However, the current graphical QE analysis still cannot reflect the second intrinsic loss in the efficiency of solar cells, radiative recombination. To take the radiative recombination into account, we need to evaluate the radiative current density,

8394: 5799: 1146: 98:(c-Si) solar cells had efficiencies up to 27.1%, while lab examples of multi-junction cells have demonstrated performance over 46% under concentrated sunlight. Commercial examples of tandem cells are widely available at 30% under one-sun illumination, and improve to around 40% under concentrated sunlight. However, this efficiency is gained at the cost of increased complexity and manufacturing price. To date, their higher price and higher 5813: 139: 1303:

tunneling region, the negative differential resistance region and the thermal diffusion region. The region where electrons can tunnel through the barrier is called the tunneling region. There, the voltage must be low enough so that energy of some electrons who are tunneling is equal to energy states available on the other side of the barrier. Consequently, current density through the tunnel junction is high (with maximum value of

519: 8406: 5268:, is increased. Hence, the voltage is lower than that of the InGaP tunnel junction. GaAsSb heterojunction tunnel diodes offer other advantages. The same current can be achieved by using a lower doping. Secondly, because the lattice constant is larger for GaAsSb than Ge, one can use a wider range of materials for the bottom cell because more materials are lattice-matched to GaAsSb than to Ge. 1447: 5371:) and the total photon flux density. It can be shown that a high (low) value for APE means low (high) wavelengths spectral conditions and higher (lower) efficiencies. Thus APE is a good indicator for quantifying the effects of the solar spectrum variations on performances and has the added advantage of being independent of the device structure and the absorption profile of the device. 3253:

number of photons/m·s). To do that, it is necessary to carry out an intermediate unit conversion from the power of electromagnetic radiation incident per unit area per photon energy to the photon flux per photon energy (i.e., from to ). For this intermediate unit conversion, the following points have to be considered: A photon has a distinct energy which is defined as follows.

2072: 5426:

However, the downside of the concentrator approach is that efficiency drops off very quickly under lower lighting conditions. In order to maximize its advantage over traditional cells and thus be cost competitive, the concentrator system has to track the sun as it moves to keep the light focused on the cell and maintain maximum efficiency as long as possible. This requires a

5418:

non-concentrated version of the same design, one might expect a three-layer cell of 30% efficiency. This is not enough of an advantage over traditional silicon designs to make up for their extra production costs. For this reason, almost all multi-junction cell research for terrestrial use is dedicated to concentrator systems, normally using mirrors or Fresnel lenses.

1476:, these cannot jump above the barrier formed by the heterojunction because they don't have enough energy, as illustrated in figure E. Hence, electrons (holes) cannot recombine with holes (electrons) and cannot diffuse through the barrier. By the way, window and BSF layers must be transparent to wavelengths absorbed by the next pn junction; i.e., 2667: 3242: 3791: 1682: 1853: 985:, the trapping of the light in the material (because photons cannot easily get out the MJ structure due to pyramids) and therefore, the path length of photons in the material. On the one hand, the thickness of each AR layer is chosen to get destructive interferences. Therefore, the reflection coefficient 5704:

Measurements on MJ solar cells are usually made in the laboratory, using light concentrators (this is often not the case for the other cells) and under standard test conditions (STCs). STCs prescribe, for terrestrial applications, the AM1.5 spectrum as the reference. This air mass (AM) corresponds to

5417:

m equal 10000 cm), produces the highest efficiencies seen to date. Three-layer cells are fundamentally limited to 63%, but existing commercial prototypes have already demonstrated over 40%. These cells capture about 2/3 of their theoretical maximum performance, so assuming the same is true for a

5066:

The majority of multi-junction cells that have been produced to date use three layers (although many tandem a-Si:H/mc-Si modules have been produced and are widely available). However, the triple junction cells require the use of semiconductors that can be tuned to specific frequencies, which has led

5045:

Now, we can fully use Henry's graphical QE analysis, taking into account the two major intrinsic losses in the efficiency of solar cells. The two main intrinsic losses are radiative recombination, and the inability of single junction solar cells to properly match the broad solar energy spectrum. The

510:

Conveniently, light of a particular wavelength does not interact strongly with materials that are of bigger bandgap. This means that you can make a multi-junction cell by layering the different materials on top of each other, shortest wavelengths (biggest bandgap) on the "top" and increasing through

476:

Combining all of these factors, the maximum efficiency for a single-bandgap material, like conventional silicon cells, is about 34%. That is, 66% of the energy in the sunlight hitting the cell will be lost. Practical concerns further reduce this, notably reflection off the front surface or the metal

3825:

eV are not available. Regardless of this data unavailability, however, the graphical QE analysis can be done using the only available data with a reasonable assumption that semiconductors are opaque for photon energies greater than their bandgap energy, but transparent for photon energies less than

1334:

too. This is why tunnel junctions are ideal for connecting two pn junctions without having a voltage drop. When voltage is higher, electrons cannot cross the barrier because energy states are no longer available for electrons. Therefore, the current density decreases and the differential resistance

472:

spectrum, although that represents almost half of the power coming from the sun. Conversely, photons with more energy than the bandgap, say blue light, initially eject an electron to a state high above the bandgap, but this extra energy is lost through collisions in a process known as "relaxation".

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Hence, electrons can easily tunnel through the depletion region. The J-V characteristic of the tunnel junction is very important because it explains why tunnel junctions can be used to have a low electrical resistance connection between two pn junctions. Figure D shows three different regions: the

1128:

by matching currents of the three subcells. As example, because the current generated by the bottom cell is greater than the currents generated by the other cells, the thickness of AR layers is adjusted so that the infrared (IR) transmission (which corresponds to the bottom cell) is degraded while

3252:

We can estimate the limiting efficiency of ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells using the graphical quantum-efficiency (QE) analysis invented by C. H. Henry. To fully take advantage of Henry's method, the unit of the AM1.5 spectral irradiance should be converted to that of photon flux (i.e.,

550:

The more difficult solution is the "monolithically integrated" cell, where the cell consists of a number of layers that are mechanically and electrically connected. These cells are much more difficult to produce because the electrical characteristics of each layer have to be carefully matched. In

5425:

m would require 625 16 cm cells, but for a concentrator system only a single cell is needed, along with a concentrator. The argument for concentrated Multi-junction cells has been that the high cost of the cells themselves would be more than offset by the reduction in total number of cells.

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is the product of the thermal recombination currents of the two cells. Note that the values inserted for both short circuit currents and thermal recombination currents are those measured or calculated for the cells when they are placed in a multijunction stack (not the values measured for single

5775:

eV. This results in too little current in the GaAs junction, and hampers the overall efficiency since the InGaP junction operates below MPP current and the GaAs junction operates above MPP current. To improve current match, the InGaP layer is intentionally thinned to allow additional photons to

498:

For instance, if one had a cell with two bandgaps in it, one tuned to red light and the other to green, then the extra energy in green, cyan and blue light would be lost only to the bandgap of the green-sensitive material, while the energy of the red, yellow and orange would be lost only to the

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The theoretical efficiency of MJ solar cells is 86.8% for an infinite number of pn junctions, implying that more junctions increase efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency is 37, 50, 56, 72% for 1, 2, 3, 36 additional pn junctions, respectively, with the number of junctions increasing

5228:

semiconductor. Its bandgap can be tuned by varying the amount of indium in the alloy from 0.7 eV to 3.4 eV, thus making it an ideal material for solar cells. However, its conversion efficiencies because of technological factors unrelated to bandgap are still not high enough to be

2359:

For maximum efficiency, each subcell should be operated at its optimal J-V parameters, which are not necessarily equal for each subcell. If they are different, the total current through the solar cell is the lowest of the three. By approximation, it results in the same relationship for the

5682:

is to use thin films instead of thick layers in order to decrease the cost efficiency ratio. As of 2010, MJ solar panels are more expensive than others. These differences imply different applications: MJ solar cells are preferred in space and c-Si solar cells for terrestrial applications.

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and optically low-loss connection between two subcells. Without it, the p-doped region of the top cell would be directly connected with the n-doped region of the middle cell. Hence, a pn junction with opposite direction to the others would appear between the top cell and the middle cell.

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Based on the above result from the intermediate unit conversion, we can derive the photon flux by numerically integrating the photon flux per photon energy with respect to photon energy. The numerically integrated photon flux is calculated using the trapezoidal rule, as follows.

125:, as opposed to conventional crystalline silicon, to produce a cell with about 10% efficiency that is lightweight and flexible. This approach has been used by several commercial vendors, but these products are currently limited to certain niche roles, like roofing materials. 5291:

exponentially to achieve equal efficiency increments. The exponential relationship implies that as the cell approaches the limit of efficiency, the increase cost and complexity grow rapidly. Decreasing the thickness of the top cell increases the transmission coefficient

5737:

As of 2010, the cost of MJ solar cells was too high to allow use outside of specialized applications. The high cost is mainly due to the complex structure and the high price of materials. Nevertheless, with light concentrators under illumination of at least 400 suns,

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Consequently, the performance of MJ solar cells in outdoor environments is inferior to that achieved in the laboratory. Moreover, MJ solar cells are designed such that currents are matched under STC, but not necessarily under field conditions. One can use

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optics. Thanks to these devices, light arriving on a large surface can be concentrated on a smaller cell. The intensity concentration ratio (or "suns") is the average intensity of the focused light divided by 1 kW/m (reasonable value related to

5208:

Indium phosphide-based cells have the potential to work in tandem with gallium arsenide cells. The two cells can be optically connected in series (with the InP cell below the GaAs cell), or in parallel through the use of spectra splitting using a

3488: 5310:) multi-junction technologies including tandems and triple- and quadruple-junction modules that typically use III–V semiconductors, with promising power conversion efficiency that rival and even outperform the benchmark silicon solar cells. 2067:{\displaystyle J={\frac {1}{2}}\left(J_{\text{SC,1}}+J_{\text{SC,2}}\right)+{\frac {1}{2}}T^{-}\Delta J_{\text{SC}}-\left(1-T^{+}\right){\sqrt {{\frac {1}{4}}{\Delta J_{\text{SC}}}^{2}+{\tilde {J}}_{0}^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{\frac {qV}{kT}}}}.} 1534: 4599: 4039: 4158:

The current density delivered to the load is the difference of the current densities due to absorbed solar and thermal radiation and the current density of radiation emitted from the top surface or absorbed in the substrate. Defining

494:

Cells made from multiple materials layers can have multiple bandgaps and will therefore respond to multiple light wavelengths, capturing and converting some of the energy that would otherwise be lost to relaxation as described above.

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in each layer better matches lattice constants of the different layers. Without it, there is about 0.08 percent of mismatching between layers, which inhibits performance. Adding aluminium to the top cell increases its band gap to

962:. This provides an electrical connection to a load or other parts of a solar cell array. They are usually on two sides of the cell. And are important to be on the back face so that shadowing on the lighting surface is reduced. 422:

for the efficiency of a single-junction solar cell. It is essentially impossible for a single-junction solar cell, under unconcentrated sunlight, to have more than ~34% efficiency. A multi-junction cell, however, can exceed that

1121:/4 to have opposite phase for reflected fields. On the other hand, the thickness of each AR layer is also chosen to minimize the reflectance at wavelengths for which the photocurrent is the lowest. Consequently, this maximizes 4328: 3925: 603:) to transmit to the lower sub-cells. Therefore, suitable bandgaps must be chosen such that the design spectrum will balance the current generation in each of the sub-cells, achieving current matching. Figure C(b) plots 5449:

A new technique was announced that year that allowed such cells to use a substrate of glass or steel, lower-cost vapors in reduced quantities that was claimed to offer costs competitive with conventional silicon cells.

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Current efficiencies for commercial InGaP/GaAs/Ge cells approach 40% under concentrated sunlight. Lab cells (partly using additional junctions between the GaAs and Ge junction) have demonstrated efficiencies above 40%.

485:

spectrum, shows the best balance is reached at about 1.1 eV (about 1100 nm, in the near infrared), which happens to be very close to the natural bandgap in silicon and a number of other useful semiconductors.

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An InGaP hetero-layer between the p-Ge layer and the InGaAs layer can be added in order to create automatically the n-Ge layer by scattering during MOCVD growth and increase significantly the quantum efficiency

621:. It is plotted together with the maximum conversion efficiency for every junction as a function of the wavelength, which is directly related to the number of photons available for conversion into photocurrent. 480:

Lower, also called narrower, bandgap materials will convert longer wavelength, lower energy photons. Higher, or wider bandgap materials will convert shorter wavelength, higher energy light. An analysis of the

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Producing a tandem cell is not an easy task, largely due to the thinness of the materials and the difficulties extracting the current between the layers. The easy solution is to use two mechanically separate

2740:, i.e. the number of photons absorbed per unit of length by a material. If it is assumed that each photon absorbed by a subcell creates an electron/hole pair (which is a good approximation), this leads to: 2821: 1840: 3012: 5763:

The environment in space is quite different. Because there is no atmosphere, the solar spectrum is different (AM0). The cells have a poor current match due to a greater photon flux of photons above 1.87

3469: 6033: 465:, and the associated problem that it cannot extract any power at all from certain photons. This is due to the fact that the photons must have enough energy to overcome the bandgap of the material. 5250:-based heterojunction tunnel diodes, instead of conventional InGaP highly doped tunnel diodes described above, have a lower tunneling distance. Indeed, in the heterostructure formed by GaAsSb and 551:

particular, the photocurrent generated in each layer needs to be matched, otherwise electrons will be absorbed between layers. This limits their construction to certain materials, best met by the

499:

bandgap of the red-sensitive material. Following analysis similar to those performed for single-bandgap devices, it can be demonstrated that the perfect bandgaps for a two-gap device are at 0.77

5002: 574:

which contain a small degree of lattice mismatch. However, a greater degree of mismatch or other growth imperfections can lead to crystal defects causing a degradation in electronic properties.

