764:. At this site, soft bodied creatures were preserved, some in whole, by the activity of mud in a sea. Solid skeletons are, generally, the only remnants of ancient life preserved; however, the Burgess Shale includes hard body parts such as bones, skeletons, teeth, and also soft body parts such as muscles, gills, and digestive systems. The Burgess Shale is one of the most significant fossil locations on Earth, preserving innumerable specimens of 500 million year old species, and its preservation is due to the protection of mudrock.
595:
403:
452:
411:
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38:
317:
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27:
466:, and has well-developed cleavage. It has gone through metamorphism at temperatures between 200–250 °C (392–482 °F), or extreme deformation. Since slate is formed in the lower realm of metamorphism, based on pressure and temperature, slate retains its stratification and can be defined as a hard, fine-grained rock.
707:. This sediment is exposed to rain, wind, and gravity which batters and breaks apart the rock by weathering. The products of weathering, including particles ranging from clay to silt, to pebbles and boulders, are transported to the basin below, where it can solidify into one if its many sedimentary mudstone types.
234:. For example, a siltstone would be made of more than 50-percent grains that equate to 1/16 - 1/256 of a millimeter. "Shale" denotes fissility, which implies an ability to part easily or break parallel to stratification. Siltstone, mudstone, and claystone implies lithified, or hardened, detritus without fissility.
728:
Mudrocks form in various colors, including: red, purple, brown, yellow, green and grey, and even black. Shades of grey are most common in mudrocks, and darker colors of black come from organic carbons. Green mudrocks form in reducing conditions, where organic matter decomposes along with ferric iron.
332:
are integral to mudrocks, and represent the first or second most abundant constituent by volume. They make muds cohesive and plastic, or able to flow. Clay minerals are usually very finely grained and represent the smallest particles recognized in mudrocks. However, quartz, feldspar, iron oxides, and
362:
The terminology of "mudstone" is not to be confused with the Dunham classification scheme for limestones. In Dunham's classification, a mudstone is any limestone containing less than ten percent carbonate grains. Note, a siliciclastic mudstone does not deal with carbonate grains. Friedman, Sanders,
389:
One of the highest proportions of silt found on Earth is in the
Himalayas, where phyllites are exposed to rainfall of up to five to ten meters (16 to 33 feet) a year. Quartz and feldspar are the biggest contributors to the silt realm, and silt tends to be non-cohesive, non-plastic, but can liquefy
729:
They can also be found in marine environments, where pelagic, or free-floating species, settle out of the water and decompose in the mudrock. Red mudrocks form when iron within the mudrock becomes oxidized, and depending on the intensity of red, one can determine if the rock has fully oxidized.
676:
The world's rivers transport the largest volume of suspended and dissolved loads of clay and silt to the sea, where they are deposited on ocean shelves. At the poles, glaciers and floating ice drop deposits directly to the sea floor. Winds can provide fine grained material from arid regions, and
626:
mud deposition. The Amazon River supplies 500 million tons of sediment, which is mostly clay, to the coastal region of northeastern South
America. 250 tons of this sediment moves along the coast and is deposited. Much of the mud accumulated here is more than 20 meters (65 feet) thick, and
861:
record high-energy events in our history, and they are much easier to study. Interbedded between the high-energy events are mudrock formations that have recorded quieter, normal conditions in our Earth's history. It is the quieter, normal events of our geologic history we don't yet understand.
385:
A siltstone is a lithified, non-cleavable mudrock. In order for a rock to be named a siltstone, it must contain over fifty percent silt-sized material. Silt is any particle smaller than sand, 1/16 of a millimeter, and larger than clay, 1/256 of millimeter. Silt is believed to be the product of
613:
Low energy deltas, which deposit a great deal of mud, are located in lakes, gulfs, seas, and small oceans, where coastal currents are also low. Sand and gravel-rich deltas are high-energy deltas, where waves dominate, and mud and silt are carried much farther from the mouth of the river.
