Mu'awiya I - Knowledge

86: 2435:(1160–1232) agree that al-Mughira was the first to suggest that Yazid be acknowledged as Mu'awiya's successor and that Ziyad supported the nomination with the caveat that Yazid abandon impious activities which could arouse opposition from the Muslim polity. According to al-Tabari, Mu'awiya publicly announced his decision in 675 or 676 and demanded oaths of allegiance be given to Yazid. Ibn al-Athir alone relates that delegations from all the provinces were summoned to Damascus where Mu'awiya lectured them on his rights as ruler, their duties as subjects and Yazid's worthy qualities, which was followed by the calls of al-Dahhak ibn Qays and other courtiers that Yazid be recognized as the caliph's successor. The delegates lent their support, with the exception of the senior Basran nobleman 1720: 2332: 2098: 10250: 2559:, Mu'awiya's successful rule was facilitated by the tribal composition of Syria. There, the Arabs who formed his support base were distributed throughout the countryside and were dominated by a single confederation, the Quda'a. This was in contrast to Iraq and Egypt, where the diverse tribal composition of the garrison towns meant that the government had no cohesive support base and had to create a delicate balance between the opposing tribal groups. As evidenced by the disintegration of Ali's Iraqi alliance, maintaining this balance was untenable. In her view, Mu'awiya's taking advantage of the tribal circumstances in Syria prevented the dissolution of the Caliphate in the civil war. In the words of the orientalist 1515: 2122:, the buffer zone between the Empire and the Caliphate. At least until Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid's death in 666, Homs served as the principal marshaling point for the offensives, and afterward Antioch served this purpose as well. The bulk of the troops fighting on the Anatolian and Armenian fronts hailed from the tribal groups that arrived from Arabia during and after the conquest. During his caliphate, Mu'awiya continued his past efforts to resettle and fortify the Syrian port cities. Due to the reticence of Arab tribesmen to inhabit the coastlands, in 663 Mu'awiya moved Persian civilians and personnel that he had previously settled in the Syrian interior into Acre and Tyre, and transferred 2749:, has made him a reviled figure in Shia Islam. According to the Shia, based on this alone Mu'awiya qualifies as an unbeliever, if he was a believer to begin with. In addition, he is held responsible for the killing of a number of Muhammad's companions at Siffin, having ordered the cursing of Ali from the pulpit, appointing Yazid as his successor, who went on to kill Husayn at Karbala, executing the pro-Alid Kufan nobleman Hujr ibn Adi, and assassinating Hasan by poisoning. As such, he has been a particular target of Shia traditions. Some traditions hold him to have been born of an illegitimate relationship between Abu Sufyan's wife Hind and Muhammad's uncle 774: 639: 2257: 2161:. Following the death of Constans II in July 668, Mu'awiya oversaw an increasingly aggressive policy of naval warfare against the Byzantines. According to the early Muslim sources, raids against the Byzantines peaked between 668 and 669. In each of those years there occurred six ground campaigns and a major naval campaign, the first by an Egyptian and Medinese fleet and the second by an Egyptian and Syrian fleet. The culmination of the campaigns was an assault on Constantinople, but the chronologies of the Arabic, Syriac, and Byzantine sources are contradictory. The traditional view by modern historians is of a 2025:

increased the Alexandria garrison to 12,000 men and built a governor's residence in the city, whose Greek Christian population was generally hostile to Arab rule. When Utba's deputy in Alexandria complained that his troops were unable to control the city, Mu'awiya deployed a further 15,000 soldiers from Syria and Medina. The troops in Egypt were far less rebellious than their Iraqi counterparts, though elements in the Fustat garrison occasionally raised opposition to Mu'awiya's policies, culminating during Maslama's term with the widespread protest at Mu'awiya's seizure and allotment of crown lands in

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of the Kalbite Maysun, Mu'awiya bypassed his older son Abd Allah from his Qurayshite wife Fakhita. Although support from the Kalb and the Quda'a was guaranteed, Mu'awiya exhorted Yazid to widen his tribal support base in Syria. As the Qaysites were the predominant element in the northern frontier armies, Mu'awiya's appointment of Yazid to lead the war efforts with Byzantium may have served to foster Qaysite support for his nomination. Mu'awiya's efforts to that end were not entirely successful as reflected in a line by a Qaysite poet: "we will never pay allegiance to the son of a Kalbi woman ".

1428:(consultative council) to decide the caliphate. Ali rebuffed Mu'awiya's envoys and on 18 July declared that the Syrians remained obstinate in their refusal to recognize his sovereignty. On the following day, a week of duels between Ali's and Mu'awiya's top commanders ensued. The main battle between the two armies commenced on 26 July. As Ali's troops advanced toward Mu'awiya's tent, the governor of Syria ordered his elite troops forward and they bested the Iraqis before the tide turned against the Syrians the next day with the deaths of two of Mu'awiya's leading commanders, 1893:(tribal chieftains), who served as intermediaries between the authorities and the tribesmen in the garrisons. Mu'awiya's statecraft was likely inspired by his father, who utilized his wealth to establish political alliances. The caliph generally preferred bribing his opponents over direct confrontation. In the summation of Kennedy, Mu'awiya ruled by "making agreements with those who held power in the provinces, by building up the power of those who were prepared to co-operate with him and by attaching as many important and influential figures to his cause as possible". 1440: 1972:. As part of his reorganization efforts in Kufa, Ziyad confiscated its garrison's crown lands, which thenceforth became the possession of the caliph. Opposition to the confiscations raised by Hujr ibn Adi, whose pro-Alid advocacy had been tolerated by al-Mughira, was violently suppressed by Ziyad. Hujr and his retinue were sent to Mu'awiya for punishment and were executed on the caliph's orders, marking the first political execution in Islamic history and serving as a harbinger for future pro-Alid uprisings in Kufa. Ziyad died in 673 and his son 1349:, which ended in the deaths of al-Zubayr and Talha, both potential contenders for the caliphate, and the retirement of A'isha to Medina. With his position in Iraq, Egypt and Arabia secure, Ali turned his attention toward Mu'awiya. Unlike the other provincial governors, Mu'awiya had a strong and loyal power base, demanded revenge for the slaying of his Umayyad kinsman Uthman, and could not be easily replaced. At this point, Mu'awiya did not yet claim the caliphate and his principal aim was keeping power in Syria. 2539:('deputy of the messenger of God'), the title used by the other caliphs who preceded him. The title may have implied political as well as religious authority and divine sanctioning. He is reported by al-Baladhuri to have said "The earth belongs to God and I am the deputy of God". Nevertheless, whatever the absolutist connotations the title may have had, Mu'awiya evidently did not impose this religious authority. Instead, he governed indirectly like a supra-tribal chief using alliances with provincial 1475:, who was in Ali's army, expressed his fears of Byzantine and Persian attacks were the Muslims to exhaust themselves in the civil war. Upon receiving intelligence of this, Mu'awiya ordered the raising of the Qur'an leaves. Though this act represented a surrender of sorts as Mu'awiya abandoned, at least temporarily, his previous insistence on settling the dispute with Ali militarily and pursuing Uthman's killers into Iraq, it had the effect of sowing discord and uncertainty in Ali's ranks. 2567:

unaccountable and amassed personal wealth. The tribal balance on which he relied was insecure and a slight fluctuation would lead to factionalism and infighting. When Yazid became caliph, he continued his father's model. Controversial as his nomination had been, he had to face the rebellions of Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr. Although he was able to defeat them with the help of his governors and the Syrian army, the system fractured as soon as he died in November 683. The provincial

1960:. Busr had threatened to execute three of Ziyad's young sons in Basra to force his surrender, but Ziyad was ultimately persuaded by al-Mughira, his mentor, to submit to Mu'awiya's authority in 663. In a controversial step that secured the loyalty of the fatherless Ziyad, whom the caliph viewed as the most capable candidate to govern Basra, Mu'awiya adopted him as his paternal half-brother, to the protests of his own son Yazid, Ibn Amir and his Umayyad kinsmen in the Hejaz. 2582:, it was under the leadership of Marwan, founder of the new ruling Umayyad house, the Marwanids, and his son Abd al-Malik. Having realized the weakness of Mu'awiya's model and lacking in his political skill, the Marwanids abandoned his system in favor of a more traditional form of governance where the caliph was the central authority. Nonetheless, the hereditary succession introduced by Mu'awiya became a permanent feature of many of the Muslim governments that followed. 1850:). Mu'awiya was tolerant toward Syria's native Christian majority. In turn, the community was generally satisfied with his rule, under which their conditions were at least as favorable as under the Byzantines. Mu'awiya attempted to mint his own coins, but the new currency was rejected by the Syrians as it omitted the symbol of the cross. The sole epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, a Greek inscription dated to 663 discovered at the hot springs of 2727:) by the Sunnis. He is seen as transforming the caliphate into a worldly and despotic kingship. His acquisition of the caliphate through the civil war and his institution of the hereditary succession by appointing his son Yazid as heir apparent are the principal charges made against him. Although Uthman and Ali had been highly controversial during the early period, religious scholars in the 8th and 9th centuries compromised in order to appease and absorb the 2600:

some modern historians to question Mu'awiya's commitment to Islam. They have proposed that he adhered to a non-confessional or indeterminate form of monotheism, or may have been a Christian. Asserting that the earliest Muslims did not see their faith as different from other monotheistic faiths, these historians see the earlier Medina-based caliphs in the same vein, but no public proclamations from their period exist. On the other hand, the historian

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provinces nor the caliph's court, Mu'awiya largely limiting their influence to Medina, the old capital of the Caliphate where most of the Umayyads and the wider Qurayshite former aristocracy remained headquartered. The loss of political power left the Umayyads of Medina resentful toward Mu'awiya, who may have become wary of the political ambitions of the much larger Abu al-As branch of the clan—to which Uthman had belonged—under the leadership of

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make no mention of this treaty. Although the Muslims did not achieve any permanent territorial gains in Anatolia during Mu'awiya's career, the frequent raids provided Mu'awiya's Syrian troops with war spoils and tribute, which helped ensure their continued allegiance, and sharpened their combat skills. Moreover, Mu'awiya's prestige was boosted and the Byzantines were precluded from any concerted campaigns against Syria.