2202: 5359:

are not necessarily matched and the total current becomes lower. These variations can be quantified using the average photon energy (APE) which is the ratio between the spectral irradiance

2662:{\displaystyle QE_{i}(\lambda )={\frac {J_{{\text{SC}}i}(\lambda )}{q\phi _{i}(\lambda )}}\Rightarrow J_{{\text{SC}}i}=\int _{0}^{\lambda 2}q\phi _{i}(\lambda )QE_{i}(\lambda )\,d\lambda } 2881: 3237:{\displaystyle J_{i}=J_{0i}\left(e^{\frac {qV_{i}}{kT}}-1\right)-J_{{\text{SC}}i}\Rightarrow V_{{\text{OC}}i}\approx {\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {J_{{\text{SC}}i}}{J_{0i}}}\right)} 5729:) contains no information on the matching of currents of subcells. An important alternative comparison point is the output power per unit area generated with the same incident light. 6373: 2946: 1424:

In order to avoid the reduction of the MJ solar cell performances, tunnel junctions must be transparent to wavelengths absorbed by the next photovoltaic cell, the middle cell, i.e.

4491: 1174:. In order to decrease this effect, a tunnel junction is used. It is simply a wide band gap, highly doped diode. The high doping reduces the length of the depletion region because 2170: 1769: 3359: 2738: 3048: 2709: 468:

If the photon has less energy than the bandgap, it is not collected at all. This is a major consideration for conventional solar cells, which are not sensitive to most of the

1739: 1712: 3786:{\displaystyle n_{\text{ph}}(E_{g})=\int _{E_{\text{g}}}^{\infty }{\frac {dn_{\text{ph}}}{dhv}}\,dhv=\sum _{i=E_{\text{g}}}^{\infty }(hv_{i+1}-hv_{i}){\frac {1}{2}}\left\,} 5421:

Using a concentrator also has the added benefit that the number of cells needed to cover a given amount of ground area is greatly reduced. A conventional system covering 1

2197: 522:

Figure C. (a) The structure of an MJ solar cell. There are six important types of layers: pn junctions, back surface field (BSF) layers, window layers, tunnel junctions,

5678:. Physically, the main property of a MJ solar cell is having more than one pn junction in order to catch a larger photon energy spectrum while the main property of the 1677:{\displaystyle J={\frac {1}{2}}\left(J_{\text{SC,1}}+J_{\text{SC,2}}\right)-{\sqrt {{\frac {1}{4}}{\Delta J_{\text{SC}}}^{2}+J_{0}^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{\frac {qV}{kT}}}},} 5701:

The efficiencies of solar cells and Si solar technology are relatively stable, while the efficiencies of solar modules and multi-junction technology are progressing.

3802: 1462:. Similarly, a back-surface field (BSF) layer reduces the scattering of carriers towards the tunnel junction. The structure of these two layers is the same: it is a 563:

The choice of materials for each sub-cell is determined by the requirements for lattice-matching, current-matching, and high performance opto-electronic properties.

2129: 2102: 1328: 4500: 3932: 4344: 3463:

As a result of this intermediate unit conversion, the AM1.5 spectral irradiance is given in unit of the photon flux per photon energy, , as shown in Figure 1.

1847:-characteristic for two ideal (operating at the radiative limit) cells that are allowed to exchange luminesence, and thus are radiatively coupled, is given by 547:'s products use three such layers to reach efficiencies around 9%. Lab examples using more exotic thin-film materials have demonstrated efficiencies over 30%. 7381: 6778:

Kuykendall, T.; Ulrich, Philipp; Aloni, Shaul; Yang, Peidong (2007). "Complete compositional tunability of InGaN nanowires using a combinatorial approach".

2131:

are transfer coefficients that describes the exchange of photons between the cells. The transfer coefficients depend on the refractive index of the cells.

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Light concentrators increase efficiencies and reduce the cost/efficiency ratio. The three types of light concentrators in use are refractive lenses like

7357:(DOE)'s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) has led to record-breaking sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiencies in solar cells. 4244: 3849: 117:

Tandem fabrication techniques have been used to improve the performance of existing designs. In particular, the technique can be applied to lower cost

7242:

C. Zhang, J. Gwamuri, R. Andrews, and J. M. Pearce, (2014). Design of Multi-Junction Photovoltaic Cells Optimized for Varied Atmospheric Conditions,

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transmission (which corresponds to the top cell) is upgraded. Particularly, an AR coating is very important at low wavelengths because, without it,

220:

that hit the top of the solar cell are either reflected or transmitted into the cell. Transmitted photons have the potential to give their energy,

5783:

eV, better balancing the junction currents. Radiation particles that are no longer filtered can damage the cell. There are two kinds of damage:

577:

Since each sub-cell is connected electrically in series, the same current flows through each junction. The materials are ordered with decreasing

17: 1024: 624:

Finally, the layers must be electrically optimal for high performance. This necessitates usage of materials with strong absorption coefficients

570:

of each material must be closely matched, resulting in lattice-matched devices. This constraint has been relaxed somewhat in recently developed

4606: 1341: 8299: 7976: 4080: 6380: 5139:(Ge) can be fabricated on germanium wafers. Early cells used straight gallium arsenide in the middle junction. Later cells have utilized In 4836:{\displaystyle W_{\text{m}}={\frac {J_{\text{m}}V_{\text{m}}}{n_{\text{ph}}}}={\frac {eV_{\text{m}}}{1+kT/eV_{\text{m}}}}=eV_{\text{m}}-kT} 1454:

of a window layer. The surface recombination is reduced. (b) Layers and band diagram of a BSF layer. The scattering of carriers is reduced.

1292:{\displaystyle l_{\text{depl}}={\sqrt {{\frac {2\epsilon (\phi _{0}-V)}{q}}{\frac {N_{\text{A}}+N_{\text{D}}}{N_{\text{A}}N_{\text{D}}}}}}} 199:

with metallic contacts deposited on the top and bottom. The doping is normally applied to a thin layer on the top of the cell, producing a

6056: 1330:, the peak current density) and the slope near the origin is therefore steep. Then, the resistance is extremely low and consequently, the 7945: 7781: 6261:

Strehlke, S; Bastide, S; Guillet, J; Levyclement, C (2000). "Design of porous silicon antireflection coatings for silicon solar cells".

91:

of 33.16%. Theoretically, an infinite number of junctions would have a limiting efficiency of 86.8% under highly concentrated sunlight.

7654: 7195: 5624: 6374:"AlGaAs Tunnel Junction for high efficiency multi-junction solar cells: simulation and measurement of temperature-dependent operation" 6134: 3796:

As a result of this numerical integration, the AM1.5 spectral irradiance is given in unit of the photon flux, , as shown in Figure 2.

2442:) is utilized. It measures the ratio between the amount of electron-hole pairs created and the incident photons at a given wavelength 6951:

Yamaguchi, M; Takamoto, T; Araki, K; Ekinsdaukes, N (2005). "Multi-junction III–V solar cells: current status and future potential".

250:

accelerates both electrons and holes towards their respective n-doped and p-doped regions (up and down, respectively). The resulting

6906:

Proceedings of 1994 IEEE 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion - WCPEC (A Joint Conference of PVSC, PVSEC and PSEC)

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and atomic displacement. Still, MJ cells offer higher radiation resistance, higher efficiency and a lower temperature coefficient.

5318:

Solar spectrum at the Earth surface changes constantly depending on the weather and sun position. This results in the variation of

2951: 530:

1.5 solar spectrum, together with the maximum electricity conversion efficiency for every junction as a function of the wavelength.

84:

allows the absorbance of a broader range of wavelengths, improving the cell's sunlight to electrical energy conversion efficiency.

6015: 5254:, the valence band of GaAsSb is higher than the valence band of the adjoining p-doped layer. Consequently, the tunneling distance 8083: 8078: 7412: 6304: 5224:(InGaN) is a semiconductor material made of a mix of gallium nitride (GaN) and indium nitride (InN). It is a ternary group III–V 7335: 6903:

J.C. Zolper; Plut; Tigges; et al. (1994). "GaAsSb-based heterojunction tunnel diodes for tandem solar cell interconnects".

7823: 7259:

D. Crisp; A. Pathareb; R. C. Ewell (2004). "The performance of gallium arsenide/germanium solar cells at the Martian surface".

571: 7341: 7324: 6922: 6468:

Peharz, G.; Siefer, G.; Bett, A.W. (2009). "A simple method for quantifying spectral impacts on multi-junction solar cells".

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of the tunnel junction. Because the length of the depletion region is narrow and the band gap is high, electrons can tunnel.

7216:

Albuflasa, H; Gottschalg, R; Betts, T (2007). "Modeling the effect of varying spectra on multi junction A-SI solar cells".

6822: 6075: 5690: 7177: 5942: 8121: 5779:

In terrestrial concentrating applications, the scatter of blue light by the atmosphere reduces the photon flux above 1.87

5709:

W/m. Therefore, spectral variations of incident light and environmental parameters are not taken into account under STC.

4853: 2349:{\displaystyle {\tilde {J}}_{0}^{2}=\left(1+2n_{\text{r}}^{2}\right)\left(J_{0,2}+2n_{\text{r}}^{2}J_{0,1}\right)J_{0,1}} 1335:

is negative. The last region, called thermal diffusion region, corresponds to the J-V characteristic of the usual diode:

6868:

Yam, F.K.; Hassan, Z. (2008). "InGaN: An overview of the growth kinetics, physical properties and emission mechanisms".

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P serve as the high band gap alloy. This alloy range provides for the ability to have band gaps in the range 1.92–1.87

646:

The favorable values in the table below justify the choice of materials typically used for multi-junction solar cells:

8265: 8200: 8142: 7639: 7158: 7118: 5443: 5202: 695: 443: 6743:

Green, M.A.; Emery, K.; Hishikawa, Y.; Warta, W.; Dunlop, E.D. (2012). "Solar cell efficiency tables (version 40)".

5470:, contains technologies that are still in the research or development phase and are not listed in the table below. 5409:

Using concentrations on the order of 500 to 1000, meaning that a 1 cm cell can use the light collected from 0.1

8270: 8033: 7514: 5303:(λ) of the bottom cell. InGaP is advantageous because of its high scattering coefficient and low solubility in Ge. 973:(AR) coating is generally composed of several layers in the case of MJ solar cells. The top AR layer has usually a 691:

eV). The use of Ge is mainly due to its lattice constant, robustness, low cost, abundance, and ease of production.

4237:

equation. Thus, we will neglect this term to simplify the following discussion. Then we can express J as follows.

8284: 7791: 7649: 7530: 6325:

Yamaguchi, M; Takamoto, T; Araki, K (2006). "Super high-efficiency multi-junction and concentrator solar cells".

5826: 5600: 2837: 73: 7467: 6106:

R.Delamare, O.Bulteel, D.Flandre, Conversion lumière/électricité: notions fondamentales et exemples de recherche

473:

This lost energy turns into heat in the cell, which has the side-effect of further increasing blackbody losses.

339:

is current density, i.e. current per unit area) of a solar cell under illumination are obtained by shifting the

8442: 8409: 8235: 7761: 7555: 7504: 5866: 427:

The theoretical performance of a solar cell was first studied in depth in the 1960s, and is today known as the

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Henry, C. H. (1980). "Limiting efficiencies of ideal single and multiple energy gap terrestrial solar cells".

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Liu, Lei; Chen, Nuofu; Bai, Yiming; Cui, Ming; Zhang, Han; Gao, Fubao; Yin, Zhigang; Zhang, Xingwang (2008).

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Rühle, Sven (2016-02-08). "Tabulated Values of the Shockley–Queisser Limit for Single Junction Solar Cells".

5040:

Figure 3. Maximum work by ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells under standard AM1.5 spectral irradiance.

511:

the body of the cell. As the photons have to pass through the cell to reach the proper layer to be absorbed,

3440:{\displaystyle {\frac {dn_{\text{ph}}}{dhv}}={\frac {E}{E_{\text{ph}}}}={\frac {E}{\frac {hc}{\lambda }}}\,} 2897: 446:, this loss accounts for about 7% of the power. The second is an effect known as "recombination", where the 300:

appear. The expression for this photocurrent is obtained by adding generation and scattering photocurrents:

8355: 8335: 7715: 7474: 7095: 6091: 4449: 2134: 1744: 1504:. Furthermore, the lattice constant must be close to the one of InGaP and the layer must be highly doped ( 694:

Because the different layers are closely lattice-matched, the fabrication of the device typically employs

271:

accelerates holes (electrons) towards the p-doped (n-doped) region, which gives a scattering photocurrent

8245: 7720: 7405: 6904: 512: 461:

However, the dominant loss mechanism is the inability of a solar cell to extract all of the power in the

428: 419: 6988:"Life cycle energy use and environmental implications of high-performance perovskite tandem solar cells" 6577:

Shockley, W; Queisser, H.A. (1961). "Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar Cells".