340:
The formation of clay is well understood, and can come from soil, volcanic ash, and glaciation. Ancient mudrocks are another source, because they weather and disintegrate easily. Feldspar, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and volcanic glass are the principle donors of clay minerals.
486:
Heavy rainfall provides the kinetic motion necessary for mud, clay, and silt transport. Southeast Asia, including
Bangladesh and India, receives high amounts of rain from monsoons, which then washes sediment from the Himalayas and surrounding areas to the Indian Ocean.
426:
There are many varieties of shale, including calcareous and organic-rich; however, black shale, or organic-rich shale, deserves further evaluation. In order for a shale to be a black shale, it must contain more than one percent organic carbon. A good
418:
Shale is a fine grained, hard, laminated mudrock, consisting of clay minerals, and quartz and feldspar silt. Shale is lithified and cleavable. It must have at least 50-percent of its particles measure less than 0.062 mm. This term is confined to
823:
sources throughout the world. Since mudrocks and organic material require quiet water conditions for deposition, mudrocks are the most likely resource for petroleum. Mudrocks have low porosity, they are impermeable, and often, if the mudrock is not
386:
physical weathering, which can involve freezing and thawing, thermal expansion, and release of pressure. Physical weathering does not involve any chemical changes in the rock, and it may be best summarised as the physical breaking apart of a rock.
477:
Most mudrocks form in oceans or lakes, because these environments provide the quiet waters necessary for deposition. Although mudrocks can be found in every depositional environment on Earth, the majority are found in lakes and oceans.
645:
In comparison, continents are temporary stewards of mud and silt, and the inevitable home of mudrock sediments is the oceans. Reference the mudrock cycle below in order to understand the burial and resurgence of the various particles.
565:
The
Northern Hemisphere contains 90-percent of the world's lakes larger than 500 km (310 mi), and glaciers created many of those lakes. Lake deposits formed by glaciation, including deep glacial scouring, are abundant.
610:, have massive potential for sediment deposit, and can move sediments into deep ocean waters. Delta environments are found at the mouth of a river, where its waters slow as they enter the ocean, and silt and clay are deposited.
710:
Eventually, the mudrock will move its way kilometers below the subsurface, where pressure and temperature cook the mudstone into a metamorphosed gneiss. The metamorphosed gneiss will make its way to the surface once again as
748:
are well preserved in mudrock formations, because the fine-grained rock protects the fossils from erosion, dissolution, and other processes of erosion. Fossils are particularly important for recording past environments.
393:
There is a simple test that can be done in the field to determine whether a rock is a siltstone or not, and that is to put the rock to one's teeth. If the rock feels "gritty" against one's teeth, then it is a siltstone.
85: mm (0.0625 mm; 0.00246 in) and are too small to study readily in the field. At first sight, the rock types appear quite similar; however, there are important differences in composition and nomenclature.
336:
For a size comparison, a clay-sized particle is 1/1000 the size of a sand grain. This means a clay particle will travel 1000 times further at constant water velocity, thus requiring quieter conditions for settlement.
505:
Rivers, waves, and longshore currents segregate mud, silt, and clay from sand and gravel due to fall velocity. Longer rivers, with low gradients and large watersheds, have the best carrying capacity for mud. The
237:
Overall, "mudrocks" may be the most useful qualifying term, because it allows for rocks to be divided by its greatest portion of contributing grains and their respective grain size, whether silt, clay, or mud.
585:
Ancient lakes owe their abundance of mudrocks to their long lives and thick deposits. These deposits were susceptible to changes in oxygen and rainfall, and offer a robust account of paleoclimate consistency.
545:
In order for an alluvial valley to exist there must be a highly elevated zone, usually uplifted by active tectonic movement, and a lower zone, which acts as a conduit for water and sediment to the ocean.