1183:, citing concerns about the Muslim forces' safety at sea, but Uthman allowed him to commence the campaign in 647, after refusing an earlier entreaty. Mu'awiya's rationale was that the Byzantine-held island posed a threat to Arab positions along the Syrian coast, and that it could be easily neutralized. The exact year of the raid is unclear, with the early Arabic sources providing a range between 647 and 650, while two 2403:, who subsequently embraced Islam and joined his forces. In 678, a treaty between the Arabs and the Byzantines ceded Byzacena to the Caliphate, while forcing the Arabs to withdraw from the northern parts of the province. After Mu'awiya's death, his successor Yazid reappointed Uqba, Kasila defected and a Byzantine–Berber alliance ended Arab control over Ifriqiya, which was not reestablished until the reign of Caliph 1736:

expense of the Iraqi garrisons, also about 100,000 soldiers combined. The highest stipends were paid on an inheritable basis to 2,000 nobles of the Quda'a and Kinda tribes, the core components of his support base, who were further awarded the privilege of consultation for all major decisions and the rights to veto or propose measures. The respective leaders of the Quda'a and the Kinda, the Kalbite chief

1506:. Ali abandoned the arbitration after the first meeting in which Abu Musa—who, unlike Amr, was not particularly attached to his principal's cause— accepted the Syrian side's claim that Uthman was wrongfully killed, a verdict that Ali opposed. The final meeting in Adhruh, which had been convened at Mu'awiya's request, collapsed, but by then Mu'awiya had emerged as a major contender for the caliphate. 1362:, he resolved to end the Umayyad family's hostility to Amr ibn al-As, the conqueror and former governor of Egypt, whom they accused of involvement in Uthman's death. Mu'awiya and Amr, who was popular with the Arab troops of Egypt, made a pact whereby the latter joined the coalition against Ali and Mu'awiya publicly agreed to install Amr as Egypt's lifetime governor should they oust Ali's appointee. 1490:, the agreement forced Ali "to deal with Mu'awiya on equal terms and abandon his unchallenged right to lead the community". Madelung asserts it "handed Mu'awiya a moral victory" before inducing a "disastrous split in the ranks of Ali's men". Indeed, upon Ali's return to his capital Kufa in September 658, a large segment of his troops who had opposed the arbitration defected, inaugurating the 1801:(reserved area) within mosques. The caliph's treasury was largely dependent on the tax revenues of Syria and income from the crown lands that he confiscated in Iraq and Arabia. He also received the customary fifth of the war booty acquired by his commanders during expeditions. In the Jazira, Mu'awiya coped with the tribal influx, which spanned previously established groups such as the 1929:, who possessed considerable administrative and military experience in Iraq and was highly familiar with the region's inhabitants and issues. Under his nearly decade-long administration, al-Mughira maintained peace in the city, overlooked transgressions that did not threaten his rule, allowed the Kufans to keep possession of the lucrative Sasanian crown lands in the 2636:, which in his case meant mildness, slowness to anger, subtlety, and management of people by perceiving their needs and desires. The historical tradition is rife with anecdotes of his political acumen and self-control. In one such anecdote, when inquired about allowing one of his courtiers to address him with arrogance, he remarked: 2596:), which was the determining factor in the choice of earlier caliphs, gave way to the might of the sword, the people became his subjects and he became the "absolute lord over their life and death". He strangled the communal spirit of Islam and used the religion as a tool of "social control, exploitation and military terrorization". 1037:. By the time the Muslims entered Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a had accumulated significant military experience and were accustomed to hierarchical order and military obedience. To harness their strength and thereby secure his foothold in Syria, Mu'awiya consolidated ties to the Kalb's ruling house, the clan of 2552:'s assessment, Mu'awiya was an accomplished diplomat "allowing matters to ripen of themselves, and only now and then assisting their progress". He further states that Mu'awiya had the ability to identify and employ the most talented men at his service and made even those whom he distrusted work for him. 2247:

in the Syrian littoral during that time. A thirty-year treaty was concluded, obliging the Caliphate to pay an annual tribute of 3,000 gold coins, 50 horses and 30 slaves, and withdraw their troops from the forward bases they had occupied on the Byzantine coast. But other Byzantine and Islamic sources

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a generation later. The historian Marek Jankowiak on the other hand, in a revisionist reconstruction of the events reliant on the Arabic and Syriac sources, asserts that the assault came earlier than what is reported by Theophanes, and that the multitude of campaigns that were reported during 668–669

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One of the earliest known Arabic inscriptions from Mu'awiya's reign was found at a soil-conservation dam called Sayisad 32 kilometers (20 mi) east of Ta'if, which credits Mu'awiya for the dam's construction in 677 or 678 and asks God to give him victory and strength. Mu'awiya is also credited as

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In 669, Mu'awiya's navy raided as far as Sicily. The following year, the wide-scale fortification of Alexandria was completed. While the histories of al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri report that Mu'awiya's forces captured Rhodes in 672–674 and colonized the island for seven years before withdrawing during

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There is little information in the early Muslim sources about Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, the center of his caliphate. He established his court in Damascus and moved the caliphal treasury there from Kufa. He relied on his Syrian tribal soldiery, numbering about 100,000 men, increasing their pay at the

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before occupying the island. In either case, the Cypriots were forced to pay a tribute equal to that which they had paid the Byzantines. Mu'awiya established a garrison and a mosque to maintain the Caliphate's influence on the island, which became a staging ground for the Arabs and the Byzantines to

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was the first to have a bodyguard, police-force and chamberlains ... He had somebody walk in front of him with a spear, took alms out of the stipends and sat on a throne with the people below him ... He used forced labour for his building projects ... He was the first to turn this matter into mere

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Mu'awiya was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. The inscriptions from his reign lacked any explicit reference to Islam or Muhammad and the only titles that appear are 'servant of God' and 'commander of the faithful'. This has led

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gate of the city and the funeral prayers were led by al-Dahhak ibn Qays, who mourned Mu'awiya as the "stick of the Arabs and the blade of the Arabs, by means of whom God, Almighty and Great, cut off strife, whom He made sovereign over mankind, by means of whom he conquered countries, but now he has

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According to Hinds, in addition to Yazid's nobility, age and sound judgement, "most important of all" was his connection to the Kalb. The Kalb-led Quda'a confederation was the foundation of Sufyanid rule and Yazid's succession signaled the continuation of this alliance. In nominating Yazid, the son

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Mu'awiya possessed more personal experience than any other caliph fighting the Byzantines, the principal external threat to the Caliphate, and pursued the war against the Empire more energetically and continuously than his successors. The First Fitna caused the Arabs to lose control over Armenia to

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Mu'awiya's primary internal challenge was overseeing a Syria-based government that could reunite the politically and socially fractured Caliphate and assert authority over the tribes which formed its armies. He applied indirect rule to the Caliphate's provinces, appointing governors with full civil

1878:'s church after it was ruined in an earthquake in 679. He demonstrated a keen interest in Jerusalem. Although archaeological evidence is lacking, there are indications in medieval literary sources that a rudimentary mosque on the Temple Mount existed as early as Mu'awiya's time or was built by him. 1357:

Ali's victory in Basra left Mu'awiya vulnerable, his territory wedged between Ali's forces in Iraq and Egypt, while the war with the Byzantines was ongoing in the north. In 657 or 658 Mu'awiya secured his northern frontier with Byzantium by making a truce with the emperor, enabling him to focus the

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when word reached them of Uthman's killing. Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was recognized as caliph in Medina. Mu'awiya withheld allegiance to Ali and, according to some reports, the latter deposed him by sending his own governor to Syria, who was denied entry into the province by Mu'awiya.

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The surviving Muslim histories originated in Abbasid-era Iraq. The compilers, the narrators from whom the stories were collected, and the overall public sentiment in Iraq were hostile to the Syria-based Umayyads, under whom Syria was a privileged province and Iraq was locally perceived as a Syrian

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states that although maintaining the integrity of the Caliphate would have been an achievement on its own, Mu'awiya was intent on vigorously continuing the conquests that had been initiated by Abu Bakr and Umar. By creating a formidable navy, he made the Caliphate the dominant force in the eastern

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In a move unprecedented in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, Yazid, as his successor. The caliph likely held ambitions for his son's succession over a considerable period. In 666, he allegedly had his governor in Homs, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid, poisoned to remove him as a potential

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The struggle over the succession of Constantine IV drew Byzantine focus away from the African front. In 670, Mu'awiya appointed Uqba as Egypt's deputy governor over the North African lands under Arab control west of Egypt. At the head of a 10,000-strong force, Uqba commenced his expedition against

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and the barren valley of Mecca he dug numerous wells and canals, constructed dams and dikes to protect the soil from seasonal floods, and built fountains and reservoirs. His efforts saw extensive grain fields and date palm groves spring up across Mecca's suburbs, which remained in this state until

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and pro-Alid factions. Uthman and Ali were thus regarded along with the first two caliphs as divinely guided, whereas Mu'awiya and those who came after him were viewed as oppressive tyrants. Nevertheless, the Sunnis accord him the status of a companion of Muhammad and consider him a scribe of the

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In Medina, Mu'awiya's distant kinsmen Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Sa'id ibn al-As and Ibn Amir accepted Mu'awiya's succession order, albeit disapprovingly. Most opponents of Mu'awiya's order in Iraq and among the Umayyads and Quraysh of the Hejaz were ultimately threatened or bribed into acceptance. The

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In Egypt Amr governed more as a partner of Mu'awiya than a subordinate until his death in 664. He was permitted to retain the surplus revenues of the province. The caliph ordered the resumption of Egyptian grain and oil shipments to Medina, ending the hiatus caused by the First Fitna. After Amr's

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dismiss the claim; the former called it an "absurdity" and "incredible" that Mu'awiya "would have deprived himself of one of his best men" and the more likely scenario was that Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid had been ill and Mu'awiya attempted to have him treated by Ibn Uthal, who was unsuccessful. De

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in Iraq and whose grip in Basra and Iraq's eastern and southern dependencies was eroding. Though his hand was strengthened, Mu'awiya refrained from launching a direct assault against Ali. Instead, his strategy was to bribe the tribal chieftains in Ali's army to his side and harry the inhabitants

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notes that Mu'awiya gave a very Islamic challenge to the Byzantine emperor Constans to "deny Jesus and turn to the Great God whom I worship, the God of our father Abraham" and speculates that Mu'awiya's tour of Christian sites in Jerusalem was done to demonstrate "the fact that he, and not the

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Although revenge for Uthman's assassination had been the basis upon which Mu'awiya claimed the right to the caliphate, he neither emulated Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyad clan nor used them to assert his own power. With minor exceptions, members of the clan were not appointed to the wealthy

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Following al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to Ziyad's Basran governorship, making him the caliph's virtual viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate. Ziyad tackled Iraq's core economic problem of overpopulation in the garrison cities and the consequent

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and military authority. Although in principle governors were obliged to forward surplus tax revenues to the caliph, in practice most of the surplus was distributed among the provincial garrisons and Damascus received a negligible share. During Mu'awiya's caliphate, the governors relied on the

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in his internal decision-making. Uthman demanded that the surplus revenue from the conquered lands, which had been declared state property by Umar but remained under the control of the conquering tribesmen, be forwarded to Medina. He also made land grants to his relatives and other prominent

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The Arab presence in Egypt was mostly limited to the central garrison at Fustat and the smaller garrison at Alexandria. The influx of Syrian troops brought by Amr in 658 and the Basran troops sent by Ziyad in 673 swelled Fustat's 15,000-strong garrison to 40,000 during Mu'awiya's reign. Utba

2650:) of tribal chiefs, and persuading them with flattery, arguments, and presents. This is exemplified in a saying attributed to him: "I never use my voice if I can use my money, never my whip if I can use my voice, never my sword if I can use my whip; but, if I have to use my sword, I will." 2765:) son of an accursed man" and prophesying that he will die as an unbeliever. Unlike the Sunnis, the Shia deny him the status of a companion and also refute the Sunni claims that he was a scribe of the Qur'anic revelation. Like other opponents of Ali, Mu'awiya is cursed in a ritual called 2566:

In the long-term, Mu'awiya's system proved precarious and unviable. Reliance on personal relations meant his government was dependent on paying and pleasing its agents instead of commanding them. This created a "system of indulgence", according to Crone. The governors became increasingly

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who reports in the early Islamic sources connect to the city's conquest, are mentioned as witnesses. The date of the inscription is several years after Abu Ubayda's death and roughly corresponds with the death of Abd al-Rahman, but coincides with the governorship of Mu'awiya, who was a

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Mu'awiya's reliance on the native Syrian Arab tribes was compounded by the heavy toll inflicted on the Muslim troops in Syria by the plague of Amwas, which caused troop numbers to dwindle from 24,000 in 637 to 4,000 in 639. Moreover, the focus of Arabian tribal migration was toward the

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formed part of Mu'awiya's army in northern Syria. To help pay for his troops, Mu'awiya requested and was granted ownership by Uthman of the abundant, income-producing, Byzantine crown lands in Syria, which were previously designated by Umar as communal property for the Muslim army.