8437: 8255: 8108: 8097: 7971: 7818: 7776: 7756: 5831: 5739: 5380: 2714: 114:(CPV), but cannot compete with single junction solar panels unless a higher power density is required. 111: 99: 3021: 2675: 7735: 7669: 7644: 7354: 5836: 1717: 1690: 7375: 1520:

In a stack of two cells, where radiative coupling does not occur, and where each of the cells has a

8170: 8152: 8043: 7889: 7876: 7871: 7771: 5124: 5084: 819: 77: 5158:

eV), the current match is very poor, with the Ge junction operated significantly current limited.

2175: 8260: 8180: 8058: 8028: 7786: 7766: 7695: 7581: 7576: 7545: 7540: 5804: 5523: 5251: 5243: 5186: 5132: 970: 912: 552: 523: 7097:

Impact of spectral effects on the electrical parameters of multijunction amorphous silicon cells

8398: 8240: 8210: 8175: 8162: 8048: 7624: 7614: 7509: 7398: 6053: 5467: 5221: 699: 193: 7310: 6423:

Strandberg, Rune (2020). "An Analytic Approach to the Modeling of Multijunction Solar Cells".

2172:

also depend on the refractive index of the cells. If the cells have the same refractive index

154:

give their energy to electrons in the depletion or quasi-neutral regions. These move from the

8215: 8205: 8185: 8038: 7861: 7664: 7462: 7196:"High Efficiency Solar Cells for the Price of Conventional Ones | MIT Technology Review" 5694: 5571: 5307: 4594:{\displaystyle eV_{\text{m}}=eV_{\text{OC}}-kT\ln \left(1+{\frac {eV_{\text{m}}}{kT}}\right)} 1162: 458:

left behind by previous excitations. In silicon, this accounts for another 10% of the power.

107: 88: 4034:{\displaystyle A={\frac {2\pi \,\exp \left(n^{2}+1\right)E_{\text{g}}^{2}kT}{h^{3}c^{2}}}\,} 8432: 8250: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8195: 8190: 7705: 7634: 7479: 7447: 7316: 7268: 6960: 6877: 6834: 6787: 6664: 6621: 6586: 6551: 6477: 6235: 5897: 5746: 5679: 5463: 2107: 2080: 1306: 1167: 536: 527: 451: 118: 6655:

Parrott, J. (1979). "The limiting efficiency of an edge-illuminated multigap solar cell".

5280:

eV, covering a larger part of the solar spectrum and obtain a higher open-circuit voltage

4422:{\displaystyle eV_{\text{OC}}=E_{\text{g}}-kT\ln \left({\frac {A}{en_{\text{ph}}}}\right)} 539:

and then wire them together separately outside the cell. This technique is widely used by

431:. The limit describes several loss mechanisms that are inherent to any solar cell design. 8: 7904: 7884: 7851: 7659: 7595: 7535: 7494: 6308: 6226:

Miles, R (2006). "Photovoltaic solar cells: Choice of materials and production methods".

5517: 5459: 788: 604: 435: 147: 95: 7272: 6964: 6881: 6838: 6791: 6668: 6625: 6590: 6555: 6505:"Quantum efficiency and temperature coefficients of GaInP/GaAs dual-junction solar cell" 6481: 6239: 5901: 3475:

Figure 1. Photon flux per photon energy from standard solar energy spectrum (AM of 1.5).

27: 7940: 7899: 7846: 7619: 7499: 7363: 7074: 7020: 6987: 6928: 6850: 6823:"Progress in Indium Gallium Nitride Materials for Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion" 6760: 6680: 6637: 6524: 6450: 6432: 5984: 5964: 5745:

As less expensive multi-junction materials become available other applications involve

5438:

As of 2014 multi-junction cells were expensive to produce, using techniques similar to

5390: 7280: 6270: 76:. Each material's p–n junction will produce electric current in response to different 7966: 7961: 7894: 7690: 7629: 7560: 7550: 7320: 7114: 7078: 7066: 7045: 7025: 7007: 6932: 6918: 6803: 6684: 6676: 6641: 6633: 6612:

Vos, A. D. (1980). "Detailed balance limit of the efficiency of tandem solar cells".

6454: 6286:"Antireflection coating design for multi-junction, series interconnected solar cells" 6183: 6158: 6001: 5576: 540: 122: 35: 6854: 6764: 6528: 6356:

J.F.Klem, S.Park, J.C.Zolper, Semiconductor tunnel junction with enhancement layer,

5988: 4055:

is evaluated to be 3.6, the value for GaAs. The incident absorbed thermal radiation

526:

and metallic contacts. (b) Graph of spectral irradiance E vs. wavelength λ over the

8023: 8007: 7991: 7981: 7452: 7276: 7225: 7104: 7058: 7046:"Life cycle assessment of recycling strategies for perovskite photovoltaic modules" 7015: 6999: 6968: 6910: 6885: 6842: 6795: 6752: 6672: 6629: 6594: 6559: 6516: 6485: 6442: 6334: 6300: 6266: 6243: 5976: 5905: 5170: 5128: 5068: 850: 251: 200: 69: 6972: 6489: 6208: 6034:"30.2 Percent Efficiency – New Record for Silicon-based Multi-junction Solar Cell" 5909: 5458:

There are four main categories of photovoltaic cells: conventional mono- and poly-

5071:(GaAs) compounds, often germanium for the bottom-, GaAs for the middle-, and GaInP 7935: 7866: 7181: 6446: 6338: 6247: 6115: 6079: 6060: 5980: 5466:(a-Si, CIGS and CdTe), and multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. The fourth category, 5210: 4323:{\displaystyle J=en_{\text{ph}}-A\exp \left({\frac {eV-E_{\text{g}}}{kT}}\right)} 3920:{\displaystyle J_{\text{rad}}=A\exp \left({\frac {eV-E_{\text{g}}}{kT}}\right)\,} 1158: 286: 159: 7229: 6504: 6072: 5147:

As, due to the better lattice match to Ge, resulting in a lower defect density.

8345: 8320: 7986: 7838: 7740: 7730: 7700: 7457: 7174: 7062: 6889: 6136:

High-efficiency multi-junction solar cells: current status and future potential

5938: 5439: 5395: 5225: 1467: 1463: 566:

For optimal growth and resulting crystal quality, the crystal lattice constant

397: 6914: 6846: 6723:"The World's leading provider of compound semiconductor and lighting products" 6520: 6358: 354:. Since solar cells are designed to supply power and not absorb it, the power 8426: 7930: 7920: 7833: 7725: 7442: 7421: 7070: 7011: 6002:"Solar Junction Breaks Concentrated Solar World Record with 43.5% Efficiency" 5818: 5750: 5427: 5271:

Chemical components can be added to some layers. Adding about one percent of

1458:

A window layer is used in order to reduce the surface recombination velocity

455: 439: 240: 167: 110:

is desirable. In terrestrial applications, these solar cells are emerging in

81: 414: 8375: 8330: 8063: 7029: 7003: 6807: 6722: 5674:

MJ solar cells and other photovoltaic devices have significant differences

5386: 1451: 1150: 261: 178: 155: 143: 1074:{\displaystyle n_{\text{L2}}=n_{\text{AlInP}}^{\frac {1}{2}}n_{\text{L1}}} 8370: 8340: 8315: 8073: 7710: 7685: 5547: 5173:

may be used as a substrate to fabricate cells with band gaps between 1.35

4677:{\displaystyle J_{\text{m}}={\frac {en_{\text{ph}}}{1+kT/eV_{\text{m}}}}} 2883:

is the percentage of incident light which is not absorbed by the subcell

1130: 31: 5261:

is reduced and so the tunneling current, which exponentially depends on

3813:

There are no photon flux data in the small photon energy ranges 0–0.3096

1414:{\displaystyle J=J_{S}\left(\exp \left({\frac {qV}{kT}}\right)-1\right)} 515:

need to be used to collect the electrons being generated at each layer.

7856: 7828: 7606: 5846: 5784: 5757: 5686: 5083:

Dual junction cells can be made on gallium arsenide wafers. Alloys of

4148:{\displaystyle J_{th}=A\exp \left({\frac {-E_{\text{g}}}{kT}}\right)\,} 955: 615: 518: 65: 44: 6598: 6305:

10.1002/1099-159X(200011/12)8:6<563::AID-PIP327>3.0.CO;2-8

6180:

Third generation photovoltaics : advanced solar energy conversion

6118:, Technical Information Office, Solar Energy Research Institute (1982) 5705:

a fixed position of the sun in the sky of 48° and a fixed power of 833

3808:

Figure 2. Photon flux from standard solar energy spectrum (AM of 1.5).

8147: 8053: 7925: 7109: 6799: 6756: 6563: 5841: 5136: 1741:

are the short circuit currents of the individual cells in the stack,

1145: 881: 677: 544: 103: 5798: 138: 8360: 8350: 8325: 7337:

Berkeley Lab Research Sparks Record-Breaking Solar Cell Performance

6437: 2434:

directly from the total J-V characteristic, the quantum efficiency

959: 469: 447: 225: 163: 5367:) (the power density of the light source in a specific wavelength 5197:

As) is lattice matched to Indium Phosphide with a band gap of 0.74

8365: 6950: 6260: 5812: 1331: 978: 958:

that make contact with the semiconductor layers. They are often

703: 578: 204: 196: 50:

Solar power cell with multiple band gaps from different materials

7390: 5925:

Third Generation Photovoltaics: Advanced Solar Energy Conversion

2459:) be the photon flux of corresponding incident light in subcell 5272: 5247: 662: 217: 151: 7258: 7175:"NREL Solar Cell Sets World Efficiency Record at 40.8 Percent" 2816:{\displaystyle QE_{i}(\lambda )=1-e^{-\alpha (\lambda )d_{i}}} 1835:{\displaystyle J_{0}^{2}=J_{\mathrm {0,1} }J_{\mathrm {0,2} }} 6016:"Sharp Hits Concentrator Solar Cell Efficiency Record, 43.5%" 3007:{\displaystyle V_{\text{OC}}=\sum _{i=1}^{3}V_{{\text{OC}}i}} 2402:) is the short-circuit current density at a given wavelength 1171: 647: 482: 462: 344: 264:. In the quasi-neutral region, the scattering electric field 87:

Traditional single-junction cells have a maximum theoretical

5205:

can be lattice matched for any band gap in between the two.

1771:

is the difference between these short circuit currents, and

1446: 7043:

Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (2021-06-24).

5108: 974: 6986:

Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (July 2020).

5389:, reflective dishes (parabolic or cassegraine), and light 5014:(red line) is plotted in Figure 3 for different values of 3817:

eV because the standard (AM1.5) solar energy spectrum for

2711:

is obtained by linking it with the absorption coefficient

438:, a loss mechanism that affects any material object above 6777: 5721:) to compare performances of different technologies, but 7215: 6742: 477:

terminals, with modern high-quality cells at about 22%.

243:

pair. In the depletion region, the drift electric field

192:

Traditional photovoltaic cells are commonly composed of

5881: 7184:, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 13 August 2008 6324: 5150:

Due to the huge band gap difference between GaAs (1.42

1441: 6902: 5965:"Four-Junction Wafer Bonded Concentrator Solar Cells" 5453: 5050:

eV. Here, we approximated the photon flux as 0–0.3096

4856: 4704: 4609: 4503: 4452: 4347: 4247: 4083: 3935: 3852: 3491: 3362: 3059: 3024: 2954: 2900: 2840: 2749: 2717: 2678: 2489: 2205: 2178: 2137: 2110: 2083: 1856: 1777: 1747: 1720: 1693: 1537: 1466:

which catches electrons (holes). Indeed, despite the

1344: 1309: 1183: 1081:

to have the same amplitudes for reflected fields and

1027: 7261:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

6745:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

6293:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

5794: 3833:, first. According to Shockley and Queisser method, 102:

have limited their use to special roles, notably in

5216: 4997:{\displaystyle W_{\text{m}}=E_{\text{g}}-kT\left\,} 1170:would be lower than if there would be no parasitic 7044: 4996: 4835: 4676: 4593: 4485: 4421: 4322: 4147: 4033: 3919: 3785: 3439: 3247: 3236: 3042: 3006: 2940: 2875: 2815: 2732: 2703: 2661: 2348: 2191: 2164: 2123: 2096: 2066: 1843:junction cells of the respective cell types.) The 1834: 1763: 1733: 1706: 1676: 1413: 1322: 1291: 1073: 981:in order to increase the transmission coefficient 5446:but on "chip" sizes on the order of centimeters. 1524:-characteristic given by the diode equation, the 8424: 7312:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering 6820: 6576: 6467: 614:), which is the source power density at a given 94:As of 2024 the best lab examples of traditional 8107: 4230:eV, as can be shown by evaluation of the above 989:decreases to 1%. In the case of two AR layers L 7309:Luque, Antonio; Hegedus, Steven, eds. (2003). 7042: 6985: 6283: 6132: 5430:system, which increases yield, but also cost. 365:must be negative. Hence, the operating point ( 8300:List of countries by photovoltaics production 7977:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 7406: 6502: 5756:MJ cells are currently being utilized in the 5374: 5306:Currently, there are several commercial (non- 5165: 5078: 4493:. The familiar result of this calculation is 4333:The open-circuit voltage is found by setting 698:(MOCVD). This technique is preferable to the 7353:Theoretical research by scientists with the 7308: 7293: 7145: 7133: 6699:"CPV Solar Cells—Azurspace Power Solar GmbH" 6407: 6371: 5181:eV. Indium Phosphide has a band gap of 1.35 4846:Combining the last three equations, we have 2360:short-circuit current of the MJ solar cell: 285:). Consequently, due to the accumulation of 7782:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 6116:"Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods" 5232: 2948:, the following approximation can be used: 2876:{\displaystyle e^{-\alpha (\lambda )d_{i}}} 2476:) be the quantum efficiency of the subcell 7655:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 7413: 7399: 6827:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 6422: 3050:are then given by the J-V diode equation: 965: 954:The metallic contacts are low-resistivity 7108: 7103:. Loughborough University. January 2003. 7019: 6867: 6821:McLaughlin, D.V.P.; Pearce, J.M. (2013). 6436: 6418: 6416: 5054:eV as the same as the photon flux at 0.31 4993: 4476: 4144: 4030: 3951: 3916: 3782: 3573: 3436: 3337:Then the photon flux per photon energy, d 2652: 1528:-characteristic of the stack is given by 8117:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 6203: 6201: 6199: 5941:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 5685: 5406:higher under concentrated illumination. 1445: 1144: 517: 413: 137: 133: 26: 8084:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 8079:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 6654: 6073:"Concentrating Photovoltaic Technology" 5962: 4694:) done per absorbed photon is given by 2413:Because of the impossibility to obtain 696:metal-organic chemical vapor deposition 489: 14: 8425: 7333: 7193: 6413: 6327:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 6013: 5342:) and thus the short-circuit currents 5313: 5118: 3348:ν, with respect to certain irradiance 2941:{\displaystyle V=\sum _{i=1}^{3}V_{i}} 944: 188:, which gives scattering photocurrent. 7394: 7342:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 7159:"Solar cell breaks efficiency record" 7090: 7088: 6946: 6944: 6942: 6657:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 6614:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 6541: 6403: 6401: 6399: 6397: 6395: 6393: 6352: 6350: 6348: 6225: 6196: 6177: 6152: 6128: 6126: 6124: 6102: 6100: 5939:"Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart" 5922: 5887: 5352:. As a result, the current densities 4486:{\displaystyle {\frac {dJV}{dV}}\,=0} 4446:) is found by setting the derivative 1515: 8405: 7244:International Journal of Photoenergy 7151: 6509:Science China Technological Sciences 5753:with varied atmospheric conditions. 5691:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 5123:Triple junction cells consisting of 2165:{\displaystyle {\tilde {J}}_{0}^{2}} 1764:{\displaystyle \Delta J_{\text{SC}}} 949: 706:quality and large scale production. 8122:List of photovoltaic power stations 6611: 6263:Materials Science and Engineering B 5945:from the original on March 14, 2023 5776:penetrate to the lower GaAs layer. 1442:Window layer and back-surface field 1140: 632:), high minority carrier lifetimes 24: 8138:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 7541:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 7490:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 7302: 7139: 7085: 6939: 6390: 6372:J.F.Wheeldon; et al. (2009). 6345: 6318: 6121: 6097: 5454:Comparison with other technologies 3609: 3538: 2480:. By definition, this equates to: 2034: 1985: 1929: 1748: 1644: 1604: 1137:would be strongly reduced to 70%. 558: 409: 25: 8454: 8143:Building-integrated photovoltaics 7640:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 7546:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 7420: 6870:Superlattices and Microstructures 5444:metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy 5203:indium gallium arsenide phosphide 2733:{\displaystyle \alpha (\lambda )} 977:surface texturation with several 444:standard temperature and pressure 379:) is located in the region where 74:different semiconductor materials 43:triple-junction gallium arsenide 8404: 8393: 8392: 7515:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 6014:Shahan, Zachary (May 31, 2012). 5832:Concentrator photovoltaics (CVP) 5811: 5797: 5440:semiconductor device fabrication 5217:Indium gallium nitride substrate 5033: 3842:can be approximated as follows. 3801: 3468: 3043:{\displaystyle V_{{\text{OC}}i}} 2830:is the thickness of the subcell 2704:{\displaystyle QE_{i}(\lambda )} 442:. In the case of solar cells at 434:The first are the losses due to 7650:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 7531:List of semiconductor materials 7287: 7252: 7236: 7209: 7187: 7168: 7127: 7036: 6979: 6896: 6861: 6814: 6771: 6736: 6715: 6691: 6648: 6605: 6570: 6535: 6496: 6461: 6365: 6277: 6254: 6219: 6171: 6146: 6109: 6085: 6066: 5827:List of semiconductor materials 5732: 5242:Many MJ photovoltaic cells use 5111:junction has a band gap of 1.42 3248:Theoretical limiting efficiency 1734:{\displaystyle J_{\text{SC,2}}} 1707:{\displaystyle J_{\text{SC,1}}} 18:Multijunction photovoltaic cell 7762:Incremental conductance method 7556:Copper indium gallium selenide 7505:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 6178:Green, Martin (11 July 2003). 6155:Third Generation Photovoltaics 6047: 6026: 6007: 5995: 5956: 5931: 5916: 5859: 5433: 5067:to most of them being made of 3774: 3758: 3722: 3700: 3652: 3614: 3515: 3502: 3352:can be calculated as follows. 3152: 2858: 2852: 2798: 2792: 2769: 2763: 2727: 2721: 2698: 2692: 2649: 2643: 2627: 2621: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2539: 2533: 2509: 2503: 2213: 2145: 2015: 1227: 1208: 702:(MBE) because it ensures high 588:, allowing sub-bandgap light ( 128: 13: 1: 8069:South African Solar Challenge 7281:10.1016/S0094-5765(02)00287-4 6973:10.1016/j.solener.2004.09.018 6909:. Vol. 2. p. 1843. 6490:10.1016/j.solener.2009.05.009 6425:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 6271:10.1016/S0921-5107(99)00272-X 6092:"Uni-Solar Energy Production" 5969:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 5910:10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015 5853: 396:, and chosen to maximize the 162:. Depending on the location, 7716:Photovoltaic mounting system 7194:Bullis, Kevin (2014-06-09). 6447:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2020.3013974 6339:10.1016/j.solmat.2006.06.028 6248:10.1016/j.vacuum.2006.01.006 6036:. Fraunhofer ISE. 2016-11-09 5981:10.1109/jphotov.2015.2501729 5402:then the MJ current becomes 5237: 5061: 4219:for all semiconductors with 4212:, is negligible compared to 2192:{\displaystyle n_{\text{r}}} 7: 7721:Maximum power point tracker 7334:Yarris, Lynn (7 Nov 2011). 7230:10.1016/j.desal.2007.04.012 5790: 5229:competitive in the market. 5201:eV. A quaternary alloy of 4687:Finally, the maximum work ( 10: 8459: 7972:Solar panels on spacecraft 7819:Solar-powered refrigerator 7777:Concentrated photovoltaics 7757:Perturb and observe method 7536:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 7063:10.1038/s41893-021-00737-z 6890:10.1016/j.spmi.2007.05.001 6677:10.1088/0022-3727/12/3/014 6634:10.1088/0022-3727/13/5/018 6579:Journal of Applied Physics 6544:Journal of Applied Physics 5381:Concentrator photovoltaics 5378: 5375:Use of light concentrators 5166:Indium phosphide substrate 5079:Gallium arsenide substrate 5007:Using the above equation, 112:concentrator photovoltaics 100:price-to-performance ratio 8388: 8308: 8292: 8283: 8161: 8130: 8096: 8016: 8000: 7954: 7913: 7811: 7804: 7749: 7678: 7670:Heterojunction solar cell 7645:Dye-sensitized solar cell 7605: 7594: 7569: 7523: 7485:Multi-junction solar cell 7475:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 7435: 7428: 7355:U.S. Department of Energy 6915:10.1109/WCPEC.1994.520724 6847:10.1007/s11661-013-1622-1 6521:10.1007/s11431-008-0203-9 5923:Green, Martin A. (2003). 5837:Organic photovoltaic cell 5570: 5516: 4432:The maximum power point ( 4051:is in electron volts and 1450:Figure E: (a) Layers and 680:for the bottom sub-cell ( 665:for the middle sub-cell ( 239:, generating an electron- 177:, which gives generation 8153:Strasskirchen Solar Park 8044:American Solar Challenge 7890:Solar-powered flashlight 7877:Solar-powered calculator 7872:Solar cell phone charger 7561:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 7294:Luque & Hegedus 2003 7146:Luque & Hegedus 2003 7134:Luque & Hegedus 2003 6408:Luque & Hegedus 2003 6182:. Springer. p. 61. 5849:(a-Si/μc-Si tandem-cell) 5767:eV vs those between 1.87 5233:Performance improvements 5125:indium gallium phosphide 5085:indium gallium phosphide 3295:is the Planck constant ( 993:(the top layer, usually 347:in the dark downward by 260:is called the generated 82:semiconducting materials 8059:Frisian Solar Challenge 8029:List of solar car teams 7787:Space-based solar power 7767:Constant voltage method 7696:Solar charge controller 7582:Timeline of solar cells 7577:Growth of photovoltaics 6284:Daniel J.Aiken (2000). 6133:N.V.Yastrebova (2007). 5963:Dimroth, Frank (2016). 5927:. Springer. p. 65. 5805:Renewable energy portal 5187:Indium gallium arsenide 5133:indium gallium arsenide 966:Anti-reflective coating 572:metamorphic solar cells 524:anti-reflective coating 429:Shockley–Queisser limit 420:Shockley–Queisser limit 8049:Formula Sun Grand Prix 7881:Solar-powered fountain 7824:Solar air conditioning 7625:Quantum dot solar cell 7615:Nanocrystal solar cell 7510:Sun-free photovoltaics 7198:. Technologyreview.com 7004:10.1126/sciadv.abb0055 6054:"ZTJ Space Solar Cell" 5698: 5468:emerging photovoltaics 5222:Indium gallium nitride 4998: 4837: 4678: 4595: 4487: 4423: 4324: 4149: 4035: 3921: 3787: 3613: 3441: 3238: 3044: 3008: 2988: 2942: 2927: 2877: 2817: 2734: 2705: 2663: 2350: 2193: 2166: 2125: 2098: 2068: 1836: 1765: 1735: 1708: 1678: 1455: 1415: 1324: 1293: 1154: 1075: 700:molecular beam epitaxy 650:for the top sub-cell ( 639:, and high mobilities 531: 513:transparent conductors 424: 189: 80:. The use of multiple 47: 8443:Semiconductor devices 8039:World Solar Challenge 7862:Photovoltaic keyboard 7792:PV system performance 7665:Perovskite solar cell 7463:Solar cell efficiency 7317:John Wiley & Sons 7051:Nature Sustainability 6359:U.S. patent 5,679,963 5695:solar cell efficiency 5689: 5676:(see the table above) 5648:Multi-junction cells 5572:Thin film solar cells 5464:thin film solar cells 4999: 4838: 4679: 4596: 4488: 4424: 4325: 4150: 4036: 3922: 3788: 3586: 3442: 3239: 3045: 3009: 2968: 2943: 2907: 2878: 2818: 2735: 2706: 2664: 2351: 2194: 2167: 2126: 2124:{\displaystyle T^{+}} 2099: 2097:{\displaystyle T^{-}} 2077:Here, the parameters 2069: 1837: 1766: 1736: 1709: 1679: 1449: 1416: 1325: 1323:{\displaystyle J_{P}} 1294: 1163:electrical resistance 1149:Figure D: Layers and 1148: 1076: 537:thin film solar cells 521: 417: 343:characteristics of a 141: 134:Basics of solar cells 119:thin-film solar cells 108:power-to-weight ratio 30: 8309:Individual producers 8017:Solar vehicle racing 7706:Solar micro-inverter 7635:Plasmonic solar cell 7480:Thin-film solar cell 7448:Photoelectric effect 6333:(18–19): 3068–3077. 6153:Green, M.A. (2003). 