642:, and marine environments are where we find the world's highest proportion of mudrocks. There is a great deal of lateral continuity found in the ocean, as opposed to continents which are confined.
1175:"Chemostratigraphy and Chemofacies of Source Rock Analogues: A High-Resolution Analysis of Black Shale Successions from the Lower Silurian Formigoso Formation (Cantabrian Mountains, NW Spain)"
862:
Sandstones provide the big tectonic picture and some indications of water depth; mudrocks record oxygen content, a generally richer fossil abundance and diversity, and a much more informative
851:. Mudrocks are important in the preservation of petroleum and natural gas, due to their low porosity, and are commonly used by engineers to inhibit harmful fluid leakage from landfills.
753:
can look at a specific area and determine salinity, water depth, water temperature, water turbidity, and sedimentation rates with the aid of type and abundance of fossils in mudrock
807:. This deposit was formed by a humid, tropical climate with lakes, swamps, and rivers, which deposited mudrock. Inevitably, mudrock preserved countless specimens from the late
510:, a good example of long, low gradient river with a large amount of water, will carry mud from its northernmost sections, and deposit the material in its mud-dominated delta.
538:
valleys. These systems have a continuous source of water, and can contribute mud through overbank sedimentation, when mud and silt is deposited overbank during flooding, and
145:
and the relatedness of mudrocks and oil. Literature on this omnipresent rock-type has been increasing in recent years, and technology continues to allow for better analysis.
130:. The lack of fissility or layering in mudstone may be due either to the original texture or to the disruption of layering by burrowing organisms in the sediment prior to
110:
Mudrocks make up 50% of the sedimentary rocks in the geologic record and are easily the most widespread deposits on Earth. Fine sediment is the most abundant product of
469:
Slate is often used for roofing, flooring, or old-fashioned stone walls. It has an attractive appearance, and its ideal cleavage and smooth texture are desirable.
141:
by Millot, was not published until 1964; however, scientists, engineers, and oil producers have understood the significance of mudrocks since the discovery of the
840:
As noted before, mudrocks make up fifty percent of the Earth's sedimentary geological record. They are widespread on Earth, and important for various industries.
439:. When this ooze is cooked at desired pressure, three to six kilometers (1.8 - 3.7 miles) depth, and temperature, 90–120 °C (194–248 °F), it will form
630:
Much of the sediment carried by the Amazon can come from the Andes mountains, and the final distance traveled by the sediment is 6,000 km (3,700 mi).
775:
burial grounds, and its many fossils can be found in museums around the world. This site includes dinosaur fossils from a few dinosaur species, including the
771:. This area covers 1.5 million square miles, stretching from Montana to New Mexico in the United States. It is considered one of the world's most significant
215:
are common qualifiers, or umbrella terms; however, the term mudrock has increasingly become the terminology of choice by sedimentary geologists and authors.
88:
There has been a great deal of disagreement involving the classification of mudrocks. A few important hurdles to their classification include the following:
832:
reservoirs. In the case of petroleum found in a reservoir, the rock surrounding the petroleum is not the source rock, whereas black shale is a source rock.
324:
A claystone is a lithified and non-cleavable mudrock. In order for a rock to be considered a claystone, it must consist of at least fifty percent clay (
199:
There are various synonyms for fine-grained siliciclastic rocks containing fifty percent or more of its constituents less than 1/256 of a millimeter.
518:
Below is a listing of various environments that act as sources, modes of transportation to the oceans, and environments of deposition for mudrocks.
137:
From the beginning of civilization, when pottery and mudbricks were made by hand, to now, mudrocks have been important. The first book on mudrocks,
1967:
606:
is a subaerial or subaqueous deposit formed where rivers or streams deposit sediment into a water body. Deltas, such as the
Mississippi and
1124:
443:. Kerogen can be heated, and yield up to 10–150 US gallons (0.038–0.568 m) of natural oil and gas product per ton of rock.