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the patron of a second dam called al-Khanaq 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) east of Medina, according to an inscription found at the site. This is possibly the dam between Medina and the gold mines of the Banu Sulaym tribe attributed to Mu'awiya by the historians al-Harbi (d. 898) and

2200:, who formed a pact with the caliph, in spring 667. The caliph dispatched an army under Fadala, but before it could be joined by the Armenians, Saborios died. Mu'awiya then sent reinforcements led by Yazid who led the Arab army's invasion in the summer. An Arab fleet reached the 1552:

from the Syrians. In response, Ali broke off communications with Mu'awiya, mobilized for war and invoked a curse against Mu'awiya and his close retinue as a ritual in the morning prayers. Mu'awiya reciprocated in kind against Ali and his closest supporters in his own domain.

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The initial agreement postponed the arbitration to a later date. Information in the early Muslim sources about the time, place and outcome of the arbitration is contradictory, but there were likely two meetings between Mu'awiya's and Ali's respective representatives, Amr and

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and an introduction of dynastic rule on par with the Byzantines and Sasanians. The civil war that erupted after Mu'awiya's death is asserted to have been the direct consequence of Yazid's nomination. In the Islamic tradition, Mu'awiya and the Umayyads are given the title of

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writing in the 690s "has nothing but praise for the first Umayyad caliph ... of whose reign he says 'the peace throughout the world was such that we have never heard, either from our fathers or from our grandparents, or seen that there had ever been any like it'".

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near Raqqa and engaged in days of skirmishes interrupted by a month-long truce on 19 June. During the truce, Mu'awiya dispatched an embassy led by Habib ibn Maslama, who presented Ali with an ultimatum to hand over Uthman's alleged killers, abdicate and allow a

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confederation present throughout Syria. Medina consistently courted the Kalb, which had remained mostly neutral during the Arab–Byzantine wars, particularly after the central government's entreaties to the Byzantines' principal Arab allies, the Christian

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the lands of Hadarim, where he employed 4,000 slaves, likely to cultivate its fields. The caliph gained possession of estates in and near Ta'if which, together with the lands of his brothers Anbasa and Utba, formed a considerable cluster of properties.

559:, correspondence, and chancellery. He was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. Externally, he engaged his troops in almost yearly land and sea raids against the Byzantines, including a 2503:(d. 1046) says it occurred on 21 April. In his last testament, Mu'awiya told his family "Fear God, Almighty and Great, for God, praise Him, protects whoever fears Him, and there is no protector for one who does not fear God". He was buried next to the 728:, who had embraced Islam fifteen years earlier. The marriage may have reduced Abu Sufyan's hostility toward Muhammad and Abu Sufyan negotiated with him in Medina in 630 after confederates of the Quraysh violated the Hudaybiyya truce. When Muhammad 4126:

and the early Muslim elite sought to secure Syria, with which they had long been acquainted, for themselves and encouraged the nomadic Arab late converts among the Muslim troops to immigrate to Iraq. According to Madelung, Umar may have promoted

1467:(d. 742), this prompted Amr ibn al-As to counsel Mu'awiya the following morning to have a number of his men tie leaves of the Qur'an on their lances in an appeal to the Iraqis to settle the conflict through consultation. According to the scholar 2804:. At about the same time, the Shia were permitted by the Buyids and the Sunni Abbasid caliphs to perform the ritual cursing of Mu'awiya in mosques. In 10th–11th-century Egypt, the figure of Mu'awiya occasionally played a similar role, with the 2046:. The latter was instructed to demolish Marwan's house, but refused and when Marwan was restored in 674, he also refused Mu'awiya's order to demolish Sa'id's house. Mu'awiya dismissed Marwan once more in 678, replacing him with his own nephew, 618:. While there is considerable admiration for Mu'awiya in the contemporary sources, he has been criticized for lacking the justice and piety of the Rashidun and transforming the office of the caliphate into a kingship. Besides these criticisms, 1393:, by allowing the latter's confiscation of the district's treasury to go unpunished. The efforts bore fruit and demands for war against Ali grew throughout Mu'awiya's domain. When Ali sent his envoy, the veteran commander and chieftain of the 2426:

It was not until the latter half of his reign that Mu'awiya publicly declared Yazid heir apparent, though the early Muslim sources offer divergent details about the timing and location of the events relating to the decision. The accounts of

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through the winter, besieged Constantinople in spring 668, but due to famine and disease, lifted the siege in late June. The Arabs continued their campaigns in Constantinople's vicinity before withdrawing to Syria most likely in late 669.

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defected to Ibn al-Zubayr, as did the Qaysite tribes, who had migrated to Syria during Mu'awiya's reign and were opposed to the Quda'a confederation on whom Sufyanid power rested. In a matter of months the authority of Yazid's successor,

9714: 2063:, the summer in Ta'if, the winter in Mecca". He purchased several large tracts throughout Arabia and invested considerable sums to develop the lands for agricultural use. According to the Muslim literary tradition, in the plain of 1976:

was appointed gradually by Mu'awiya to all of his father's former offices. In effect, by relying on al-Mughira and Ziyad and his sons, Mu'awiya franchised the administration of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate to members of the elite

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and Mu'awiya entered Kufa in July or September 661 and was recognized as caliph. This year is considered by a number of the early Muslim sources as 'the year of unity' and is generally regarded as the start of Mu'awiya's caliphate.

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to conquer the Hejaz and Yemen. He directed Busr to intimidate Medina's inhabitants without harming them, spare the Meccans and kill anyone in Yemen who refused to pledge their allegiance. Busr advanced through Medina, Mecca and

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In 624, Muhammad and his followers attempted to intercept a Meccan caravan led by Mu'awiya's father on its return from Syria, prompting Abu Sufyan to call for reinforcements. The Qurayshite relief army was routed in the ensuing

966:, who surmises that Umar had little choice, due to the lack of a suitable alternative to Mu'awiya in Syria and the ongoing plague in the region, which precluded the deployment of commanders more preferable to Umar from Medina. 2590:

Mediterranean and the Aegean. Control of northeastern Iran was secured and the Caliphate's frontier was expanded in North Africa. Madelung deems Mu'awiya a corruptor of the caliphal office, under whom the precedence in Islam (

7884: 844:. The caliph appointed Mu'awiya commander of Yazid's vanguard. Through these appointments Abu Bakr gave the family of Abu Sufyan a stake in the conquest of Syria, where Abu Sufyan already owned property in the vicinity of 2467:, all prominent Medina-based sons of earlier caliphs or close companions of Muhammad. As they possessed the nearest claims to the caliphate, Mu'awiya was determined to obtain their recognition. According to the historian 1678:

Before and/or after Ali's death, Mu'awiya received oaths of allegiance in one or two formal ceremonies in Jerusalem, the first in late 660 or early 661 and the second in July 661. The 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer

1458:

Mu'awiya rejected suggestions from his advisers to engage Ali in a duel and definitively end hostilities. The battle climaxed on the so-called 'Night of Clamor' on 28 July, which saw Ali's forces take the advantage in a

9818: 980:, was confirmed as governor of the Homs-Jazira district. In late 646 or early 647, Uthman attached the Homs-Jazira district to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship, greatly increasing the military manpower at his disposal. 2423:

rival to Yazid. The Syrian Arabs, with whom Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid was popular, had viewed the governor as the caliph's most suitable successor by dint of his military record and descent from Khalid ibn al-Walid.

1556:

In July, Mu'awiya dispatched an army under Amr to Egypt after a request for intervention from pro-Uthman mutineers in the province who were being suppressed by the governor, Caliph Abu Bakr's son and Ali's stepson,

9377:

Marsham, Andrew (2013). "The Architecture of Allegiance in Early Islamic Late Antiquity: The Accession of Mu'awiya in Jerusalem, ca. 661 CE". In Beihammer, Alexander; Constantinou, Stavroula; Parani, Maria (eds.).

2626:

publicly condemned Mu'awiya and other Umayyad caliphs. As such, the Muslim historical tradition is by and large anti-Umayyad. Nonetheless, in the case of Mu'awiya it portrays him in a relatively balanced manner.

1645:, he withdrew upon the approach of a Kufan relief force. News of Busr's actions in Arabia spurred Ali's troops to rally behind his planned campaign against Mu'awiya, but the expedition was aborted as a result of 949:

The successive promotions of Abu Sufyan's sons contradicted Umar's efforts to otherwise curtail the influence of the Qurayshite aristocracy in the Muslim state in favor of the earliest Muslim converts (i.e. the

2016:

in 667. Maslama remained governor for the duration of Mu'awiya's reign, significantly expanding Fustat and its mosque and boosting the city's importance in 674 by relocating Egypt's main shipyard to the nearby

677:, the dominant tribe of Mecca, during the early stages of the Quraysh's conflict with Muhammad. The latter also hailed from the Quraysh and was distantly related to Mu'awiya via their common paternal ancestor, 1060:. Mu'awiya oversaw a liberal recruitment policy that resulted in considerable numbers of Christian tribesmen and frontier peasants filling the ranks of his regular and auxiliary forces. Indeed, the Christian 9875: 9635: 2680:, as opposed to the humility of Muhammad. Mu'awiya was compared to these monarchs mainly because he appointed his son Yazid as the next caliph, which was viewed as a violation of the Islamic principle of 2519:, the autonomous 9th-century ruler of Egypt and Syria, erected a structure on the grave in 883 or 884 and employed members of the public to regularly recite the Qur'an and light candles around the tomb. 1777:). According to al-Tabari, following an assassination attempt by the Kharijite al-Burak ibn Abd Allah on Mu'awiya while he was praying in the mosque of Damascus in 661, Mu'awiya established a caliphal 8728: 2042:. The caliph attempted to weaken the clan by provoking internal divisions. Among the measures taken was the replacement of Marwan from the governorship of Medina in 668 with another leading Umayyad, 9580: 2054:(the clan of Muhammad and Caliph Ali), the families of Muhammad's closest companions, the once-prominent Banu Makhzum, and the Ansar was generally characterized by suspicion or outright hostility. 1215:

launch raids against each other's territories. The inhabitants of Cyprus were largely left to their own devices and archaeological evidence indicates uninterrupted prosperity during this period.

9932: 1272:, the third attempt in 650 ended with a three-year truce reached between Mu'awiya and the Byzantine envoy Procopios in Damascus. In 653, Mu'awiya received the submission of the Armenian leader 2614:

colony. Moreover, the Abbasids, having overthrown the Umayyads in 750, saw them as illegitimate rulers and further tarnished their memory to enhance their own legitimacy. Abbasid caliphs like

2114:

native, pro-Byzantine princes, but in 661 Habib ibn Maslama re-invaded the region. The following year, Armenia became a tributary of the Caliphate and Mu'awiya recognized the Armenian prince

1310:, prompting Mu'awiya to expel him. Uthman's confiscation of crown lands in Iraq and his alleged nepotism drove the Quraysh and the dispossessed elites of Kufa and Egypt to oppose the caliph. 4252:'s Iraqi forces gained the advantage during the battle prompting the Syrians to appeal for a settlement by arbitration. This is contrasted by a number of early non-Muslim sources, including 2742:). On these accounts, he is also respected. Some Sunnis defend his war against Ali holding that although he was in error, he acted according to his best judgment and had no evil intentions. 2232:), the Byzantines began a counteroffensive against the Caliphate, first raiding Egypt in 672 or 673, while in winter 673, Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays led a large fleet that raided 2788:, the figure of Mu'awiya became a propaganda tool used by the Shia and the Sunnis opposed to them. Strong pro-Mu'awiya sentiments were voiced by Sunnis in several Abbasid cities, including 1206:. Katwa died on the island and at some point Mu'awiya married her sister Fakhita. In a different narrative by the early Muslim sources, the raid was instead conducted by Mu'awiya's admiral 918:). When Yazid succumbed to the plague later that year, Umar appointed Mu'awiya the military and fiscal governor of Damascus, and possibly Jordan as well. In 640 or 641, Mu'awiya captured 2118:

as its commander. Not long after the civil war, Mu'awiya broke the truce with Byzantium, and on a near-annual or bi-annual basis the caliph engaged his Syrian troops in raids across the

4286: 1306:, who had been sent to Damascus for openly condemning Uthman's enrichment of his kinsmen. He criticized the lavish sums that Mu'awiya invested in building his Damascus residence, the 4277:

between 679 and 681 and noted that a makeshift Muslim prayer house built of beams and clay with a capacity for 3,000 worshipers had been erected on the Temple Mount, while a Jewish

2443:(896–956) and al-Tabari do not mention provincial delegations other than a Basran embassy led by Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad in 678–679 or 679–680, respectively, which recognized Yazid. 2243:

In 677, 678 or 679, according to Theophanes, Mu'awiya sued for peace with Constantine IV, possibly as a result of the destruction of his fleet or the Byzantines' deployment of the

4165:

Uthman's efforts to maintain Qurayshite control over the Caliphate and assert control over the loose financial system of Umar, saw the appointment of his close relatives from the

7850:

Athamina, Khalil (1994). "The Appointment and Dismissal of Khalid ibn al-Walid from the Supreme Command: A Study of the Political Strategy of the Early Muslim Caliphs in Syria".