5680:thin film solar cell 4854: 4702: 4607: 4501: 4450: 4345: 4245: 4081: 3933: 3850: 3489: 3360: 3057: 3022: 2952: 2898: 2838: 2747: 2715: 2676: 2487: 2203: 2176: 2135: 2108: 2081: 1854: 1775: 1745: 1718: 1691: 1535: 1342: 1307: 1181: 1161:is to provide a low 1025: 553:III–V semiconductors 490:Multi-junction cells 452:photoelectric effect 146:illustration of the 78:wavelengths of light 7905:Solar traffic light 7885:Solar-powered radio 7852:Solar-powered watch 7660:Printed solar panel 7495:Solar cell research 7273:2004AcAau..54...83C 6965:2005SoEn...79...78Y 6882:2008SuMi...43....1Y 6839:2013MMTA...44.1947M 6792:2007NatMa...6..951K 6669:1979JPhD...12..441P 6626:1980JPhD...13..839D 6591:1961JAP....32..510S 6556:1980JAP....51.4494H 6482:2009SoEn...83.1588P 6240:2006Vacuu..80.1090M 6213:www.superstrate.net 6157:. Springer-Verlag. 5902:2016SoEn..130..139R 5869:. Dutch Space. 2007 5867:"Dawn Solar Arrays" 5747:bandgap engineering 5518:Crystalline silicon 5460:crystalline silicon 5398:). If its value is 5314:Spectral variations 5244:III–V semiconductor 5119:Germanium substrate 3998: 3542: 3311:is speed of light ( 2891:Similarly, because 2607: 2308: 2261: 2229: 2161: 2031: 1792: 1641: 1060: 945:Structural elements 605:spectral irradiance 436:blackbody radiation 400:of the power | 293:and a photocurrent 170:are accelerated by 148:photovoltaic effect 96:crystalline silicon 7941:The Quiet Achiever 7900:Solar street light 7847:Solar-powered pump 7620:Organic solar cell 7500:Thermophotovoltaic 7468:Quantum efficiency 7180:2008-09-17 at the 7157:Michael Kanellos, 6725:. Spectrolab. 2009 6078:2011-08-22 at the 6059:2011-09-28 at the 5742:become practical. 5699: 5075:for the top-cell. 4994: 4833: 4674: 4591: 4483: 4419: 4320: 4145: 4031: 3984: 3917: 3783: 3521: 3437: 3330:is frequency, and 3291:is photon energy, 3234: 3040: 3004: 2938: 2873: 2813: 2730: 2701: 2659: 2590: 2346: 2294: 2247: 2206: 2189: 2162: 2138: 2121: 2094: 2064: 2008: 1832: 1778: 1761: 1731: 1704: 1674: 1627: 1516:J-V characteristic 1456: 1411: 1320: 1289: 1166:Consequently, the 1155: 1071: 1041: 532: 425: 203:with a particular 190: 48: 8438:Energy conversion 8420: 8419: 8384: 8383: 8279: 8278: 8092: 8091: 7967:Mauro Solar Riser 7962:Electric aircraft 7895:Solar-powered fan 7800: 7799: 7691:Balance of system 7679:System components 7630:Hybrid solar cell 7590: 7589: 7551:Cadmium telluride 7326:978-0-471-49196-5 7296:, pp. 414 ff 7246:,514962, pp. 1-7. 7165:, 6 December 2006 7148:, pp. 449 ff 6924:978-0-7803-1460-3 6599:10.1063/1.1736034 6234:(10): 1090–1097. 6189:978-3-540-40137-7 6164:978-3-540-26562-7 5672: 5671: 5577:Amorphous silicon 5154:eV), and Ge (0.66 4975: 4963: 4924: 4920: 4877: 4864: 4821: 4806: 4802: 4770: 4752: 4749: 4738: 4728: 4712: 4672: 4668: 4636: 4617: 4584: 4572: 4530: 4514: 4474: 4413: 4409: 4371: 4358: 4314: 4302: 4264: 4205:The second term, 4138: 4126: 4028: 3991: 3910: 3898: 3860: 3756: 3741: 3698: 3683: 3663: 3604: 3571: 3556: 3533: 3499: 3455:/(1.998 × 10 ) = 3434: 3433: 3411: 3408: 3391: 3376: 3315: = 3228: 3208: 3186: 3163: 3145: 3120: 3033: 2997: 2962: 2580: 2567: 2526: 2301: 2254: 2216: 2186: 2148: 2059: 2056: 2018: 1995: 1981: 1939: 1917: 1898: 1885: 1871: 1758: 1728: 1701: 1669: 1666: 1614: 1600: 1579: 1566: 1552: 1394: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1271: 1259: 1246: 1234: 1191: 1157:The main goal of 1068: 1058: 1048: 1035: 1021:), there must be 950:Metallic contacts 942: 941: 541:amorphous silicon 335:characteristics ( 123:amorphous silicon 106:where their high 16:(Redirected from 8450: 8408: 8407: 8396: 8395: 8290: 8289: 8131:Building-mounted 8109:PV power station 8105: 8104: 8034:Solar challenges 8024:Solar car racing 7992:Solar Challenger 7982:Gossamer Penguin 7809: 7808: 7603: 7602: 7453:Solar irradiance 7433: 7432: 7415: 7408: 7401: 7392: 7391: 7384:R&D Magazine 7379: 7373: 7369: 7367: 7359: 7350: 7348: 7330: 7297: 7291: 7285: 7284: 7256: 7250: 7240: 7234: 7233: 7213: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7203: 7191: 7185: 7172: 7166: 7155: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7136:, pp. 61 ff 7131: 7125: 7124: 7112: 7102: 7092: 7083: 7082: 7048: 7040: 7034: 7033: 7023: 6998:(31): eabb0055. 6992:Science Advances 6983: 6977: 6976: 6948: 6937: 6936: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6865: 6859: 6858: 6833:(4): 1947–1954. 6818: 6812: 6811: 6800:10.1038/nmat2037 6780:Nature Materials 6775: 6769: 6768: 6757:10.1002/pip.2267 6740: 6734: 6733: 6731: 6730: 6719: 6713: 6712: 6710: 6709: 6695: 6689: 6688: 6652: 6646: 6645: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6574: 6568: 6567: 6564:10.1063/1.328272 6539: 6533: 6532: 6515:(5): 1176–1180. 6500: 6494: 6493: 6476:(9): 1588–1598. 6465: 6459: 6458: 6440: 6431:(6): 1701–1711. 6420: 6411: 6410:, p. 390 ff 6405: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6379:. Archived from 6378: 6369: 6363: 6361: 6354: 6343: 6342: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6307:. Archived from 6290: 6281: 6275: 6274: 6265:. 69–70: 81–86. 6258: 6252: 6251: 6223: 6217: 6216: 6205: 6194: 6193: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6130: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6104: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6070: 6064: 6051: 6045: 6044: 6042: 6041: 6030: 6024: 6023: 6011: 6005: 5999: 5993: 5992: 5960: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5935: 5929: 5928: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5885: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5874: 5863: 5821: 5816: 5815: 5807: 5802: 5801: 5782: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5708: 5473: 5472: 5424: 5416: 5412: 5279: 5200: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5171:Indium phosphide 5157: 5153: 5129:gallium arsenide 5114: 5106: 5069:gallium arsenide 5057: 5053: 5049: 5037: 5003: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4966: 4965: 4964: 4961: 4951: 4929: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4918: 4905: 4879: 4878: 4875: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4842: 4840: 4839: 4834: 4823: 4822: 4819: 4807: 4805: 4804: 4803: 4800: 4791: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4768: 4758: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4747: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4726: 4719: 4714: 4713: 4710: 4683: 4681: 4680: 4675: 4673: 4671: 4670: 4669: 4666: 4657: 4639: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4624: 4619: 4618: 4615: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4575: 4574: 4573: 4570: 4560: 4532: 4531: 4528: 4516: 4515: 4512: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4484: 4475: 4473: 4465: 4454: 4428: 4426: 4425: 4420: 4418: 4414: 4412: 4411: 4410: 4407: 4394: 4373: 4372: 4369: 4360: 4359: 4356: 4329: 4327: 4326: 4321: 4319: 4315: 4313: 4305: 4304: 4303: 4300: 4284: 4266: 4265: 4262: 4229: 4154: 4152: 4151: 4146: 4143: 4139: 4137: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4124: 4114: 4096: 4095: 4040: 4038: 4037: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4026: 4025: 4016: 4015: 4005: 3997: 3992: 3989: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3971: 3943: 3926: 3924: 3923: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3909: 3901: 3900: 3899: 3896: 3880: 3862: 3861: 3858: 3824: 3816: 3805: 3792: 3790: 3789: 3784: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3772: 3757: 3755: 3744: 3743: 3742: 3739: 3729: 3721: 3720: 3699: 3697: 3686: 3685: 3684: 3681: 3671: 3664: 3656: 3651: 3650: 3635: 3634: 3612: 3607: 3606: 3605: 3602: 3572: 3570: 3559: 3558: 3557: 3554: 3544: 3541: 3536: 3535: 3534: 3531: 3514: 3513: 3501: 3500: 3497: 3472: 3446: 3444: 3443: 3438: 3435: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3406: 3397: 3392: 3390: 3379: 3378: 3377: 3374: 3364: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3306: 3304: 3243: 3241: 3240: 3235: 3233: 3229: 3227: 3226: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3199: 3187: 3182: 3174: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3161: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3143: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3111: 3110: 3109: 3096: 3085: 3084: 3069: 3068: 3049: 3047: 3046: 3041: 3039: 3038: 3034: 3031: 3013: 3011: 3010: 3005: 3003: 3002: 2998: 2995: 2987: 2982: 2964: 2963: 2960: 2947: 2945: 2944: 2939: 2937: 2936: 2926: 2921: 2882: 2880: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2871: 2870: 2869: 2822: 2820: 2819: 2814: 2812: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2762: 2761: 2739: 2737: 2736: 2731: 2710: 2708: 2707: 2702: 2691: 2690: 2668: 2666: 2665: 2660: 2642: 2641: 2620: 2619: 2606: 2598: 2586: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2568: 2566: 2556: 2555: 2542: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2516: 2502: 2501: 2406:for the subcell 2355: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2329: 2325: 2324: 2323: 2307: 2302: 2299: 2287: 2286: 2266: 2262: 2260: 2255: 2252: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2217: 2209: 2198: 2196: 2195: 2190: 2188: 2187: 2184: 2171: 2169: 2168: 2163: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2149: 2141: 2130: 2128: 2127: 2122: 2120: 2119: 2103: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2092: 2073: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2057: 2055: 2047: 2039: 2037: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2019: 2011: 2004: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1982: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1941: 1940: 1937: 1928: 1927: 1918: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1872: 1864: 1841: 1839: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1830: 1829: 1813: 1812: 1811: 1791: 1786: 1770: 1768: 1767: 1762: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1740: 1738: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1713: 1711: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1702: 1699: 1683: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1667: 1665: 1657: 1649: 1647: 1640: 1635: 1623: 1622: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1601: 1593: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1553: 1545: 1511: 1420: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1385: 1377: 1360: 1359: 1329: 1327: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1318: 1298: 1296: 1295: 1290: 1288: 1286: 1284: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1257: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1237: 1235: 1230: 1220: 1219: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1159:tunnel junctions 1141:Tunnel junctions 1080: 1078: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1069: 1066: 1059: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1037: 1036: 1033: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1004: 1003: 1002: 743: 741: 709: 708: 690: 675: 660: 506: 502: 405: 395: 385: 42: 21: 8458: 8457: 8453: 8452: 8451: 8449: 8448: 8447: 8423: 8422: 8421: 8416: 8380: 8304: 8275: 8157: 8126: 8099: 8088: 8012: 8001:Water transport 7996: 7950: 7936:Solar golf cart 7909: 7867:Solar road stud 7796: 7750:System concepts 7745: 7674: 7597: 7586: 7565: 7519: 7424: 7419: 7371: 7370: 7361: 7360: 7346: 7344: 7327: 7305: 7303:Further reading 7300: 7292: 7288: 7257: 7253: 7241: 7237: 7214: 7210: 7201: 7199: 7192: 7188: 7182:Wayback Machine 7173: 7169: 7156: 7152: 7144: 7140: 7132: 7128: 7121: 7100: 7094: 7093: 7086: 7041: 7037: 6984: 6980: 6949: 6940: 6925: 6901: 6897: 6866: 6862: 6819: 6815: 6786:(12): 951–956. 6776: 6772: 6741: 6737: 6728: 6726: 6721: 6720: 6716: 6707: 6705: 6697: 6696: 6692: 6653: 6649: 6610: 6606: 6575: 6571: 6540: 6536: 6501: 6497: 6466: 6462: 6421: 6414: 6406: 6391: 6383: 6376: 6370: 6366: 6357: 6355: 6346: 6323: 6319: 6311: 6288: 6282: 6278: 6259: 6255: 6224: 6220: 6207: 6206: 6197: 6190: 6176: 6172: 6165: 6151: 6147: 6139: 6131: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6080:Wayback Machine 6071: 6067: 6061:Wayback Machine 6052: 6048: 6039: 6037: 6032: 6031: 6027: 6012: 6008: 6000: 5996: 5961: 5957: 5948: 5946: 5937: 5936: 5932: 5921: 5917: 5886: 5882: 5872: 5870: 5865: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5796: 5793: 5780: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5740:MJ solar panels 5735: 5706: 5524:Monocrystalline 5499: 5490: 5456: 5436: 5422: 5414: 5410: 5383: 5377: 5357: 5351: 5316: 5286: 5277: 5267: 5260: 5240: 5235: 5219: 5211:dichroic filter 5198: 5196: 5192: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5155: 5151: 5146: 5142: 5121: 5112: 5107:eV. The lower 5104: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5087:in the range In 5081: 5074: 5064: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5041: 5038: 5027: 5020: 5013: 4967: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4950: 4943: 4939: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4900: 4893: 4889: 4874: 4870: 4861: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4818: 4814: 4799: 4795: 4787: 4774: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4757: 4746: 4742: 4735: 4731: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4709: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4699: 4693: 4665: 4661: 4653: 4640: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4623: 4614: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4576: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4559: 4552: 4548: 4527: 4523: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4499: 4498: 4466: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4438: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4368: 4364: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4343: 4342: 4306: 4299: 4295: 4285: 4283: 4279: 4261: 4257: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4236: 4227: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4172: 4165: 4130: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4113: 4109: 4088: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4068: 4061: 4050: 4021: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4006: 3993: 3988: 3967: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3944: 3942: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3902: 3895: 3891: 3881: 3879: 3875: 3857: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3832: 3822: 3814: 3809: 3806: 3768: 3764: 3745: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3728: 3710: 3706: 3687: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3655: 3646: 3642: 3624: 3620: 3608: 3601: 3597: 3590: 3560: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3543: 3537: 3530: 3526: 3525: 3509: 3505: 3496: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3486: 3476: 3473: 3422: 3416: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3380: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3357: 3343: 3334:is wavelength. 