1157:
680:
Sediment moves to the deeper parts of the oceans by gravity, and the processes in the ocean are comparable to those on land.
673:
margins. Not only is land a major source of the ocean sediments, but organisms living within the ocean contribute, as well.
431:
for hydrocarbons can contain up to twenty percent organic carbon. Generally, black shale receives its influx of carbon from
1239:
114:, and these sediments contribute to the overall omnipresence of mudrocks. With increased pressure over time, the platey
699:
We can imagine the beginning of a mudrock's life as sediment at the top of a mountain, which may have been uplifted by
574:
Although glaciers formed 90-percent of lakes in the
Northern Hemisphere, they are not responsible for the formation of
154:
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1008:
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498:, for example, has the third largest sediment load on Earth, with rainfall providing clay, silt, and mud from the
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can erode already susceptible mudrock formations, and this process enhances glacial production of clay and silt.
677:
explosive volcanic eruptions contribute as well. All of these sources vary in the rate of their contribution.
356:
56:
870:
1174:
363:
and
Kopaska-Merkel (1992) suggest the use of "lime mudstone" to avoid confusion with siliciclastic rocks.
2236:
683:
Location has a large impact on the types of mudrocks found in ocean environments. For example, the
578:. Ancient lakes are the largest and deepest in the world, and hold up to twenty percent of today's
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42:
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In recognition of mud and mudrocks' sometimes unappreciated importance to earth sciences, the
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Studying mudrock constituents is difficult due to their diminutive size and susceptibility to
1682:
687:, which drains in the subtropics of the United States, carries up to sixty to eighty percent
30:
92:
Mudrocks are the least understood and among the most understudied sedimentary rocks to date.
8:
662:
579:
161:-sized particles that are between 1/16 – 1/256 ((1/16)) of a millimeter in diameter, and
119:
843:
Metamorphosed shale can hold emerald and gold, and mudrocks can host ore metals such as
1513:
1225:
1150:
Fossil
Ecosystems of North America: A Guide to the Sites and Their Extraordinary Biotas
972:
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Vast quantities of mud and till are generated by glaciations and deposited on land as
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582:. They are also the second most abundant source of mudrocks, behind marine mudrocks.
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that contains a mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles (at least 1/3 of each).
1977:
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2012:
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20:
1033:(1st ed.). Stuttgart, Germany: E. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung.
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in China, and the Lower
Mississippi in the United States are good examples of
122:). This finely bedded material that splits readily into thin layers is called
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176:. They can also contain the following particles at less than 63 micrometres:
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115:
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Mudrocks, especially black shale, are the source and containers of precious
106:
And most importantly, scientists accept more than one classification scheme.
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1992:
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mud, whereas the
Mississippi carries only ten to twenty percent kaolinite.
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Warm, wet climates are best for weathering rocks, and there is more mud on
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1100:
Sedimentary Petrology: An Introduction to the Origin of Sedimentary Rocks
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carbonates can also weather to the sizes of typical clay mineral grains.
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75:. Most of the particles of which the stone is composed are less than
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328:), whose particle measures less than 1/256 of a millimeter in size.
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1972:
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or as magma in a volcano, and the whole process will begin again.
2205:
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2007:
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may become aligned, with the appearance of parallel layering (
37:
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2002:
1997:
1862:
1827:
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1702:
1697:
639:
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72:
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Coastal currents, mud supply, and waves are a key factor in
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off tropical coasts than on temperate or polar shelves. The
1852:
1797:
1712:
1644:
848:
844:
800:
555:
158:
153:
Mudrocks, by definition, consist of at least fifty percent
542:
sedimentation where an abandoned stream is filled by mud.
896:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
26:
649:
There are various environments in the oceans, including
1003:(2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
1152:(1st ed.). Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
218:
The term "mudrock" allows for further subdivisions of
1028:
969:
998:
970:
Potter, P.E.; Maynard, J.B.; Depetris, P.J. (2005).