2753:. His conversion to Islam is held to be devoid of any conviction and to have been motivated by convenience after Muhammad conquered Mecca. On this basis he is given the title of 2511:

Mu'awiya's grave was a visitation site as late as the 10th century. Al-Mas'udi holds that a mausoleum was built over the grave and was open to visitors on Mondays and Thursdays.

1478:

The caliph adhered to the will of the majority in his army and accepted the proposal to arbitrate. Moreover, Ali agreed to Amr's, or Mu'awiya's, demand to omit his formal title,

2563:, the success of Mu'awiya's style of governance is "attested by the fact that he managed to hold his kingdom together without ever having to resort to using his Syrian troops". 2188:

represented the coordinated efforts by Mu'awiya to conquer the Byzantine capital. Al-Tabari reports that Mu'awiya's son Yazid led a campaign against Constantinople in 669 and

2379:

Mu'awiya dismissed Uqba in 673, probably out of concern that he would form an independent power base in the lucrative regions that he had conquered. The new Arab province,

1907:

upstarts and the nascent Muslim elite, the latter of which was further divided between Ali's partisans and the Kharijites. Mu'awiya's ascent signaled the rise of the Kufan

1322:

This is rejected by Madelung, according to whom no formal relations existed between the caliph and the governor of Syria for seven months from the date of Ali's election.

4118:'s dismissal from the general command in Syria and the subsequent recall to Iraq of the numerous tribesmen in Khalid's army, who were likely perceived as a threat by the 8523:

Hasson, Isaac (1982). "Remarques sur l'inscription de l'époque de Mu'āwiya à Ḥammat Gader" [Notes on the inscription from the time of Mu'āwiya to Ḥammat Gader].

4206: 2721:

In contrast to the four earlier caliphs, who are considered as models of piety and having governed with justice, Mu'awiya is not recognized as a rightly-guided caliph (

528:

in 657, prompting an abortive series of arbitration talks to settle the dispute. Afterward, Mu'awiya gained recognition as caliph by his Syrian supporters and his ally

2240:, in 673 or 674. The next year, Abd Allah ibn Qays and Fadala landed in Crete and in 675 or 676, a Byzantine fleet assaulted Maraclea, killing the governor of Homs. 1839:. The latter had served Mu'awiya in the same capacity before his attainment of the caliphate, and Sarjun's father was the likely holder of the office under Emperor 2491:(d. 819) placing it on 7 April, al-Waqidi on 21 April and al-Mada'ini on 29 April. Yazid, who was away from Damascus at the time of his father's death, is held by 2372:

and the coastal areas, which had remained under Byzantine control, to serve as a base for further expeditions. It also aided Muslim conversion efforts among the

4311: 1691:, and received his formal oaths of allegiance there. According to the earliest extant source about Mu'awiya's accession in Jerusalem, the near-contemporaneous 4057:

Mu'awiya is probably the 'Mu'awiya' mentioned as the 'writer' in an Arabic inscription, apparently dated to 652, excavated at the southwestern section of the

2759:(freed slave of Muhammad). A number of hadiths are ascribed to Muhammad condemning Mu'awiya and his father Abu Sufyan in which he is called "an accursed man ( 2196:

respectively. According to Jankowiak, Mu'awiya likely ordered the invasion during an opportunity presented by the rebellion of the Byzantine Armenian general

2145:(d. 941), the first raid of Mu'awiya's caliphate occurred in 662 or 663, during which his forces inflicted a heavy defeat on a Byzantine army with numerous 1948:. He was unable to maintain order in Basra, where there was growing resentment toward the distant campaigns. Consequently, Mu'awiya replaced Ibn Amir with 1617:

oasis. This initial foray was defeated by the Kufans, while an attempt to extract oaths of allegiance from the Quraysh of Mecca in April 660 also failed.

3993: 2471:(d. 764), before his death, Mu'awiya ordered certain measures to be taken against them, entrusting these tasks to his loyalists al-Dahhak ibn Qays and 1096:

were established to house Muslim troops and their administration, in Syria the troops settled in existing cities, including Damascus, Homs, Jerusalem,

1092:

to Byzantine territory, while those who remained held pro-Byzantine sympathies. In contrast to the other conquered regions of the Caliphate, where new

10013:

Shahin, Aram A. (2012). "In Defense of Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān: Treatises and Monographs on Muʿāwiya from the Eighth to the Nineteenth Centuries". In

1401:, to Mu'awiya, the latter responded with a letter that amounted to a declaration of war against the caliph, whose legitimacy he refused to recognize. 1398: 756:(scribes), being one of seventeen literate members of the Quraysh at that time. Abu Sufyan moved to Medina to maintain his newfound influence in the 1952:

in 664 or 665. The latter had been the longest of Ali's loyalists to withhold recognition of Mu'awiya's caliphate and had barricaded himself in the

1385:, who was widely respected in Syria, to rally the Yemenites to his side. He then enlisted support from the dominant tribal leader of Palestine, the 2585:

Kennedy views the preservation of the Caliphate's unity as Mu'awiya's greatest achievement. Expressing a similar viewpoint, Mu'awiya's biographer

829:

and Banu Abd Shams, to shore up support for the Caliphate. Among those Qurayshites whom he appointed to suppress the rebel Arab tribes during the

10485: 1901:

Challenges to central authority in general, and to Mu'awiya's rule in particular, were most acute in Iraq, where divisions were rife between the

1167:

Mu'awiya initiated the Arab naval campaigns against the Byzantines in the eastern Mediterranean, requisitioning the harbors of Tripoli, Beirut,

2395:

to replace Uqba, who was arrested and transferred to Mu'awiya's custody in Damascus. Abu al-Muhajir continued the westward campaigns as far as

1711:, both adjacent to the Temple Mount. The Maronite Chronicles also maintain that Mu'awiya "did not wear a crown like other kings in the world". 2676:). 'Khosrow' was used by the Arabs as a reference to Sasanian Persian monarchs in general, who the Arabs associated with worldly splendor and 2630:

On the one hand, it portrays him as a successful ruler who implemented his will with persuasion instead of force. It stresses his quality of

2548:

Apart from his war with Ali, he did not deploy his Syrian troops domestically, and often used monetary gifts as a tool to avoid conflict. In

2236:

and the coasts of Cilicia and Lycia. The Byzantines landed a major victory against an Arab army and fleet led by Sufyan ibn Awf, possibly at

1968:. This also consolidated the previously weak and unstable Arab position in the Caliphate's easternmost province and enabled conquests toward 4136: 748:

with Medina as the seat of the Muslim government. As part of Muhammad's efforts to reconcile with the Quraysh, Mu'awiya was made one of his

2578:, was restricted to Damascus and its environs. Although the Umayyads, backed by the Quda'a, were able to reconquer the Caliphate after the 2102: 1226:

in 653. From the raid on Rhodes, Mu'awiya remitted significant war spoils to Uthman. In 654 or 655, a joint naval expedition launched from

606:, as his successor. It was an unprecedented move in Islamic politics and opposition to it by prominent Muslim leaders, including Ali's son 551:

Domestically, Mu'awiya relied on loyalist Syrian Arab tribes and Syria's Christian-dominated bureaucracy. He is credited with establishing

8443: 1964:

scarcity of resources by reducing the number of troops on the payrolls and dispatching 50,000 Iraqi soldiers and their families to settle

10460: 8328: 1862:("God's Servant Mu'awiya, commander of the faithful"; the caliph's name is preceded by a cross) and credits him for restoring Roman-era 1633:

and its vicinity on account of past criticism of Uthman or ties to Ali, massacred numerous tribesmen of the Hamdan and townspeople from

17: 9305:

The Byzantine Response to the Spread of the Arabs. Studies on the structural change of the Byzantine state in the 7th and 8th centuries

2343:

in 670, during Mu'awiya's reign. Uqba served as Mu'awiya's lieutenant governor over North Africa until the caliph dismissed him in 673.

1670:, the commander of Hasan's vanguard, to desert his post and sent envoys to negotiate with Hasan. In return for a financial settlement, 8649: 1913:

represented by Ali's erstwhile backers al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and Jarir ibn Abd Allah, at the expense of Ali's old guard represented by

1136: 821:, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven from his erstwhile Meccan opponents, and the mass defections of several 2644:

The tradition presents him operating in the way of a traditional tribal sheikh who lacks absolute authority; summoning delegations (

2640:

I do not insert myself between the people and their tongue, so long as they do not insert themselves between us and our sovereignty.

1542:

Following the breakdown of the arbitration talks, Amr and the Syrian delegates returned to Damascus, where they greeted Mu'awiya as

1276:, which the Byzantine emperor practically conceded when he withdrew from Armenia that year. In 655, Mu'awiya's lieutenant commander 9301:

Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd

8602:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVII: The First Civil War: From the Battle of Siffīn to the Death of ʿAlī, A.D. 656–661/A.H. 36–40

2146: 2811:

caliphs introducing measures opposed to Mu'awiya's memory and opponents of the government using him as a tool to berate the Shia.

2057:

Despite his relocation to Damascus, Mu'awiya remained fond of his original homeland and made known his longing for "the spring in

1486:(commander of the faithful, the traditional title of a caliph), from the initial arbitration document. According to the historian 8546: 8133: 2308:, a Qurayshite commander who had played a key role in the Arabs' capture of Cyrenaica in 641, reasserted Muslim influence in the 630:, Mu'awiya is reviled for opposing Ali, accused of poisoning his son Hasan, and held to have accepted Islam without conviction. 85: 10407: 10383: 7968: 744:, Mu'awiya had secretly become a Muslim from the time of the Hudaybiyya negotiations. By 632 Muslim authority extended across 10036: 9803: 9675: 9620: 9565: 9544: 9499: 9478: 9389: 9286: 9184: 9160: 9136: 9112: 9038: 8956: 8907: 8859: 8811: 8775: 8760: 8689: 8610: 8586: 8393: 8215: 8191: 8121: 8008: 7916: 2702:

The contemporary non-Muslim sources generally present a benign image of Mu'awiya. The Greek historian Theophanes calls him a

2184: 2162: 1365:

Although he had the firm backing of the Kalb, to shore up the rest of his base in Syria, Mu'awiya was advised by his kinsman

560: 9534: 1835:

Syria retained its Byzantine-era bureaucracy, which was staffed by Christians including the head of the tax administration,

1629:, encountering no resistance and gaining those cities' recognition of Mu'awiya. In Yemen, Busr executed several notables in 10465: 10455: 9220: 4131:

and Mu'awiya as guarantors of the Caliphate's authority in Syria against the growing "strength and high ambitions" of the

2653:

On the other hand, the tradition also portrays him as a despot who perverted the caliphate into kingship. In the words of

2487:(April or May 680 CE), at around the age of 80. The medieval accounts vary regarding the specific date of his death, with 8273: 9962: 9905: 9848: 9732: 9661: 9606: 9464: 9250: 8797: 8746: 8675: 8572: 8473: 8291: 8155: 7994: 7902: 4239:

came to mean a civil war or rebellion which causes rifts in the unified Muslim community and endangers believers' faith.