3321: 3318: 3316: 3302: 3300: 3290: 3263: 3250: 3219: 3215: 3205: 3204: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3175: 3173: 3160: 3159: 3155: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3112: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3095: 3091: 3090: 3086: 3077: 3073: 3064: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3019: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2983: 2972: 2959: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2949: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2911: 2899: 2896: 2895: 2865: 2861: 2845: 2841: 2839: 2836: 2835: 2828: 2805: 2801: 2785: 2781: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2716: 2713: 2712: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2637: 2633: 2615: 2611: 2599: 2594: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2485: 2484: 2471: 2454: 2433: 2426: 2419: 2397: 2387: 2380: 2373: 2366: 2334: 2330: 2313: 2309: 2303: 2298: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2256: 2251: 2237: 2233: 2224: 2219: 2208: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2183: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2173: 2156: 2151: 2140: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2132: 2115: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2088: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2048: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2032: 2026: 2021: 2010: 2009: 1999: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1983: 1973: 1971: 1960: 1956: 1949: 1945: 1936: 1932: 1923: 1919: 1909: 1895: 1891: 1882: 1878: 1877: 1873: 1863: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1743: 1742: 1725: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1715: 1698: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1658: 1650: 1648: 1643: 1642: 1636: 1631: 1618: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1602: 1592: 1590: 1576: 1572: 1563: 1559: 1558: 1554: 1544: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1518: 1509: 1503: 1496: 1489: 1482: 1474: 1444: 1437: 1430: 1386: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1365: 1361: 1355: 1351: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1314: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1278: 1274: 1268: 1264: 1263: 1256: 1252: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1215: 1211: 1201: 1199: 1197: 1188: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1143: 1127: 1120: 1113: 1107: 1100: 1093: 1087: 1065: 1061: 1050: 1045: 1032: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1010: 1008: 1001: 998: 997: 996: 994: 992: 971:Anti-reflective 968: 952: 947: 782: 775: 768: 763: 762: 753: 752: 739: 734: 733: 732:Absorption, at 728: 721: 720: 688: 686: 673: 671: 658: 656: 638: 602: 587: 561: 559:Material choice 504: 500: 492: 450:created by the 412: 410:Loss mechanisms 401: 393: 387: 380: 378: 371: 364: 353: 327: 320: 313: 306: 299: 284: 277: 270: 259: 249: 238: 213: 187: 176: 160:conduction band 136: 131: 51: 40: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8456: 8446: 8445: 8440: 8435: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8414: 8402: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8382: 8381: 8379: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8346:Solar Frontier 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8321:Hanwha Q CELLS 8318: 8312: 8310: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8302: 8296: 8294: 8287: 8281: 8280: 8277: 8276: 8274: 8273: 8268: 8266:United Kingdom 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8201:Czech Republic 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8167: 8165: 8159: 8158: 8156: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8134: 8132: 8128: 8127: 8125: 8124: 8119: 8113: 8111: 8102: 8094: 8093: 8090: 8089: 8087: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8020: 8018: 8014: 8013: 8011: 8010: 8004: 8002: 7998: 7997: 7995: 7994: 7989: 7987:Qinetiq Zephyr 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7958: 7956: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7917: 7915: 7914:Land transport 7911: 7910: 7908: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7841: 7839:Solar backpack 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7815: 7813: 7806: 7802: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7795: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7753: 7751: 7747: 7746: 7744: 7743: 7741:Synchronverter 7738: 7733: 7731:Solar shingles 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7701:Solar inverter 7698: 7693: 7688: 7682: 7680: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7611: 7609: 7600: 7592: 7591: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7584: 7579: 7573: 7571: 7567: 7566: 7564: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7527: 7525: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7460: 7458:Solar constant 7455: 7450: 7445: 7439: 7437: 7430: 7426: 7425: 7418: 7417: 7410: 7403: 7395: 7389: 7388: 7331: 7325: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7298: 7286: 7251: 7235: 7224:(1–3): 78–85. 7208: 7186: 7167: 7150: 7138: 7126: 7119: 7084: 7057:(9): 821–829. 7035: 6978: 6938: 6923: 6895: 6860: 6813: 6770: 6735: 6714: 6690: 6663:(3): 441–450. 6647: 6620:(5): 839–846. 6604: 6569: 6534: 6495: 6460: 6412: 6389: 6386:on 2009-11-17. 6364: 6344: 6317: 6314:on 2011-07-21. 6299:(6): 563–570. 6276: 6253: 6218: 6209:"Tandem cells" 6195: 6188: 6170: 6163: 6145: 6120: 6108: 6096: 6084: 6065: 6046: 6025: 6006: 5994: 5955: 5930: 5915: 5880: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5850: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5808: 5792: 5789: 5734: 5731: 5670: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5661: 5658: 5655: 5652: 5649: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5636: 5633: 5630: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5612: 5609: 5606: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5582: 5579: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5559: 5556: 5553: 5550: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5535: 5532: 5529: 5526: 5521: 5514: 5513: 5510: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5462:(c-Si) cells, 5455: 5452: 5435: 5432: 5396:solar constant 5387:Fresnel lenses 5376: 5373: 5355: 5346: 5315: 5312: 5284: 5265: 5258: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5226:direct bandgap 5218: 5215: 5194: 5190: 5167: 5164: 5144: 5140: 5120: 5117: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5077: 5072: 5063: 5060: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5032: 5025: 5018: 5011: 5005: 5004: 4991: 4987: 4984: 4980: 4973: 4970: 4959: 4955: 4949: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4935: 4932: 4928: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4903: 4899: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4882: 4873: 4869: 4860: 4844: 4843: 4832: 4829: 4826: 4817: 4813: 4810: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4780: 4777: 4766: 4762: 4756: 4745: 4734: 4724: 4717: 4708: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4649: 4646: 4643: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4613: 4601: 4589: 4582: 4579: 4568: 4564: 4558: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4544: 4541: 4538: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4510: 4506: 4482: 4479: 4472: 4469: 4464: 4461: 4458: 4443: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4417: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4385: 4382: 4379: 4376: 4367: 4363: 4354: 4350: 4331: 4330: 4318: 4312: 4309: 4298: 4294: 4291: 4288: 4282: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4260: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4234: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4199: 4192: 4185: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4155: 4142: 4136: 4133: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4108: 4105: 4102: 4099: 4094: 4091: 4087: 4066: 4059: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4010: 4004: 4001: 3996: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3975: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3954: 3950: 3947: 3941: 3938: 3927: 3914: 3908: 3905: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3884: 3878: 3874: 3871: 3868: 3865: 3856: 3839: 3830: 3811: 3810: 3807: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3760: 3754: 3751: 3748: 3737: 3733: 3727: 3724: 3719: 3716: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3702: 3696: 3693: 3690: 3679: 3675: 3668: 3662: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3638: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3616: 3611: 3600: 3596: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3569: 3566: 3563: 3552: 3548: 3540: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3495: 3478: 3477: 3474: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3432: 3428: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3372: 3368: 3341: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3261: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3244: 3232: 3225: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3203: 3197: 3193: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3178: 3172: 3167: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3125: 3118: 3115: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3089: 3083: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3037: 3028: 3018:The values of 3016: 3015: 3001: 2992: 2986: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2958: 2935: 2931: 2925: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2903: 2889: 2888: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2844: 2826: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2774: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2700: 2697: 2694: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2670: 2669: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2602: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2530: 2521: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2467: 2450: 2431: 2424: 2417: 2392: 2385: 2378: 2371: 2364: 2343: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2322: 2319: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2297: 2293: 2290: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2259: 2250: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2215: 2212: 2182: 2159: 2154: 2147: 2144: 2118: 2114: 2091: 2087: 2075: 2074: 2063: 2054: 2051: 2046: 2043: 2036: 2029: 2024: 2017: 2014: 2007: 2002: 1991: 1987: 1980: 1977: 1969: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1935: 1931: 1926: 1922: 1916: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1894: 1890: 1881: 1876: 1870: 1867: 1862: 1859: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1817: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1781: 1754: 1750: 1724: 1697: 1685: 1684: 1673: 1664: 1661: 1656: 1653: 1646: 1639: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1610: 1606: 1599: 1596: 1589: 1585: 1575: 1571: 1562: 1557: 1551: 1548: 1543: 1540: 1517: 1514: 1501: 1494: 1487: 1480: 1472: 1468:electric field 1464:heterojunction 1443: 1440: 1435: 1428: 1422: 1421: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1392: 1389: 1384: 1381: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1347: 1317: 1313: 1300: 1299: 1277: 1267: 1255: 1251: 1242: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1196: 1187: 1142: 1139: 1125: 1118: 1111: 1105: 1098: 1091: 1085: 1064: 1057: 1054: 1044: 1040: 1031: 1015: 1006: 999: 990: 967: 964: 951: 948: 946: 943: 940: 939: 936: 933: 930: 927: 924: 921: 918: 915: 