513:
627:extends 30 kilometers (19 mi) into the ocean.
19:For the record producer also known as Mudrock, see
971:
928:(1st ed.). Burlington, M.A.: Academic Press.
1172:
756:One of the most famous mudrock formations is the
2228:
1123:The Burgess Shale Geoscience Foundation (2010).
638:70-percent of the Earth's surface is covered by
165:particles which are less than 1/256 millimeter.
828:, it remains useful as a seal to petroleum and
472:
1029:Schieber, J.; Zimmerle, W.; Sethi, P. (1998).
1233:
1059:Sediment Transport and Depositional Processes
999:Blatt, H.; Middleton, G.; Murray, R. (1980).
157:particles. Specifically, mud is composed of
1125:"Burgess Shale Fossils and their importance"
974:Mud and Mudstones: Introduction and Overview
894:Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
814:
1147:
992:
978:(1st ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
760:in Western Canada, which formed during the
481:
196:, heavy minerals, and even organic carbon.
168:Mudrocks contain mostly clay minerals, and
1240:
1226:
1173:Ferriday, Tim; Montenari, Michael (2016).
1024:
1022:
1020:
435:, which decays and forms an ooze known as
41:Red mudrock in the Ragged Reef Formation (
1102:(3rd ed.). Malden, M.A.: Blackwell.
965:
1143:
1141:
963:
961:
959:
957:
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953:
951:
949:
947:
945:
736:
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521:
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59:. The varying types of mudrocks include
36:
25:
1017:
887:
885:
718:
2229:
1094:
919:
917:
915:
913:
633:
462:is a hard mudstone that has undergone
1221:
1138:
1088:
1052:
1050:
942:
891:
1193:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
923:
882:
767:Another noteworthy formation is the
694:
569:
1061:(1st ed.). Berlin: Blackwell.
1056:
910:
13:
1247:
1148:Nudds, J.R.; Selden, P.A. (2008).
1047:
14:
2248:
873:named 2015 as the "Year of Mud".
811:, roughly 150 million years ago.
703:or propelled into the air from a
514:Mudrock depositional environments
45:), Cumberland Basin, Nova Scotia
1197:
1166:
502:in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia.
148:
57:siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
1116:
1075:
926:Sedimentary Rocks in the Field
357:siliciclastic sedimentary rock
1:
1179:Stratigraphy & Timescales
1085:. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
876:
835:
617:
871:Geological Society of London
473:Creation of mud and mudrocks
366:
311:
7:
1191:10.1016/bs.sats.2016.10.004
1083:Origin of Sedimentary Rocks
1001:Origin of Sedimentary Rocks
549:
344:
10:
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732:
370:
348:
18:
2038:
1876:
1663:
1253:
815:Petroleum and natural gas
589:
423:, or clay-bearing, rock.
406:Marcellus Shale, New York
381:Siltstone at UAT, Estonia
723:
482:Mud transport and supply
446:
397:
16:Type of sedimentary rock
1293:Basaltic trachyandesite
1273:Alkali feldspar granite
414:Black Shale with pyrite
1209:The Geological Society
742:
599:
456:
415:
407:
382:
321:
46:
34:
1683:Banded iron formation
1081:Blatt, Harvey. 2005.
924:Stow, D.A.V. (2005).
740:
598:The Mississippi Delta
597:
522:Alluvial environments
454:
413:
405:
380:
320:Claystone in Slovakia
319:
40:
31:Glacial Lake Missoula
29:
1031:Shales and Mudstones
719:Important properties
580:petroleum reservoirs
1205:"2015: Year of Mud"
797:freshwater mollusks
634:Marine environments
139:Geologie des Argils
126:, as distinct from
2039:Specific varieties
892:Boggs, S. (2005).