1662:

After Ali was killed, Mu'awiya left al-Dahhak ibn Qays in charge of Syria and led his army toward Kufa, where Ali's son

1254: 10475: 10470: 10129: 3542: 1606: 9367: 9205: 9088: 9064: 9014: 8931: 8883: 8634: 8513: 8372: 8236: 8100: 8036: 2460: 2149:

slain. In the next year a raid led by Busr reached Constantinople and in 664 or 665, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid raided

1370: 1358:

bulk of his troops on the impending battle with the caliph. After failing to gain the defection of Egypt's governor,

870:

with Caliph Umar in 637. Afterward, Mu'awiya and Yazid were dispatched by Abu Ubayda to conquer the coastal towns of

142: 2097: 1870:, "by this deed, the new caliph sought to please" his Christian subjects. The caliph often spent his winters at his 10154: 2047: 1569:, leader of the pro-Uthman rebels. The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the authority of Ali, who was bogged down 867: 575:, the latter of whom he controversially adopted as his brother. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of 10249: 8875:

After Bardaisan: Studies on Continuity and Change in Syriac Christianity in Honour of Professor Han J. W. Drijvers

1813:

confederations and civil war refugees from Kufa and Basra, by administratively detaching the military district of

424:, ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet 2013: 9945: 9888: 9831: 9233: 8456: 930:, completing the Muslim conquest of Palestine. As early as 640 or 641, Mu'awiya may have led a campaign against 833:(632–633) was Mu'awiya's brother Yazid. Afterward, he was dispatched as one of four commanders in charge of the 10149: 9536:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVIII: Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Muʿāwiyah, 661–680 A.D./A.H. 40–60

9443: 4153: 1579: 671: 2126:, elite Persian soldiers, from Kufa and Basra to the garrison at Antioch. A few years later, Mu'awiya settled 486: 9307:] (in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München. 4174: 4093:. Sharon thus surmises the inscription was a legal document written by Mu'awiya to commemorate the surrender. 2218: 911: 834: 467: 1940:, who had served in the office under Uthman. During Mu'awiya's reign, Ibn Amir recommenced expeditions into 8252:

Arabische Nation und islamische Geschichte: Die Umayyaden im Urteil arabischer Autoren des 20. Jahrhunderts

2260:

A map depicting growth of the Caliphate. During the reign of Mu'awiya, the Muslims conquered the region of

1198:, Mu'awiya led the raid in person accompanied by his wife, Katwa bint Qaraza ibn Abd Amr of the Qurayshite 1013:, were rebuffed. Before the advent of Islam in Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a, long under the influence of 31: 1575: 9509:

Al-Rashid, Saad bin Abdulaziz (2008). "Sadd al-Khanaq: An Early Umayyad Dam near Medina, Saudi Arabia".

1671: 1076:-speaking Christian population remained largely intact, the Muslim conquest had caused a mass flight of 724:

between the Quraysh and Muhammad in 628. The following year, Muhammad married Mu'awiya's widowed sister

10480: 9688:(2018). "Witnessed by Three Disciples of the Prophet: The Jerusalem 32 Inscription from 32 AH/652 CE". 9357: 4149: 2464: 1933:

district and, unlike under past administrations, consistently and timely paid the garrison's stipends.

1381:, who collectively dominated the Homs garrison. He employed the veteran commander and Kindite nobleman 1277: 1014: 650:

Mu'awiya's year of birth is uncertain, with 597, 603 or 605 cited by early Islamic sources. His father

10401: 4326:

consider Mu'awiya's role in the affair as an allegation of the early Muslim sources. The Orientalists

862:, as the general commander of the Muslim army in Syria in 636 after the rout of the Byzantines at the 10204: 9652: 9597: 9451: 9399: 8784: 8737: 8666: 8563: 8138: 7985: 7893: 3978: 2750: 1057: 866:, which paved the way for the conquest of the rest of Syria. Mu'awiya was among the Arab troops that 90: 10338: 4173:

to all of the Caliphate's major governorships. These provincial appointments included Syria and the

1981:

clan, which had long-established ties to the Quraysh and were instrumental in the conquest of Iraq.

1719: 9941: 9884: 9827: 9229: 8991:

Jankowiak, Marek (2013). "The First Arab Siege of Constantinople". In Zuckerman, Constantin (ed.).

8452: 7926: 7879: 4299: 4253: 4210: 4077: 4066: 4061:

in 1968. The inscription consists of nine lines, only few of which are legible, that the historian

2331: 2214: 2173: 2086: 1926: 1741: 1531: 859: 533: 10413: 10293: 10288: 2179:

However, the dating and the very historicity of this view has been challenged; the Oxford scholar

1337:, who feared the loss of their own influence under Ali. The ensuing civil war became known as the 10369: 10219: 10194: 9104:

The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

8948: 3853: 3484: 2456: 2404: 1704: 1548:, signaling their recognition of him as caliph. In April or May 658, Mu'awiya received a general 1298:

Mu'awiya's domain was generally immune to the growing discontent prevailing in Medina, Egypt and

977: 615: 611: 505: 10313: 9345: 8995:. Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance. pp. 237–320. 1740:

and the Homs-based Shurahbil, formed part of his Syrian inner circle along with the Qurayshites

962:, the branch of the Banu Abd Shams to which Mu'awiya belonged. This is doubted by the historian 10122: 8851:

Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century

4214: 4085: 3079: 2777: 2746: 2217:

casts doubt on these events and holds that the island was only raided by Mu'awiya's lieutenant

1566: 1499: 1472: 1326: 521: 516:

in 656, Mu'awiya took up the cause of avenging the murdered caliph and opposed the election of

433: 399: 10298: 10273: 10390: 10376: 10353: 10343: 9813: 9539:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 9052: 8845: 8605:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 4285:

holds that Mu'awiya rebuilt the Temple Mount's walls. The mid-10th-century Arabic chronicler

4081: 3377: 2183:

considers that no siege of Constantinople took place, and that the story was inspired by the

2180: 2142: 1973: 1918: 1667: 1558: 1433: 1330: 1230:, Egypt and the harbors of Syria routed a Byzantine fleet commanded by the Byzantine Emperor 976:), Mu'awiya's governorship was enlarged to include Palestine, while a companion of Muhammad, 741: 638: 10258: 4148:

After Mu'awiya divorced Na'ila bint Umara al-Kalbiyya, she was wed to Mu'awiya's close aide

1874:

palace near the Sea of Galilee. Mu'awiya was also credited with ordering the restoration of

10445: 10234: 10209: 9296: 8917: 8313: 4385: 4327: 4128: 3341: 2958: 2849: 2586: 2392: 1646: 1429: 1258: 733: 721: 714: 694: 678: 572: 537: 185: 1683:

holds that Mu'awiya had further developed a mosque originally built by Caliph Umar on the

1139:

in the early 7th century. Upon Uthman's direction, Mu'awiya settled groups of the nomadic

8: 10450: 8318: 4389: 4302:

poisoned by his Christian doctor Ibn Uthal is found in the medieval Islamic histories of

4218: 4115: 3696: 3365: 3072: 2488: 2277: 2192:

reports that the Egyptian and Syrian navies joined the assault, led by Uqba ibn Amir and

2158: 2039: 1991: 1810: 1745: 1696: 1692: 1481: 1464: 1346: 1303: 1246: 1195: 651: 440: 358: 61: 9988: 2280:

were renewed during Mu'awiya's reign. In 665 or 666 Ibn Hudayj led an army which raided

9927: 9870: 9779: 9771: 9697: 9656: 9601: 9518: 9427: 9419: 9341: 8979: 8833: 8788: 8670: 8567: 8532: 8426: 8349: 8074: 7989: 7954: 7946: 7867: 4198: 4186: 2468: 2297: 2154: 2043: 1937: 1621: 1570: 1382: 1203: 1042: 825:

tribes, Abu Bakr reached out to the Quraysh, particularly its two strongest clans, the

808: 429: 270: 1723:

A Greek inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring the Roman-era bath facilities at

642:

The Caliphate's growth. By the time Muhammad died in 632, Islam had spread throughout

10323: 10303: 10164: 10115: 10032: 9994: 9984: 9972: 9915: 9858: 9799: 9783: 9742: 9709: 9671: 9616: 9561: 9540: 9530: 9495: 9474: 9431: 9385: 9363: 9337: 9308: 9282: 9260: 9201: 9180: 9156: 9132: 9108: 9084: 9060: 9034: 9010: 8952: 8927: 8903: 8893: 8879: 8869: 8855: 8821: 8807: 8756: 8685: 8630: 8606: 8582: 8509: 8483: 8389: 8368: 8301: 8232: 8211: 8187: 8165: 8117: 8096: 8078: 8066: 8032: 8004: 7958: 7912: 4323: 4257: 4182: 3535: 2808: 2549: 2500: 2436: 2115: 2069: 1867: 1836: 1514: 1468: 1366: 1262: 1207: 919: 863: 814: 729: 564: 448: 421: 283: 238: 114: 2780:

among Muslims in the 10th century, while the Abbasid Caliphate was dominated by the

2348:

the territories west of Cyrenaica. As he advanced, his army was joined by Islamized

2150: 2134:

who had defected from the Byzantines during one of his forces' Anatolian campaigns.

2101:

Map showing the raids, battles and naval engagements between the Arab Caliphate and

1578:

against nomads and Muslim pilgrims in the desert west of Kufa. This was followed by

10425: 10363: 10283: 10024: 9763: 9644: 9589: 9411: 9353: 9333: 9170: 8971: 8711: 8658: 8555: 8416: 8256: 8250: 8058: 7977: 7938: 7859: 4365: 4315: 4111: 3689: 3667: 2805: 2709: 2677: 2285: 2193: 2189: 1965: 1452: 1416: 1410: 1359: 1273: 1089: 1052:. He also married Maysun's paternal cousin, Na'ila bint Umara, for a short period. 1038: 963: 923: 663: 584: 525: 509: 9322:"Cyprus and Its Legal and Historiographical Significance in Early Islamic History" 2383:(modern-day Tunisia), remained subordinate to the governor of Egypt, who sent his 1699:

author, Mu'awiya received the pledges of the tribal chieftains and then prayed at

817:

dynastic successors. Having to contend with challenges to his leadership from the

10396: 10268: 10138: 10085: 10054: 10018: 9791: 9640: 9585: 9555: 9489: 9381:

Court Ceremonies and Rituals of Power in Byzantium and the Medieval Mediterranean

9379: 9276: 9195: 9174: 9150: 9146: 9126: 9122: 9102: 9098: 9078: 9074: 9048: 9028: 9004: 8966:

Jandora, John W. (1986). "Developments in Islamic Warfare: The Early Conquests".