909: 908: 905: 902: 899: 896: 893: 890: 887: 884: 878: 877: 874: 871: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 853: 847: 846: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 816: 815: 812: 809: 806: 803: 800: 797: 794: 791: 785: 784: 777: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 730: 723: 718: 713: 684: 669: 654: 636: 600: 585: 560: 557: 491: 488: 456:electron holes 411: 408: 398:absolute value 391: 376: 369: 362: 351: 325: 318: 311: 304: 297: 289:, a potential 282: 275: 268: 257: 247: 236: 211: 185: 174: 135: 132: 130: 127: 68:with multiple 54:Multi-junction 49: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8455: 8444: 8441: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8430: 8428: 8413: 8412: 8403: 8401: 8400: 8391: 8390: 8387: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8313: 8311: 8307: 8301: 8298: 8297: 8295: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8282: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8168: 8166: 8164: 8160: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8135: 8133: 8129: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8110: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8095: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8015: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8003: 7999: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7957: 7955:Air transport 7953: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7931:Solar roadway 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7921:Solar vehicle 7919: 7918: 7916: 7912: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7834:Solar charger 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7810: 7807: 7803: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7748: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7726:Solar tracker 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7608: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7593: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7568: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7528: 7526: 7522: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7443:Photovoltaics 7441: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7422:Photovoltaics 7416: 7411: 7409: 7404: 7402: 7397: 7396: 7393: 7386: 7385: 7382:reprinted in 7377: 7365: 7358: 7356: 7343: 7339: 7338: 7332: 7328: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7295: 7290: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7267:(2): 83–101. 7266: 7262: 7255: 7249: 7245: 7239: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7212: 7197: 7190: 7183: 7179: 7176: 7171: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7147: 7142: 7135: 7130: 7122: 7120:9784990181604 7116: 7111: 7106: 7099: 7098: 7091: 7089: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7047: 7039: 7031: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6982: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6947: 6945: 6943: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6907: 6899: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6864: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6817: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6774: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6751:(5): 606–14. 6750: 6746: 6739: 6724: 6718: 6704: 6700: 6694: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6573: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6538: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6419: 6417: 6409: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6396: 6394: 6382: 6375: 6368: 6360: 6353: 6351: 6349: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6321: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6287: 6280: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6257: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6222: 6214: 6210: 6204: 6202: 6200: 6191: 6185: 6181: 6174: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6149: 6138: 6137: 6129: 6127: 6125: 6117: 6112: 6103: 6101: 6093: 6088: 6081: 6077: 6074: 6069: 6062: 6058: 6055: 6050: 6035: 6029: 6021: 6020:CleanTechnica 6017: 6010: 6003: 5998: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5926: 5919: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5884: 5868: 5862: 5858: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5820: 5819:Energy portal 5814: 5809: 5806: 5800: 5795: 5788: 5786: 5777: 5761: 5759: 5754: 5752: 5751:microclimates 5748: 5743: 5741: 5730: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5710: 5702: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5668: 5665: 5662: 5659: 5656: 5653: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5643: 5640: 5637: 5634: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5619: 5616: 5613: 5610: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5595: 5592: 5589: 5586: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5566: 5563: 5560: 5557: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5545: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5505: 5502: 5496: 5493: 5487: 5484: 5481: 5478: 5475: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5451: 5447: 5445: 5441: 5431: 5429: 5428:solar tracker 5419: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5382: 5372: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5350: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5311: 5309: 5304: 5302: 5296: 5294: 5288: 5283: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5230: 5227: 5223: 5214: 5212: 5206: 5204: 5188: 5172: 5163: 5159: 5148: 5138: 5135:(InGaAs) and 5134: 5130: 5126: 5116: 5110: 5086: 5076: 5070: 5059: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5024: 5017: 5010: 4989: 4985: 4982: 4978: 4971: 4968: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4933: 4930: 4926: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4883: 4880: 4871: 4867: 4858: 4849: 4848: 4847: 4830: 4827: 4824: 4815: 4811: 4808: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4781: 4778: 4775: 4764: 4760: 4754: 4743: 4732: 4722: 4715: 4706: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4690: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4647: 4644: 4641: 4630: 4626: 4620: 4611: 4602: 4587: 4580: 4577: 4566: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4539: 4536: 4533: 4524: 4520: 4517: 4508: 4504: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4480: 4477: 4470: 4467: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4442: 4435: 4415: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4380: 4377: 4374: 4365: 4361: 4352: 4348: 4340: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4316: 4310: 4307: 4296: 4292: 4289: 4286: 4280: 4276: 4273: 4270: 4267: 4258: 4254: 4251: 4248: 4240: 4239: 4238: 4233: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4198: 4191: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4175: 4174: 4169: 4162: 4140: 4134: 4131: 4120: 4116: 4110: 4106: 4103: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4089: 4085: 4076: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4065: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4022: 4018: 4012: 4008: 4002: 3999: 3994: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3945: 3939: 3936: 3928: 3912: 3906: 3903: 3892: 3888: 3885: 3882: 3876: 3872: 3869: 3866: 3863: 3854: 3845: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3820: 3804: 3799: 3798: 3797: 3778: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3752: 3749: 3746: 3735: 3731: 3725: 3717: 3714: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3694: 3691: 3688: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3660: 3657: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3636: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3567: 3564: 3561: 3550: 3546: 3527: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3493: 3484: 3483: 3482: 3471: 3466: 3465: 3464: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3430: 3426: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3370: 3366: 3355: 3354: 3353: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3335: 3333: 3329: 3314: 3310: 3299: ≈ 3298: 3294: 3287: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3256: 3255: 3254: 3230: 3223: 3220: 3216: 3210: 3201: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3176: 3170: 3165: 3156: 3147: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3123: 3116: 3113: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3092: 3087: 3081: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3052: 3051: 3035: 3026: 2999: 2990: 2984: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2956: 2933: 2929: 2923: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2901: 2894: 2893: 2892: 2886: 2866: 2862: 2855: 2849: 2846: 2842: 2833: 2829: 2806: 2802: 2795: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2775: 2772: 2766: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2743: 2742: 2741: 2724: 2718: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672:The value of 2656: 2653: 2646: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2624: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2573: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2536: 2528: 2519: 2512: 2506: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2483: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2423: 2416: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2384: 2377: 2370: 2363: 2357: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2304: 2295: 2291: 2288: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2257: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2210: 2180: 2157: 2152: 2142: 2116: 2112: 2089: 2085: 2061: 2052: 2049: 2044: 2041: 2027: 2022: 2012: 2005: 2000: 1989: 1978: 1975: 1967: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1933: 1924: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1906: 1902: 1892: 1888: 1879: 1874: 1868: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1850: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1815: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1752: 1722: 1695: 1671: 1662: 1659: 1654: 1651: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1608: 1597: 1594: 1587: 1583: 1573: 1569: 1560: 1555: 1549: 1546: 1541: 1538: 1531: 1530: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1513: 1507: 1500: 1493: 1486: 1479: 1475: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1453: 1448: 1439: 1434: 1427: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1390: 1387: 1382: 1379: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1362: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1345: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1333: 1315: 1311: 1275: 1265: 1253: 1249: 1240: 1231: 1224: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1205: 1202: 1194: 1185: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1152: 1147: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1124: 1117: 1110: 1104: 1097: 1090: 1084: 1062: 1055: 1052: 1042: 1038: 1029: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 963: 961: 957: 937: 934: 931: 928: 925: 922: 919: 916: 914: 911: 910: 906: 903: 900: 897: 894: 891: 888: 885: 883: 880: 879: 875: 872: 869: 866: 863: 860: 857: 854: 852: 849: 848: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 821: 818: 817: 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 792: 790: 787: 786: 781: 778: 774: 771: 766: 759: 756: 749: 746: 737: 731: 727: 724: 717: 714: 711: 710: 707: 705: 701: 697: 692: 683: 679: 668: 664: 653: 649: 644: 642: 635: 631: 627: 622: 620: 617: 613: 609: 606: 599: 595: 591: 584: 580: 575: 573: 569: 564: 556: 554: 548: 546: 543:solar cells, 542: 538: 529: 525: 520: 516: 514: 508: 496: 487: 484: 478: 474: 471: 466: 464: 459: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 440:absolute zero 437: 432: 430: 421: 416: 407: 404: 399: 390: 383: 375: 368: 361: 357: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 329: 324: 317: 310: 303: 296: 292: 288: 281: 274: 267: 263: 256: 253: 246: 242: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 210: 206: 202: 198: 195: 184: 180: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 140: 126: 124: 120: 115: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 92: 90: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 70:p–n junctions 67: 63: 59: 55: 46: 39: 38: 33: 29: 19: 8410: 8397: 8376:Yingli Solar 8356:Sungen Solar 8331:Motech Solar 8285:PV companies 8246:South Africa 8064:Solar Splash 7805:Applications 7736:Solar mirror 7596:Photovoltaic 7484: 7383: 7352: 7345:. Retrieved 7336: 7311: 7289: 7264: 7260: 7254: 7243: 7238: 7221: 7218:Desalination 7217: 7211: 7200:. Retrieved 7189: 7170: 7162: 7153: 7141: 7129: 7096: 7054: 7050: 7038: 6995: 6991: 6981: 6959:(1): 78–85. 