769:Morrison Formation
743:
685:Apalachicola River
659:volcanic seamounts
600:
457:
416:
408:
383:
322:
47:
35:
2237:Sedimentary rocks
2224:
2223:
1469:Nepheline syenite
1159:978-0-226-60722-1
791:. There are also
695:The mudrock cycle
651:deep-sea trenches
570:Non-glacial lakes
508:Mississippi River
309:
308:
2244:
2166:Rapakivi granite
1878:Metamorphic rock
1665:Sedimentary rock
1534:Quartz monzonite
1242:
1235:
1228:
1219:
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1213:
1212:
1201:
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1170:
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1136:
1135:
1133:
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1120:
1114:
1113:
1092:
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1079:
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1072:
1057:Pye, K. (1994).
1054:
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1026:
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1014:
996:
990:
989:
977:
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940:
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921:
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355:A mudstone is a
241:
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84:
83:
79:
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2034:
1978:Pseudotachylite
1872:
1659:
1591:Tephriphonolite
1249:
1246:
1216:
1203:
1202:
1198:
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1160:
1146:
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922:
911:
904:
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883:
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751:Paleontologists
735:
726:
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701:plate tectonics
697:
671:transform plate
636:
620:
592:
572:
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484:
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326:phyllosilicates
314:
151:
81:
77:
76:
52:are a class of
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2250:
2240:
2239:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2171:Rhomb porphyry
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2013:Talc carbonate
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1606:Trachyandesite
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1556:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1529:Quartz diorite
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1259:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1248:Types of rocks
1245:
1244:
1237:
1230:
1222:
1215:
1214:
1196:
1165:
1158:
1137:
1115:
1108:
1087:
1074:
1067:
1046:
1039:
1016:
1009:
991:
984:
941:
934:
909:
902:
880:
878:
875:
837:
834:
816:
813:
734:
731:
725:
722:
720:
717:
696:
693:
655:abyssal plains
635:
632:
619:
616:
591:
588:
571:
568:
558:and in lakes.
551:
548:
530:in India, the
523:
520:
515:
512:
483:
480:
474:
471:
448:
445:
399:
396:
371:Main article:
368:
365:
349:Main article:
346:
343:
313:
310:
307:
306:
303:
300:
296:
295:
292:
289:
285:
284:
281:
278:
274:
273:
270:
267:
263:
262:
259:
256:
252:
251:
248:
245:
150:
147:
108:
107:
104:
93:
21:Andrew Murdock
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2249:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2131:Litchfieldite
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2096:Hyaloclastite
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1943:Litchfieldite
1941:
1939:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1504:Phonotephrite
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1409:Hyaloclastite
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1126:
1119:
1111:
1109:0-632-05735-1
1105:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1084:
1078:
1070:
1068:0-632-03112-3
1064:
1060:
1053:
1051:
1042:
1040:3-510-65183-9
1036:
1032:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1012:
1010:0-13-642710-3
1006:
1002:
995:
987:
985:3-540-22157-3
981:
976:
975:
966:
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
952:
950:
948:
946:
937:
935:0-13-099696-3
931:
927:
920:
918:
916:
914:
905:
903:0-13-099696-3
899:
895:
888:
886:
881:
874:
872:
867:
865:
860:
856:
852:
850:
846:
841:
833:
831:
827:
822:
812:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
759:
758:Burgess Shale
754:
752:
747:
741:Burgess Shale
739:
730:
716:
714:
708:
706:
702:
692:
690:
686:
681:
678:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
647:
643:
641:
631:
628:
625:
615:
611:
609:
605:
596:
587:
583:
581:
577:
576:ancient lakes
567:
563:
561:
557:
547:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
519:
511:
509:
503:
501:
497:
496:Amazon system
493:
492:ocean shelves
488:
479:
470:
467:
465:
461:
453:
444:
442:
438:
434:
430:
424:
422:
412:
404:
395:
391:
387:
379:
374:
364:
360:
358:
352:
342:
338:
334:
331:
330:Clay minerals
327:
318:
304:
301:
298:
297:
293:
290:
287:
286:
282:
279:
276:
275:
271:
268:
265:
264:
260:
257:
254:
253:
249:
246:
243:
242:
239:
235:
233:
229:
225:
221:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
156:
146:
144:
143:Burgess Shale
140:
135:
133:
132:lithification
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:clay minerals
113:
105:
102:
98:
94:
91:
90:
89:
86:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
55:
51:
44:
43:Pennsylvanian
39:
32:
28:
22:
2141:Luxullianite
2121:Lapis lazuli
2066:Blue Granite
1993:Serpentinite
1968:Metapsammite
1718:Conglomerate
1640:Trondhjemite
1618:Trachybasalt
1559:Pantellerite
1459:Monzogranite
1404:Hornblendite
1389:Granodiorite
1255:Igneous rock
1208:
1199:
1182:
1178:
1168:
1149:
1128:. Retrieved
1118:
1099:
1096:Tucker, M.E.