8942: 8921: 8897: 8873: 8849: 8654: 8624: 8600: 8551: 8499: 8383: 8362: 8226: 8205: 8181: 8111: 8090: 8026: 7973: 4194: 4166: 4045: 2993: 2708:, 'first among equals'. According to Kennedy, the Nestorian Christian chronicler 2516: 2512: 2472: 1949: 1922: 1487: 1463:

as the death toll mounted on both sides. According to the account of the scholar

1317:

in June 656. Mu'awiya dispatched a relief army toward Medina, but it withdrew at

1314: 1211: 1030: 997: 959: 883: 595: 513: 390: 348: 336: 70: 773: 10184: 10089: 9957: 9949: 9900: 9892: 9843: 9835: 9727: 9723: 9648: 9593: 9459: 9447: 9439: 9245: 9237: 9197:

Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival During the Buyid Age

8872:(1999). "Jacob of Edessa on Islam". In Reinink, G. J.; Klugkist, A. C. (eds.). 8792: 8780: 8741: 8733: 8662: 8644: 8559: 8468: 8460: 8286: 8282: 8246: 8201: 8177: 8150: 8146: 8086: 8046: 8018: 7981: 7897: 7889: 4381: 4361: 4357: 4303: 4190: 4170: 4037: 3674: 3094: 2667: 2623: 2601: 2575: 2556: 2452: 2428: 2296:

before withdrawing to Egypt. The following year Mu'awiya dispatched Fadala and

2222: 2201: 1855: 1814: 1728: 1587: 1390: 1218:

Dominance of the eastern Mediterranean enabled Mu'awiya's naval forces to raid

1184: 1132: 1026: 903: 895: 706: 690: 682: 667: 659: 607: 432:('rightly-guided') caliphs. Unlike his predecessors, who had been close, early 368: 10028: 9128:

The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In

8421: 8404: 8340:(1966). "The Earliest Islamic Commemorative Structures, Notes and Documents". 7942: 10439: 10358: 10078: 9998: 9976: 9953: 9937: 9919: 9896: 9880: 9862: 9839: 9823: 9746: 9719: 9455: 9312: 9272: 9264: 9241: 9225: 9215: 8620: 8596: 8487: 8464: 8448: 8438: 8385:

Money, Power and Politics in Early Islamic Syria: A Review of Current Debates

8323: 8305: 8278: 8169: 8142: 8070: 8062: 4331: 4107: 2785: 2654: 2504: 2440: 2336: 2305: 2127: 2002: 1957: 1818: 1663: 1446: 1374: 1307: 1168: 1077: 993: 955: 899: 886:

in 639, Umar split the command of Syria, appointing Yazid as governor of the

818: 778: 580: 541: 529: 482: 249: 167: 138: 8049:(1994). "Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?". 7863: 2021:

from Alexandria due to the latter's vulnerability to Byzantine naval raids.

1561:. The latter's troops were defeated by Amr's forces, the provincial capital 1162: 693:, in which Mu'awiya's elder brother Hanzala and their maternal grandfather, 567:

and the eastern provinces, he delegated authority to the powerful governors

10014: 9685: 9630: 9575: 9024: 9000: 8770: 8723: 8699: 8268: 8228:

Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship: Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage

8022: 4369: 4340: 4319: 4256:, according to whom the Syrians were victorious, an assertion supported by 4234: 4132: 4062: 4058: 4041: 4033: 2781: 2619: 2579: 2560: 2484: 2432: 2265: 2064: 1914: 1780: 1688: 1684: 1595: 1318: 1188: 1172: 1109: 891: 826: 737: 736:

embraced Islam. According to accounts cited by the early Muslim historians

619: 9080:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

8715: 8332:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–54. 4335:

Goeje further doubts the credibility of the reports as they originated in

2364:. In the last region he established a permanent Arab garrison town called 1325:

Soon after becoming caliph, Ali was opposed by much of the Quraysh led by

958:, this exceptional treatment stemmed from Umar's personal respect for the 10328: 10224: 8337: 3943: 2492: 2077: 2051: 2018: 1969: 1851: 1802: 1724: 1583: 1523: 1519: 1378: 1338: 1293: 1231: 1199: 1018: 915: 614:, persisted after Mu'awiya's death, culminating with the outbreak of the 9993:. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. 9701: 9522: 8837: 8536: 8430: 7950: 2256: 697:, were killed. Abu Sufyan replaced the slain leader of the Meccan army, 10278: 10199: 8983: 8899:

In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire

8495: 8353: 8255:. Beirut: Orient-Institut der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 7871: 3109: 2728: 2317: 2153:

in northeastern Anatolia. In the late 660s, Mu'awiya's forces attacked

1821:. However, al-Baladhuri attributes this change to Mu'awiya's successor 1737: 1708: 1680: 1642: 1509: 1227: 1140: 1010: 830: 725: 627: 568: 545: 9775: 9557:

Islamic History, A New Interpretation: Volume 1, AD 600–750 (A.H. 132)

9423: 7527: 1439: 1104:. Mu'awiya restored, repopulated and garrisoned the coastal cities of 768: 504:

tribe, developed the defenses of its coastal cities, and directed the

10348: 10333: 10239: 10229: 4307: 4274: 4119: 2733: 2615: 2496: 2273: 2244: 2205: 2138: 2119: 2106: 2073: 1840: 1638: 1634: 1549: 1491: 1334: 1179:. Umar had rejected Mu'awiya's request to launch a naval invasion of 1152: 1144: 1101: 1065: 1061: 1005: 989: 951: 907: 813:('rightly-guided') caliphs to distinguish them from Mu'awiya and his 623: 501: 9321: 8975: 8260: 4152:

and after the latter's death, to another of Mu'awiya's close aides,

2699:(caliph), though the succeeding Abbasids are recognized as caliphs. 10214: 10189: 9767: 9415: 8405:"Egypt under Muʿāwiya Part II: Middle Egypt, Fusṭāṭ and Alexandria" 6716: 4106:'s efforts to make the native Syrian Arab tribes the foundation of 3813: 3321: 3133: 2380: 2369: 2365: 2353: 2349: 2340: 2281: 2261: 2197: 2029:

to his son Yazid, which compelled the caliph to reverse his order.

1871: 1700: 1626: 1527: 1284:

and deported Rshtuni to Syria, solidifying Arab rule over Armenia.

1269: 1117: 1097: 1034: 1022: 939: 935: 927: 845: 786: 698: 576: 456: 425: 234: 163: 10107: 7741: 6803: 4598: 2276:

since the 640s other than periodic raids, the expeditions against

1751:

Mu'awiya is credited by the early Muslim sources for establishing

1460: 751: 10179: 10099: 9057:

The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517

8028:

God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam

7388: 7386: 6513: 5983: 5747: 4280: 4123: 3516: 2801: 2789: 2768: 2400: 2396: 2373: 2293: 2237: 2123: 2105:

during Mu'awiya's governorship of Syria (640–661) and Mu'awiya's

1953: 1863: 1822: 1796: 1610: 1281: 1129: 1121: 1105: 1085: 1073: 1001: 943: 931: 674: 603: 444: 343: 331: 291: 156: 8382:

Foss, Clive (2016) . "Muʿāwiya's State". In Haldon, John (ed.).

8317: 6706: 6704: 6137: 6135: 5453: 4849: 4847: 4782: 1613:

and oaths of allegiance to Mu'awiya from the inhabitants of the

1313:

Uthman sent for assistance from Mu'awiya when rebels from Egypt

622:

tradition honors him as a companion of Muhammad and a scribe of

10020:

The Lineaments of Islam: Studies in Honor of Fred McGraw Donner

7493: 7491: 7287: 7263: 7107: 7031: 7029: 5927: 5309: 4336: 4270: 3306: 2361: 2325: 2313: 2309: 2301: 2233: 2058: 2026: 1978: 1941: 1875: 1788: 1630: 1574:

along Iraq's western frontier. The first raid was conducted by

1562: 1503: 1394: 1386: 1268:

Meanwhile, after two previous attempts by the Arabs to conquer

1250: 1223: 1180: 1113: 1081: 879: 875: 798: 790: 745: 710: 702: 643: 599: 588: 490: 417: 222: 110: 94: 9402:(1948). "Early Islamic Inscriptions Near Ṭāʾif in the Ḥijāz". 8993:

Travaux et mémoires, Vol. 17: Constructing the Seventh Century

8824:(1987). "The History and Town-Plan of Ancient Ḥammat Gādẹ̄r". 7383: 7251: 7227: 7143: 6752: 6740: 6665: 6612: 6537: 6477: 6085: 5843: 5117: 5115: 4562: 2012:), successively served as governors before Mu'awiya appointed 1727:

in 663, the sole epigraphic attestation of Mu'awiya's rule in

1605:(western Arabia, where Mecca and Medina are located), sending 1591: 1415:

In the first week of June 657, the armies of Mu'awiya and Ali

1021:

church, had served Byzantium as subordinates of its Ghassanid

9200:(Second Revised ed.). Leiden, New York and Koln: Brill. 8364:

Quṣayr ʻAmra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria

7654: 7652: 7515: 7476: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6909: 6907: 6905: 6701: 6689: 6363: 6361: 6132: 5958: 5956: 5954: 5879: 5528: 4844: 4202: 4090: 2797: 2793: 2386: 2357: 2321: 2289: 2131: 1945: 1930: 1806: 1754: 1614: 1602: 1423: 1342: 1333:, both prominent companions of Muhammad, and Muhammad's wife 1242: 1219: 1176: 1156: 1093: 871: 757: 655: 556: 552: 512:, including the first Muslim naval campaigns. In response to 452: 378: 218: 214: 8626:

The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750

8367:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 7929:(1996). "Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period". 7753: 7622: 7620: 7488: 7203: 7026: 7014: 6781: 6779: 6764: 6655: 6653: 6651: 6489: 6260: 6258: 5819: 5807: 5795: 5783: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5381: 5192: 5190: 5188: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4627: 4625: 4248:

The consensus in the early Muslim sources holds that Caliph

1666:

had been nominated as his successor. He successfully bribed

1257:. The Arabs were commanded by either the governor of Egypt, 447:

kinsman and later Mu'awiya's brother-in-law, until Muhammad

7794: 7792: 7731: 7729: 7727: 6878: 5939: 5915: 5689: 5687: 5636: 5489: 5465: 5441: 5405: 5393: 5112: 4388:'s brother Rabi'a, was the mother of Mu'awiya, Hanzala and 4344: 4289:

explicitly states that Mu'awiya built a mosque on the site.

4178: 4103: 2605:

Byzantine emperor, was now God's representative on earth".

1299: 1148: 887: 822: 794: 717:

in 627, he lost his leadership position among the Quraysh.