6956: 6953:Solar Energy 6952: 6905: 6898: 6873: 6869: 6863: 6830: 6826: 6816: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6748: 6744: 6738: 6727:. Retrieved 6717: 6706:. Retrieved 6702: 6693: 6660: 6656: 6650: 6617: 6613: 6607: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6547: 6543: 6537: 6512: 6508: 6498: 6473: 6470:Solar Energy 6469: 6463: 6428: 6424: 6381:the original 6367: 6330: 6326: 6320: 6309:the original 6296: 6292: 6279: 6262: 6256: 6231: 6227: 6221: 6212: 6179: 6173: 6154: 6148: 6135: 6111: 6087: 6068: 6049: 6038:. Retrieved 6028: 6019: 6009: 5997: 5972: 5968: 5958: 5947:. Retrieved 5933: 5924: 5918: 5893: 5890:Solar Energy 5889: 5883: 5871:. Retrieved 5861: 5778: 5762: 5755: 5744: 5736: 5733:Applications 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5711: 5703: 5700: 5675: 5673: 5506: 5494: 5485: 5457: 5448: 5437: 5420: 5408: 5403: 5399: 5384: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5317: 5305: 5300: 5297: 5292: 5289: 5281: 5270: 5262: 5255: 5241: 5220: 5207: 5169: 5160: 5149: 5122: 5095:P through In 5082: 5065: 5044: 5022: 5015: 5008: 5006: 4845: 4688: 4686: 4440: 4433: 4431: 4334: 4332: 4231: 4220: 4213: 4206: 4204: 4196: 4189: 4182: 4178: 4167: 4160: 4157: 4070: 4063: 4062:is given by 4056: 4052: 4045: 4043: 3836: 3835: 3827: 3818: 3812: 3795: 3479: 3462: 3459:× 5.03 × 10 3456: 3452: 3448: 3349: 3345: 3338: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3312: 3308: 3305:10 J⋅Hz 3296: 3292: 3285: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3251: 3017: 2890: 2884: 2831: 2824: 2671: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2428: 2421: 2414: 2412: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2382: 2375: 2368: 2361: 2358: 2076: 1844: 1686: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1505: 1498: 1491: 1484: 1477: 1470: 1459: 1457: 1452:band diagram 1432: 1425: 1423: 1301: 1168:photovoltage 1156: 1151:band diagram 1134: 1122: 1115: 1108: 1102: 1095: 1088: 1082: 986: 982: 969: 953: 779: 772: 757: 747: 735: 725: 715: 693: 681: 666: 651: 645: 640: 633: 629: 625: 623: 618: 611: 607: 597: 593: 589: 582: 576: 567: 565: 562: 549: 533: 509: 497: 493: 479: 475: 467: 460: 433: 426: 402: 388: 381: 373: 366: 359: 355: 348: 340: 336: 332: 330: 322: 315: 308: 301: 294: 290: 279: 272: 265: 262:photocurrent 254: 244: 233: 229: 221: 216: 208: 201:p–n junction 191: 182: 179:photocurrent 171: 156:valence band 144:Band diagram 116: 93: 86: 61: 57: 53: 52: 36: 8433:Solar cells 8371:Trina Solar 8316:First Solar 8256:Switzerland 8236:Netherlands 8074:Tour de Sol 7772:Fill factor 7711:Solar cable 7686:Solar panel 7607:Solar cells 7372:|work= 7248:open access 6876:(1): 1–23. 6550:(8): 4494. 6094:, Uni-Solar 6004:. Cnet.com. 5975:: 343–349. 5896:: 139–147. 5771:eV and 1.42 5548:Polysilicon 5479:Technology 5476:Categories 5434:Fabrication 5246:materials. 5177:eV and 0.74 1436:gMiddleCell 1131:ultraviolet 503:eV and 1.70 129:Description 66:solar cells 62:solar cells 45:solar cells 32:Black light 8427:Categories 8293:By country 8163:By country 8098:Generation 8008:Solar boat 7857:Solar Tuki 7843:Solar tree 7829:Solar lamp 7812:Appliances 7436:Technology 7202:2014-08-17 6729:2015-08-04 6708:2014-08-17 6585:(3): 510. 6438:2001.08553 6040:2016-11-15 5949:2023-03-28 5854:References 5847:Micromorph 5785:ionisation 5760:missions. 5758:Mars rover 5697:over time. 5442:, usually 5379:See also: 5308:Perovskite 5131:(GaAs) or 4173:, we have 956:electrodes 616:wavelength 142:Figure A. 89:efficiency 8171:Australia 8148:Solar Ark 8054:Solar Cup 7946:Sunmobile 7926:Solar car 7524:Materials 7374:ignored ( 7364:cite book 7163:CNET News 7110:2134/8216 7079:235630649 7071:2398-9629 7012:2375-2548 6933:136718230 6703:Azurspace 6685:250869484 6642:250782402 6455:210860788 5842:PIN diode 5693:graph of 5238:Structure 5137:germanium 5127:(InGaP), 5062:Materials 4937:⁡ 4898:⁡ 4881:− 4825:− 4546:⁡ 4534:− 4387:⁡ 4375:− 4293:− 4277:⁡ 4268:− 4117:− 4107:⁡ 3956:⁡ 3949:π 3889:− 3873:⁡ 3821:< 0.31 3637:− 3610:∞ 3588:∑ 3539:∞ 3523:∫ 3431:λ 3324: m⋅s 3192:⁡ 3171:≈ 3153:⇒ 3135:− 3124:− 2970:∑ 2909:∑ 2856:λ 2850:α 2847:− 2796:λ 2790:α 2787:− 2779:− 2767:λ 2725:λ 2719:α 2696:λ 2657:λ 2647:λ 2625:λ 2613:ϕ 2601:λ 2592:∫ 2570:⇒ 2561:λ 2549:ϕ 2537:λ 2507:λ 2214:~ 2146:~ 2090:− 2016:~ 1986:Δ 1954:− 1943:− 1930:Δ 1925:− 1749:Δ 1605:Δ 1588:− 1401:− 1370:⁡ 1222:− 1213:ϕ 1206:ϵ 1009:(usually 938:100–1000 767:Hardness 754:(cm/V·s) 712:Material 678:Germanium 676:eV), and 657:= 1.8–1.9 545:Uni-Solar 454:meet the 448:electrons 164:electrons 104:aerospace 8399:Category 8361:Sunpower 8351:Solyndra 8326:JA Solar 8261:Thailand 8181:Bulgaria 7429:Concepts 7178:Archived 7030:32789177 6855:13952749 6808:17965718 6765:93809051 6529:55197753 6076:Archived 6063:, emcore 6057:Archived 5989:47576267 5943:Archived 5873:July 18, 5791:See also 2388:) where 1502:gEmitter 1488:gEmitter 979:pyramids 960:aluminum 637:minority 579:bandgaps 470:infrared 406:|. 226:electron 224:, to an 207:energy, 181:, or by 72:made of 34:test of 8411:Commons 8366:Suntech 8241:Romania 8211:Germany 8176:Belgium 8100:systems 7570:History 7269:Bibcode 7021:7399695 6961:Bibcode 6878:Bibcode 6835:Bibcode 6788:Bibcode 6665:Bibcode 6622:Bibcode 6587:Bibcode 6552:Bibcode 6478:Bibcode 6236:Bibcode 5898:Bibcode 5413:m (as 1 2199:, then 1481:gWindow 1429:gTunnel 1332:voltage 1005:) and L 920:0.5868 889:0.5657 858:0.5653 827:0.5451 814:0.1–60 796:0.5431 776:(μm/K) 769:(Mohs) 744:(1/μm) 704:crystal 287:charges 252:current 218:Photons 205:bandgap 197:silicon 158:to the 152:Photons 8216:Greece 8206:France 8186:Canada 7598:system 7347:10 Dec 7323: 7117: 7077: 7069: 7028: 7018: 7010: 6931: 6921: 6853: 6806: 6763: 6683: 6640: 6527: 6453: 6362:(1997) 6228:Vacuum 6186: 6161: 6082:, NREL 5987: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5707: 5611:0.029 5587:0.089 5555:0.615 5520:cells 5512:Ref's 5482:η (%) 5423: 5415: 5411: 5278: 5273:Indium 5266:tunnel 5259:tunnel 5252:InGaAs 5248:GaAsSb 5199: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5156: 5152: 5113: 5105: 5056: 5052: 5048: 4228: 4044:where 3823: 3815: 3284:where 2823:where 2446:. Let 2367:= min( 1687:where 1510: 913:InGaAs 799:0.102 783:(m/s) 740: 689: 687:= 0.67 674: 663:InGaAs 659: 505: 501: 423:limit. 394:< 0 384:> 0 326:pscatt 319:nscatt 283:nscatt 276:pscatt 121:using 41:'s 8341:Sharp 8251:Spain 8231:Japan 8226:Italy 8221:India 8196:China 8191:Chile 7101:(PDF) 7075:S2CID 6929:S2CID 6851:S2CID 6761:S2CID 6681:S2CID 6638:S2CID 6525:S2CID 6451:S2CID 6433:arXiv 6384:(PDF) 6377:(PDF) 6312:(PDF) 6289:(PDF) 6140:(PDF) 5985:S2CID 5660:1.81 5654:40.7 5629:19.5 5608:0.86 5605:16.5 5584:0.63 5581:11.1 5558:8.35 5552:20.3 5528:24.7 5509:(μm) 5391:guide 5185:eV. 5145:0.985 5141:0.015 4850:(13) 4698:(12) 4603:(11) 4497:(10) 4337:= 0. 4226:≥ 0.3 4073:= 0. 4069:with 3301:6.626 1512:cm). 1497:> 1483:> 1431:> 1172:diode 1047:AlInP 935:5.66 926:1200 907:1000 898:1000 895:3900 886:0.65 864:8500 824:1.86 820:InGaP 802:1400 793:1.12 764:(μs) 738:= 0.8 729:(nm) 722:(eV) 672:= 1.4 661:eV), 648:InGaP 596:< 483:AM1.5 463:light 345:diode 269:scatt 248:drift 194:doped 186:scatt 175:drift 168:holes 7376:help 7349:2011 7321:ISBN 7115:ISBN 7067:ISSN 7026:PMID 7008:ISSN 6919:ISBN 6804:PMID 6184:ISBN 6159:ISBN 5875:2011 5749:for 5666:140 5663:476 5657:2.6 5625:CIGS 5601:CdTe 5564:200 5561:211 5540:100 5534:0.8 5531:0.5 5503:W/m 5500:(A) 5491:(V) 5276:1.96 5195:0.47 5191:0.53 5115:eV. 5109:GaAs 5101:0.47 5097:0.53 5058:eV. 5021:(or 4341:(9) 4241:(8) 4177:(7) 4077:(6) 3929:(5) 3846:(4) 3485:(3) 3356:(2) 3257:(1) 2834:and 2463:and 2104:and 1897:SC,2 1884:SC,1 1727:SC,2 1714:and 1700:SC,1 1578:SC,2 1565:SC,1 1508:≥ 10 1495:gBSF 1490:and 1190:depl 1129:the 975:NaOH 917:1.2 870:4–5 861:0.9 855:1.4 851:GaAs 842:5.3 833:500 811:2.6 789:c-Si 507:eV. 418:The 386:and 331:The 241:hole 166:and 64:are 37:Dawn 8336:REC 7277:doi 7226:doi 7222:209 7105:hdl 7059:doi 7016:PMC 7000:doi 6969:doi 6911:doi 6886:doi 6843:doi 6796:doi 6753:doi 6673:doi 6630:doi 6595:doi 6560:doi 6517:doi 6486:doi 6443:doi 6335:doi 6301:doi 6267:doi 6244:doi 5977:doi 5906:doi 5894:130 5651:MJ 5590:33 5537:63 5334:), 5326:), 5189:(In 5093:0.5 5089:0.5 5028:). 4274:exp 4200:rad 4104:exp 4067:rad 3953:exp 3870:exp 3859:rad 3840:rad 3831:rad 3326:), 3322:458 3319:792 3317:299 3307:), 2432:SC3 2425:SC2 2418:SC1 2386:SC3 2379:SC2 2372:SC1 1367:exp 1119:min 1099:min 1094:= 4 1011:TiO 995:SiO 923:30 876:50 845:50 341:J-V 333:J-V 228:if 8429:: 8271:US 7368:: 7366:}} 7362:{{ 7351:. 7340:. 7319:. 7315:. 7275:. 7265:54 7263:. 7220:. 7161:, 7113:. 7087:^ 7073:. 7065:. 7053:. 7049:. 7024:. 7014:. 7006:. 6994:. 6990:. 6967:. 6957:79 6955:. 6941:^ 6927:. 6917:. 6884:. 6874:43 6872:. 6849:. 6841:. 6831:44 6829:. 6825:. 6802:. 6794:. 6782:. 6759:. 6749:20 6747:. 6701:. 6679:. 6671:. 6661:12 6659:. 6636:. 6628:. 6618:13 6616:. 6593:. 6583:32 6581:. 6558:. 6548:51 6546:. 6523:. 6513:52 6511:. 6507:. 6484:. 6474:83 6472:. 6449:. 6441:. 6429:10 6427:. 6415:^ 6392:^ 6347:^ 6331:90 6329:. 6295:. 6291:. 6242:. 6232:80 6230:. 6211:. 6198:^ 6123:^ 6099:^ 6018:. 5983:. 5971:. 5967:. 5904:. 5892:. 5723:QE 5715:QE 5641:1 5638:– 5635:– 5632:– 5617:5 5614:– 5593:1 5498:SC 5489:OC 5347:SC 5328:QE 5301:QE 5295:. 5287:. 5285:OC 5213:. 5193:Ga 5143:Ga 5099:Ga 5091:Ga 5026:ph 4934:ln 4919:ph 4895:ln 4748:ph 4635:ph 4543:ln 4529:OC 4439:, 4408:ph 4384:ln 4357:OC 4263:ph 4235:th 4217:ph 4210:th 4195:− 4193:th 4188:+ 4186:ph 4181:= 4171:ph 4168:en 4166:= 4164:ph 4060:th 3819:hν 3740:ph 3682:ph 3555:ph 3498:ph 3457:Eλ 3451:× 3447:= 3407:ph 3375:ph 3344:/d 3342:ph 3289:ph 3268:= 3266:hf 3264:= 3262:ph 3207:SC 3189:ln 3162:OC 3144:SC 3032:OC 2996:OC 2961:OC 2579:SC 2525:SC 2465:QE 2436:QE 2427:, 2420:, 2410:. 2393:SC 2381:, 2374:, 2365:SC 2356:. 1994:SC 1938:SC 1845:JV 1757:SC 1613:SC 1526:JV 1522:JV 1438:. 1126:SC 1114:= 1112:L2 1106:L2 1101:, 1092:L1 1086:L1 1067:L1 1034:L2 932:– 929:– 904:7 901:6 892:3 882:Ge 873:6 867:3 839:5 836:– 830:2 808:7 805:1 742:μm 643:. 598:eE 590:hc 581:, 555:. 528:AM 392:ph 372:, 363:ph 360:VI 358:= 352:ph 328:. 321:+ 314:+ 307:= 305:ph 298:ph 232:≥ 230:hν 222:hν 214:. 150:. 60:) 58:MJ 7414:e 7407:t 7400:v 7387:) 7380:( 7378:) 7329:. 7283:. 7279:: 7271:: 7232:. 7228:: 7205:. 7123:. 7107:: 7081:. 7061:: 7055:4 7032:. 7002:: 6996:6 6975:. 6971:: 6963:: 6935:. 6913:: 6892:. 6888:: 6880:: 6857:. 6845:: 6837:: 6810:. 6798:: 6790:: 6784:6 6767:. 6755:: 6732:. 6711:. 6687:. 6675:: 6667:: 6644:. 6632:: 6624:: 6601:. 6597:: 6589:: 6566:. 6562:: 6554:: 6531:. 6519:: 6492:. 6488:: 6480:: 6457:. 6445:: 6435:: 6341:. 6337:: 6303:: 6297:8 6273:. 6269:: 6250:. 6246:: 6238:: 6215:. 6192:. 6167:. 6142:. 6043:. 6022:. 5991:. 5979:: 5973:6 5952:. 5912:. 5908:: 5900:: 5877:. 5727:λ 5725:( 5719:λ 5717:( 5507:t 5495:I 5486:V 5404:X 5400:X 5369:λ 5365:λ 5363:( 5361:G 5356:i 5354:J 5349:i 5344:J 5340:λ 5338:( 5336:α 5332:λ 5330:( 5324:λ 5322:( 5320:φ 5293:T 5282:V 5263:d 5256:d 5073:2 5023:n 5019:g 5016:E 5012:m 5009:W 4990:] 4986:1 4983:+ 4979:) 4972:T 4969:k 4962:m 4958:V 4954:e 4948:+ 4945:1 4941:( 4931:+ 4927:) 4915:n 4911:e 4907:A 4902:( 4891:[ 4887:T 4884:k 4876:g 4872:E 4868:= 4863:m 4859:W 4831:T 4828:k 4820:m 4816:V 4812:e 4809:= 4801:m 4797:V 4793:e 4789:/ 4785:T 4782:k 4779:+ 4776:1 4769:m 4765:V 4761:e 4755:= 4744:n 4737:m 4733:V 4727:m 4723:J 4716:= 4711:m 4707:W 4692:m 4689:W 4667:m 4663:V 4659:e 4655:/ 4651:T 4648:k 4645:+ 4642:1 4631:n 4627:e 4621:= 4616:m 4612:J 4588:) 4581:T 4578:k 4571:m 4567:V 4563:e 4557:+ 4554:1 4550:( 4540:T 4537:k 4525:V 4521:e 4518:= 4513:m 4509:V 4505:e 4481:0 4478:= 4471:V 4468:d 4463:V 4460:J 4457:d 4444:m 4441:V 4437:m 4434:J 4416:) 4404:n 4400:e 4396:A 4391:( 4381:T 4378:k 4370:g 4366:E 4362:= 4353:V 4349:e 4335:J 4317:) 4311:T 4308:k 4301:g 4297:E 4290:V 4287:e 4281:( 4271:A 4259:n 4255:e 4252:= 4249:J 4232:J 4224:g 4221:E 4214:J 4207:J 4197:J 4190:J 4183:J 4179:J 4161:J 4141:) 4135:T 4132:k 4125:g 4121:E 4111:( 4101:A 4098:= 4093:h 4090:t 4086:J 4071:V 4064:J 4057:J 4053:n 4049:g 4046:E 4023:2 4019:c 4013:3 4009:h 4003:T 4000:k 3995:2 3990:g 3986:E 3981:) 3977:1 3974:+ 3969:2 3965:n 3960:( 3946:2 3940:= 3937:A 3913:) 3907:T 3904:k 3897:g 3893:E 3886:V 3883:e 3877:( 3867:A 3864:= 3855:J 3837:J 3828:J 3779:] 3775:) 3770:i 3766:v 3762:h 3759:( 3753:v 3750:h 3747:d 3736:n 3732:d 3726:+ 3723:) 3718:1 3715:+ 3712:i 3708:v 3704:h 3701:( 3695:v 3692:h 3689:d 3678:n 3674:d 3667:[ 3661:2 3658:1 3653:) 3648:i 3644:v 3640:h 3632:1 3629:+ 3626:i 3622:v 3618:h 3615:( 3603:g 3599:E 3595:= 3592:i 3584:= 3581:v 3578:h 3575:d 3568:v 3565:h 3562:d 3551:n 3547:d 3532:g 3528:E 3519:= 3516:) 3511:g 3507:E 3503:( 3494:n 3453:λ 3449:E 3427:c 3424:h 3419:E 3414:= 3403:E 3399:E 3394:= 3388:v 3385:h 3382:d 3371:n 3367:d 3350:E 3346:h 3339:n 3332:λ 3328:f 3313:c 3309:c 3303:× 3297:h 3293:h 3286:E 3280:) 3278:λ 3276:/ 3274:c 3272:( 3270:h 3259:E 3231:) 3224:i 3221:0 3217:J 3211:i 3202:J 3196:( 3184:q 3180:T 3177:k 3166:i 3157:V 3148:i 3139:J 3131:) 3127:1 3117:T 3114:k 3107:i 3103:V 3099:q 3093:e 3088:( 3082:i 3079:0 3075:J 3071:= 3066:i 3062:J 3036:i 3027:V 3014:. 3000:i 2991:V 2985:3 2980:1 2977:= 2974:i 2966:= 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594:λ 592:/ 586:g 583:E 568:a 403:P 389:I 382:V 377:m 374:J 370:m 367:V 356:P 349:I 337:J 323:I 316:I 312:g 309:I 302:I 295:I 291:V 280:I 278:( 273:I 266:E 258:g 255:I 245:E 237:g 234:E 212:g 209:E 183:E 172:E 56:( 20:)

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Knowledge

Multi-junction solar cell

Index