1090:
1082:
1077:
1058:
1030:
1000:
994:
973:
925:
893:
868:
864:geochemistry
853:
842:
839:
818:
789:Brontosaurus
788:
784:
780:
776:
766:
755:
744:
727:
713:country rock
709:
698:
682:
679:
675:
648:
644:
637:
629:
621:
612:
601:
584:
573:
564:
553:
544:
525:
517:
504:
489:
485:
476:
468:
464:metamorphism
458:
425:
421:argillaceous
417:
392:
388:
384:
361:
354:
339:
335:
323:
236:
217:
198:
167:
152:
149:Nomenclature
138:
136:
127:
123:
109:
87:
54:fine-grained
49:
48:
2030:Whiteschist
1921:Greenschist
1901:Cataclasite
1891:Amphibolite
1818:Phosphorite
1768:Itacolumite
1693:Calcarenite
1539:Quartzolite
1474:Nephelinite
1444:Lamprophyre
1399:Harzburgite
1357:Napoleonite
1330:Charnockite
1325:Carbonatite
1315:Blairmorite
1278:Anorthosite
1185:: 123–255.
830:natural gas
826:black shale
785:Stegosaurus
429:source rock
294:64 μm
283:64 μm
272:64 μm
2196:Teschenite
2181:Shonkinite
2156:Pietersite
2151:Novaculite
2061:Borolanite
2046:Adamellite
1963:Metapelite
1931:Calcflinta
1896:Blueschist
1886:Anthracite
1868:Wackestone
1848:Travertine
1793:Lumachelle
1773:Jaspillite
1728:Diamictite
1650:Websterite
1635:Troctolite
1611:Benmoreite
1571:Shonkinite
1544:Rhyodacite
1524:Pyroxenite
1494:Peridotite
1454:Lherzolite
1429:Kimberlite
1419:Ignimbrite
1414:Icelandite
1394:Granophyre
1303:Shoshonite
1130:25 October
877:References
859:carbonates
855:Sandstones
836:Importance
781:Diplodocus
777:Allosaurus
663:convergent
618:Coastlines
455:Slate Roof
261:4 μm
250:Max grain
213:argillites
163:clay-sized
97:weathering
2211:Variolite
2201:Theralite
2191:Tachylite
2176:Rodingite
2146:Mangerite
2126:Larvikite
2111:Jasperoid
2106:Jadeitite
2071:Epidosite
2025:Tectonite
2018:Soapstone
1983:Quartzite
1953:Migmatite
1938:Itabirite
1916:Granulite
1858:Turbidite
1838:Sylvinite
1833:Siltstone
1823:Sandstone
1808:Oil shale
1788:Limestone
1763:Gritstone
1758:Greywacke
1753:Geyserite
1743:Evaporite
1733:Diatomite
1708:Claystone
1673:Argillite
1586:Tachylyte
1554:Comendite
1499:Phonolite
1489:Pegmatite
1464:Monzonite
1439:Lamproite
1434:Komatiite
1374:Foidolite
1335:Enderbite
1298:Mugearite
821:petroleum
689:kaolinite
667:divergent
624:coastline
373:Siltstone
367:Siltstone
312:Claystone
291:0 μm
280:4 μm
277:Siltstone
269:0 μm
258:0 μm
255:Claystone
247:Min grain
224:claystone
220:siltstone
201:Mudstones
194:marcasite
174:feldspars
155:mud-sized
120:fissility
65:claystone
61:siltstone
33:claystone
2231:Category
2186:Taconite
2161:Pyrolite
2086:Ganister
2056:Aphanite
2051:Appinite
1973:Phyllite
1958:Mylonite
1926:Hornfels
1906:Eclogite
1803:Mudstone
1778:Laterite
1738:Dolomite
1655:Wehrlite
1630:Trachyte
1623:Hawaiite
1601:Tonalite
1596:Tephrite
1549:Rhyolite
1514:Porphyry
1484:Obsidian
1369:Essexite
1320:Boninite
1310:Basanite
1268:Andesite
1098:(1994).
809:Jurassic
805:conifers
793:lungfish
773:dinosaur
762:Cambrian
560:Glaciers
550:Glaciers
536:alluvial
437:sapropel
390:easily.
351:Mudstone
345:Mudstone
266:Mudstone
228:mudstone
186:siderite
182:dolomite
128:mudstone
101:outcrops
69:mudstone
50:Mudrocks
2206:Unakite
2136:Llanite
2101:Ijolite
2076:Felsite
2008:Suevite
1843:Tillite
1783:Lignite
1723:Coquina
1688:Breccia
1581:Syenite
1509:Picrite
1424:Ijolite
1384:Granite
1352:Diorite
1347:Diabase
1263:Adakite
746:Fossils
733:Fossils
705:volcano
441:kerogen
209:lutites
178:calcite
112:erosion
80:⁄
2116:Kenyte
2091:Gossan
1988:Schist
1948:Marble
1911:Gneiss
1813:Oolite
1678:Arkose
1576:Sovite
1566:Scoria
1519:Pumice
1479:Norite
1449:Latite
1379:Gabbro
1364:Dunite
1342:Dacite
1288:Basalt
1283:Aplite
1156:
1106:
1065:
1037:
1007:
982:
932:
900:
787:, and
669:, and
590:Deltas
532:Yellow
528:Ganges
230:, and
211:, and
205:shales
190:pyrite
170:quartz
2081:Flint
2003:Slate
1998:Skarn
1863:Varve
1828:Shale
1748:Flint
1703:Chert
1698:Chalk
801:ferns
724:Color
640:ocean
608:Congo
604:delta
540:oxbow
500:Andes
460:Slate
447:Slate
433:algae
398:Shale
299:Slate
288:Shale
232:shale
124:shale
73:shale
1853:Tufa
1798:Marl
1713:Coal
1645:Tuff
1154:ISBN
1132:2010
1104:ISBN
1063:ISBN
1035:ISBN
1005:ISBN
980:ISBN
930:ISBN
898:ISBN
857:and
849:zinc
847:and
845:lead
803:and
556:till
526:The
244:Type
172:and
159:silt
71:and
2216:Wad
1187:doi
305:na
99:on
2233::
1207:.
1181:.
1177:.
1140:^
1049:^
1019:^
944:^
912:^
884:^
866:.
799:,
795:,
783:,
779:,
665:,
661:,
657:,
653:,
602:A
302:na
226:,
222:,
207:,
203:,
192:,
188:,
184:,
180:,
134:.
82:16
67:,
63:,
1241:e
1234:t
1227:v
1211:.
1189::
1183:1
1162:.
1134:.
1112:.
1071:.
1043:.
1013:.
988:.
938:.
906:.
103:.
78:1
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