471: 9491:

Twelve Infallible Men: The Imams and the Making of Shiʿism

9359:

The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate

9176:

In Praise of the Few. Studies in Shiʿi Thought and History

7664: 7649: 7639: 7637: 7635: 7544: 7542: 7347: 7323: 7299: 7131: 7073: 7071: 7056: 6990: 6949: 6939: 6937: 6902: 6677: 6636: 6501: 6465: 6388: 6358: 6346: 6243: 6183: 6147: 6120: 5951: 5759: 5518: 5516: 5044: 5042: 5040: 4864: 4862: 4499: 4487: 9756:

The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

9059:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–85. 8501:

Die Kalifen von Kairo: Die Fatimiden in Ägypten, 973–1074

8113:

The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (a Political Study)

7816: 7700: 7617: 7605: 7595: 7593: 7591: 7589: 7587: 7585: 7583: 7581: 7566: 7554: 7454: 7452: 7167: 7002: 6866: 6856: 6854: 6839: 6791: 6776: 6728: 6648: 6600: 6378: 6376: 6336: 6334: 6332: 6317: 6293: 6283: 6281: 6279: 6277: 6275: 6273: 6255: 6110: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6100: 6022: 6000: 5998: 5973: 5971: 5730: 5720: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5660: 5202: 5185: 5163: 5161: 4998: 4952: 4950: 4920: 4918: 4916: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4906: 4886: 4760: 4758: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4622: 4586: 4552: 4550: 4249: 4139:, who had played a prominent role in the Muslim conquest. 1535: 1302:

against Uthman's policies in the 650s. The exception was

1194:

According to the 9th-century historians al-Baladhuri and

1163:

Naval campaigns against Byzantium and conquest of Armenia

1125: 802: 517: 7828: 7789: 7777: 7765: 7724: 7371: 7359: 7046: 7044: 6554: 6552: 6525: 6453: 6075: 6073: 6071: 6069: 6067: 6065: 6063: 6061: 5867: 5831: 5771: 5699: 5684: 5357: 5287: 5285: 5127: 5088: 5015: 5013: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4834: 4832: 4799: 4797: 4680: 2745:

Mu'awiya's war with Ali, whom the Shia hold as the true

2339:, the Arab commander who conquered Ifriqiya and founded 2076:

region in central Arabia, Mu'awiya confiscated from the

1866:

for the benefit of the sick. According to the historian

1565:

was captured and Muhammad was executed on the orders of

793:(leader of the Muslim community). He and his successors 9053:"Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate, 641–868" 9030:

Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa

7688: 7632: 7539: 7425: 7415: 7413: 7155: 7068: 6966: 6934: 6924: 6922: 6827: 6419: 6417: 6415: 6207: 6159: 6034: 5600: 5552: 5513: 5501: 5429: 5417: 5333: 5270: 5258: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5142: 5100: 5078: 5076: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5037: 4859: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4770: 4721: 4719: 4574: 4463: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4428: 1601:

In 659 or 660, Mu'awiya expanded the operations to the

942:. In 644, he led a foray against the Anatolian city of 436:, Mu'awiya was a relatively late follower of Muhammad. 9494:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 8409:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

8186:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 7578: 7503: 7464: 7449: 7437: 7311: 7275: 7239: 7215: 7179: 7119: 7095: 6851: 6815: 6400: 6373: 6329: 6305: 6270: 6097: 6046: 5995: 5968: 5903: 5891: 5855: 5711: 5540: 5248: 5246: 5158: 4986: 4974: 4962: 4947: 4903: 4755: 4731: 4668: 4637: 4547: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4408: 2483:

Mu'awiya died from an illness in Damascus in Rajab 60

2050:. Besides his own clan, Mu'awiya's relations with the 1925:. Mu'awiya's initial choice to govern Kufa in 661 was 1620:

In the summer, Mu'awiya dispatched a large army under

1534:, respectively represent the territories under Caliph 9754:

Sprengling, Martin (1939). "From Persian to Arabic".

8506:

The Caliphs of Cairo: The Fatimids in Egypt, 973–1074

8092:

Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity

7335: 7041: 6624: 6588: 6576: 6564: 6549: 6195: 6058: 5672: 5612: 5588: 5345: 5321: 5297: 5282: 5173: 5025: 5010: 4930: 4874: 4794: 4743: 4704: 4656: 4610: 2495:(d. 774) to have succeeded him on 7 April, while the 1936:

In Basra, Mu'awiya reappointed his Abd Shams kinsman

988:

During the reign of Uthman, Mu'awiya allied with the

579:(central North Africa) was launched by the commander 451:

in 630. Afterward, Mu'awiya became one of Muhammad's

9796:

Byzantium in the Seventh Century, Volume IV: 668–685

7804: 7676: 7410: 7398: 7191: 6978: 6919: 6890: 6441: 6429: 6412: 6010: 5624: 5576: 5369: 5214: 5139: 5073: 5054: 4809: 4716: 4692: 4535: 4523: 4278: 4232: 2766: 2760: 2754: 2737: 2722: 2694: 2688: 2681: 2671: 2645: 2631: 2591: 2568: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2384: 1908: 1902: 1888: 1794: 1786: 1778: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1752: 1543: 1510:

Claim to the caliphate and resumption of hostilities

1479: 1444: 1421: 806: 749: 732:

in 630, Mu'awiya, his father, and his elder brother

404: 68: 59: 8629:(Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. 8183:

Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam

7712: 7083: 6231: 6219: 6171: 5648: 5564: 5477: 5243: 4475: 4446: 4405: 4102:According to the historian Khalil Athamina, Caliph 2703: 2417: 2376:tribes that dominated the surrounding countryside. 2251: 2172:, based on the history of the Byzantine chronicler 1714: 1522:. The areas shaded in green, namely the regions of 1404: 769:

Early military career and administrative promotions

540:in 661, Mu'awiya compelled Ali's son and successor 9931: 9874: 9817: 9713: 9634: 9579: 9219: 8774: 8727: 8648: 8545: 8442: 8272: 8132: 7967: 7883: 4511: 2773:, which is held by many Shia to be an obligation. 2545:, his personal skills, persuasive power, and wit. 1817:from Homs, according to the 8th-century historian 1369:to secure an alliance with the Yemenite tribes of 8944:Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory 2204:by autumn, while Yazid and Fadala, having raided 1253:, opening the way for an ultimately unsuccessful 524:, the two led their armies to a stalemate at the 10437: 8057:(1). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.: 1–57. 709:in 625. After his abortive siege of Muhammad in 594:Although Mu'awiya confined the influence of his 9762:(2). The University of Chicago Press: 175–224. 8844: 6722: 1502:, the first in Dumat al-Jandal and the last in 1124:. In Tripoli he settled significant numbers of 983: 720:Mu'awiya's father was not a participant in the 30:"Mu'awiya" redirects here. For other uses, see 10023:. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 177–208. 9511:Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 8923:Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan: From Arabia to Empire 1881: 1759:(government departments) for correspondences ( 954:and Ansar groups). According to the historian 10123: 9384:. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 87–114. 9131:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press. 2608: 2451:remaining principle opposition emanated from 2439:, who was ultimately bribed into compliance. 1191:cite two raids launched between 648 and 650. 858:) appointed a leading companion of Muhammad, 701:, and led the Meccans to victory against the 9715:"Filasṭīn – I. Palestine under Islamic Rule" 8702:(1972). "The Siffin Arbitration Agreement". 4314:, among others and is accepted by historian 2300:to raid the commercially valuable island of 1530:, and pink, namely the regions of Syria and 317: 43: 8826:Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 2272:Although the Arabs had not advanced beyond 2213:the reign of Yazid I, the modern historian 1641:. Before he could continue his campaign in 882:. Following the death of Abu Ubayda in the 685:, was also a member of the Banu Abd Shams. 548:was acknowledged throughout the Caliphate. 10130: 10116: 9983: 9963:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9906:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9849:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9753: 9733:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9662:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9607:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9465:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9251:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8820: 8798:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8747:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8676:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8573:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8474:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8292:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8156:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 8017: 7995:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 7965: 7903:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 7658: 7392: 7365: 7353: 7305: 7257: 7233: 7149: 7137: 7113: 7062: 6996: 6960: 6913: 6642: 6543: 6507: 6483: 6471: 6394: 6367: 6352: 6189: 6153: 6126: 5989: 5962: 5849: 5765: 5741: 5363: 5315: 4853: 4505: 4493: 4048:identified it as a village called Biqinis. 536:from Ali's governor in 658. Following the 500:). He allied with the province's powerful 84: 9971:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 866–867. 9857:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 381–386. 9741:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 910–913. 9670:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 402–403. 9615:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 190–192. 9560:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9508: 9473:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 184–185. 9362:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9259:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 919–920. 9033:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9009:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9006:Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests 8990: 8916: 8806:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 263–268. 8755:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 137–140. 8684:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 309–311. 8581:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 519–522. 8420: 8300:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 930–931. 8210:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 8164:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 493–494. 8095:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8031:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8003:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 789–790. 7911:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 621–623. 7706: 7626: 7611: 7572: 7482: 7377: 6845: 6809: 6797: 6785: 6758: 6746: 6734: 6710: 6695: 6659: 6618: 6606: 6141: 5339: 5264: 4868: 633: 9812: 9352: 9326:Journal of the American Oriental Society 9169: 8312: 7925: 7878: 7849: 7798: 7783: 7759: 7747: 7735: 7497: 7209: 7077: 7035: 7020: 6770: 6531: 6519: 6495: 5885: 5873: 5837: 5825: 5813: 5801: 5789: 5777: 5753: 5705: 5693: 5642: 5606: 5558: 5522: 5507: 5495: 5471: 5459: 5447: 5435: 5423: 5411: 5399: 5387: 5276: 5208: 5167: 5121: 5106: 5048: 4992: 4788: 4776: 4650: 4631: 4580: 4556: 4347:where Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid had died. 2527:Like Uthman, Mu'awiya adopted the title 2522: 2330: 2255: 2096: 1718: 1513: 1438: 772: 763: 637: 9790: 9708: 9629: 9574: 9376: 9214: 9193: 9145: 9121: 9097: 9073: 9047: 8965: 8892: 8868: 8643: 8619: 8595: 8508:] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. 7822: 7694: 7643: 7599: 7560: 7548: 7533: 7521: 7509: 7470: 7458: 7443: 7431: 7245: 7185: 7173: 7161: 7101: 6972: 6943: 6884: 6860: 6821: 6406: 6340: 6323: 6311: 6299: 6287: 6213: 6165: 6114: 6052: 6040: 6028: 6004: 5977: 5945: 5933: 5921: 5909: 5897: 5724: 5594: 5351: 5327: 5291: 5179: 5019: 4980: 4968: 4956: 4924: 4803: 4764: 4737: 4674: 4541: 4529: 4469: 4217:. He also relied on his Umayyad cousin 1352: 1187:inscriptions in the Cypriot village of 14: 10486:One Thousand and One Nights characters 10438: 9684: 9553: 9529: 9487: 9438: 8543: 8522: 8444:"ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Khālid b. al-Walīd" 8360: 8336: 8267: 8200: 8176: 7771: 7670: 7341: 7329: 7317: 7293: 7281: 7269: 7221: 7125: 6382: 6201: 5861: 5678: 5666: 5618: 5375: 5303: 5196: 5031: 5004: 4941: 4897: 4880: 4749: 4710: 4662: 4616: 4604: 4592: 4568: 2001:) and an early companion of Muhammad, 1137:Sasanian occupation of Byzantine Syria 591:on the eastern frontier were resumed. 416:–April 680) was the founder and first 124:January 661 – April 680 10111: 9926: 9869: 9398: 9319: 9295: 9271: 9023: 8999: 8940: 8769: 8722: 8698: 8130: 8109: 8085: 8045: 7810: 7682: 7419: 7404: 7197: 7050: 7008: 6984: 6928: 6896: 6872: 6833: 6683: 6671: 6630: 6594: 6582: 6570: 6558: 6264: 6091: 6079: 6016: 5654: 5630: 5582: 5570: 5546: 5534: 5483: 5252: 5237: 5152: 5133: 5094: 5082: 5067: 4838: 4725: 4698: 4686: 4517: 4481: 4457: 4440: 4044:. The 13th-century Syrian geographer 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3880: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3859: 3857: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3788: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3695: 3693: 3688: 3686: 3673: 3671: 3666: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3606: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3541: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3457: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3347: 3345: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3320: 3318: 3305: 3237: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3153: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3108: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3078: 3076: 3071: 3053: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3001: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2907: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2399:and defeated the Awraba Berber chief 2368:, at a relatively safe distance from 2324:. He may have raided as far south as 2092: 1744:, son of the distinguished commander 1128:, while sending to Homs, Antioch and 969:Upon the accession of Caliph Uthman ( 9914:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 151. 9107:(Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. 8494: 8437: 8402: 8381: 8245: 8224: 7931:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7834: 7718: 7089: 6459: 6447: 6435: 6423: 6249: 6237: 6225: 6177: 4114:counterattack was the main cause of 4065:tentatively concludes relate to the 4036:, Abu Sufyan owned a village in the 2352:and their combined forces conquered 2163:great series of naval-borne assaults 1896: 1860:Abd Allah Mu'awiya, amir al-mu'minin 1341:. Ali defeated the triumvirate near 1249:. Constans II was forced to sail to 781:in the first decades of Islamic rule 443:had opposed Muhammad, their distant 10137: 9281:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8902:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8854:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8482:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 85. 4177:under his Umayyad cousin Mu'awiya, 1255:Arab naval attack on Constantinople 1041:, by wedding the latter's daughter 1033:and the latter's Arab clients, the 658:merchant who led trade caravans to 394: 318: 44: 24: 10461:Generals of the Rashidun Caliphate 10006: 9083:. London and New York: Routledge. 8388:. London and New York: Routledge. 1436:, the so-called 'king of Himyar'. 1000:in the south to the approaches of 835:Muslim conquest of Byzantine Syria 666:. He emerged as the leader of the 267:Fakhita bint Qurayza al-Nawfaliyya 25: 10497: 9152:Caliphate: The History of an Idea 8134:"Kalb b. Wabara – Islamic Period" 4040:region, which formed part of the 1538:'s and Mu'awiya's control in 658. 10248: 9346:10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.3.0535 9338:10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.3.0535 8131:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer A. (1978). 8110:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer A. (1971). 4375: 4350: 4292: 4287:al-Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi 4263: 4181:successively under the Umayyads 2418:Nomination of Yazid as successor 2252:Conquest of central North Africa 2072:era, which began in 750. In the 1921:, the son of Ali's leading aide 1715:Domestic rule and administration 1405:Battle of Siffin and arbitration 722:truce negotiations at Hudaybiyya 470:. He moved up the ranks through 264:Katwa bint Qurayza al-Nawfaliyya 27:Founder of the Umayyad Caliphate 9798:. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. 9404:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 8231:(2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. 7843: 4242: 4225: 4197:under Uthman's maternal cousin 4159: 4142: 4096: 4051: 4026: 3948: 3818: 3679: 3521: 3489: 3350: 3326: 3311: 2409: 2227: 2014:Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari 2007: 1996: 1845: 1827: 1649:by a Kharijite in January 661. 1607:Abd Allah ibn Mas'ada al-Fazari 1236: 1064:and the mixed Muslim–Christian 1004:and the chief component of the 992:, the predominant tribe in the 971: 853: 583:in 670, while the conquests in 495: 476: 466:) as a deputy commander in the 461: 428:and immediately after the four 8878:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. 7966:Christides, Vassilios (2000). 7536:, pp. 135–136, 266 n. 30. 4213:under Uthman's foster brother 4010:Dashed line indicates marriage 2716: 2533:('deputy of God'), instead of 2120:mountainous Anatolian frontier 1287: 561:failed siege of Constantinople 271:Maysun bint Bahdal al-Kalbiyya 13: 1: 10391:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud 10377:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud 9990:The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall 4399: 4070: 2555:In the view of the historian 2221:in 679 or 680. Under Emperor 2219:Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi 2166: 1731:, the center of his caliphate 1151:tribes to areas north of the 1046: 838: 481:) until becoming governor of 455:. He was appointed by Caliph 410: 275:Na'ila bint Umara al-Kalbiyya 207: 98: 4607:, pp. 100–101, 108–109. 4298:The claim that Mu'awiya had 4122:and its allies, in 636. The 2666:Al-Baladhuri calls him the ' 2580:decade-long second civil war 2391:(non-Arab, Muslim freedman) 2304:. Meanwhile, in 662 or 667, 1657: 1652: 1590:'s successful raids against 1586:then, in the summer of 660, 1571:battling Kharijite defectors 1432:, a son of Caliph Umar, and 996:extending from the oasis of 984:Consolidation of local power 902:, and the veteran commander 785:After Muhammad died in 632, 602:, he nominated his own son, 18:Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan 7: 10466:Rashidun governors of Syria 10456:7th-century Umayyad caliphs 9055:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). 8207:The Early Islamic Conquests 4279: 4233: 4209:of the Banu Abd Shams, and 4154:Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari 2767: 2761: 2755: 2738: 2723: 2704: 2695: 2689: 2682: 2672: 2646: 2632: 2592: 2569: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2385: 1909: 1903: 1889: 1882:Governance in the provinces 1795: 1787: 1779: 1773: 1767: 1761: 1753: 1695:, composed by an anonymous 1580:Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari 1576:al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri 1544: 1480: 1445: 1422: 1261:, or Mu'awiya's lieutenant 851:Abu Bakr's successor Umar ( 807: 750: 544:to abdicate and Mu'awiya's 405: 97:minted in Mu'awiya's name, 69: 60: 10: 10502: 9690:Israel Exploration Journal 9194:Kraemer, Joel L. (1992) . 8941:Hyder, Syed Akbar (2006). 8776:"Muʿāwiya I b. Abī Sufyān" 8704:Journal of Semitic Studies 8525:Israel Exploration Journal 4150:Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri 2817:Family tree of Mu'awiya I 2609:Early historical tradition 2465:Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr 2165:against Constantinople in 2137:Based on the histories of 1990:death, Mu'awiya's brother 1858:, refers to the caliph as 1748:, and al-Dahhak ibn Qays. 1408: 1291: 1278:Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri 1202:, alongside the commander 922:, the district capital of 29: 10476:People of the First Fitna 10471:Companions of the Prophet 10422: 10312: 10257: 10246: 10163: 10145: 10096: 10083: 10075: 10048: 10029:10.1163/9789004231948_010 9517:. Archaeopress: 265–275. 9155:. New York: Basic Books. 8422:10.1017/S0041977X09000512 7943:10.1017/S1356186300007161 4067:capitulation of Jerusalem 3926: 3924: 3908: 3906: 3878: 3876: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3764: 3736: 3734: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3604: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3590: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3562: 3560: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3455: 3453: 3445: 3443: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3397: 3395: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3167: 3165: 3157: 3155: 3149: 3147: 3141: 3139: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3051: 3049: 3017: 3013: 3007: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2905: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2292:and temporarily captured 2068:deteriorating during the 2032: 1526:, Arabia, Persia and the 1080:urbanites from Damascus, 1029:against invasions by the 374: 364: 354: 342: 330: 315: 310: 306: 282: 257: 244: 232:April 680 (aged c. 75–83) 228: 203: 199: 191: 181: 173: 162: 152: 128: 120: 108: 83: 51: 41: 32:Mu'awiya (disambiguation) 10408:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali 10384:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali 9488:Pierce, Matthew (2016). 8063:10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1 7750:, p. 105, note 136. 7296:, pp. 209, 213–214. 6812:, pp. 278–279, 316. 6674:, pp. 244–245, 247. 5756:, pp. 262–263, 287. 5462:, pp. 225–226, 229. 4791:, pp. 262, 265–268. 4300:Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid 4254:Theophanes the Confessor 4169:and its parent clan the 4078:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah 4019: 2478: 2215:Clifford Edmund Bosworth 2174:Theophanes the Confessor 1984: 1793:(select troops) and the 1771:) and the postal route ( 1742:Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid 1072:Although Syria's rural, 978:Umayr ibn Sa'd al-Ansari 860:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah 758:nascent Muslim community 485:during the reign of his 439:Mu'awiya and his father 316:Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān( 10370:Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir 9554:Shaban, M. A. (1976) . 9320:Lynch, Ryan J. (2016). 8949:Oxford University Press 8650:"Yazīd (I) b. Muʿāwiya" 8329:Encyclopædia Britannica 7864:10.1163/157005894X00191 7272:, p. 210, 212–213. 6522:, p. 345, note 90. 6094:, p. 45, note 239. 5936:, pp. 87, 89, 101. 5537:, p. 203, note 30. 4571:, p. 151, note 54. 4384:, the granddaughter of 4231:Historically, the term 4201:of the Banu Abd Shams, 2457:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr 2405:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 1705:Tomb of the Virgin Mary 1687:, the precursor of the 805:are often known as the 616:Second Muslim Civil War 612:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr 598:to the governorship of 406:Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān 8846:Howard-Johnston, James 8544:Hasson, Isaac (2002). 8361:Fowden, Garth (2004). 7885:"Marwān I b. al-Ḥakam" 7659:Crone & Hinds 2003 7366:Crone & Hinds 2003 7354:Crone & Hinds 2003 5992:, pp. 59–60, 131. 4269:The Christian pilgrim 4215:Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh 4207:Ali ibn Adi ibn Rabi'a 4086:companions of Muhammad 2778:religious sectarianism 2664: 2642: 2344: 2335:A statue representing 2312:region, capturing the 2284:(southern district of 2278:Byzantine North Africa 2269: 2110: 1732: 1582:'s abortive attack on 1539: 1455: 1259:Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh 1058:Sasanian front in Iraq 782: 647: 634:Origins and early life 553:government departments 522:First Muslim Civil War 514:Uthman's assassination 434:companions of Muhammad 414: 597, 603 or 605 9297:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes 8918:Humphreys, R. Stephen 8314:de Goeje, Michael Jan 8225:Elad, Amikam (1999). 7858:(2). Brill: 253–272. 6252:, pp. 23–24, 33. 4082:Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf 2747:successor of Muhammad 2659: 2638: 2523:Assessment and legacy 2334: 2328:in modern-day Niger. 2259: 2181:James Howard-Johnston 2143:Agapius of Hierapolis 2100: 1944:, reaching as far as 1927:al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba 1805:, newcomers from the 1785:(personal guard) and 1722: 1668:Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas 1517: 1451:) of Mu'awiya at the 1442: 1015:Greco-Aramaic culture 777:Map of the region of 776: 764:Governorship of Syria 681:. Mu'awiya's mother, 641: 10359:Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti 8403:Foss, Clive (2009). 7524:, p. 266 n. 30. 7116:, pp. 141, 143. 6761:, pp. 304, 316. 6749:, pp. 267, 274. 6723:Howard-Johnston 2010 6686:, pp. 245, 247. 6621:, pp. 271, 273. 5888:, pp. 320, 322. 5390:, pp. 191, 196. 5318:, p. 55–56, 76. 4328:Michael Jan de Goeje 3979:Ali (Abu al-Umaytir) 3854:Ziyad (Abu Muhammad) 3697:Abd Allah (al-Uswar) 2587:R. Stephen Humphreys 2536:khalifat rasul Allah 2393:Abu al-Muhajir Dinar 1550:pledge of allegiance 1353:Preparations for war 1304:Abu Dharr al-Ghifari 938:, deep in Byzantine 926:, and then captured 715:Battle of the Trench 679:Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy 573:Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan 555:responsible for the 538:assassination of Ali 319:معاوية ابن أبي سفيان 186:Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan 10165:Caliphs of Damascus 9928:Watt, W. Montgomery 9871:Watt, W. Montgomery 9819:"ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib" 9814:Vaglieri, L. Veccia 9792:Stratos, Andreas N. 8716:10.1093/jss/17.1.93 7927:Bosworth, C. Edmund 7880:Bosworth, C. Edmund 7837:, pp. 90, 192. 7762:, pp. 105–106. 7673:, pp. 184–185. 7500:, pp. 326–327. 7485:, pp. 112–113. 7395:, pp. 137–138. 7332:, pp. 213–214. 7236:, pp. 145–146. 7212:, pp. 342–343. 7152:, pp. 143–144. 7038:, pp. 340–342. 7023:, pp. 339–340. 7011:, pp. 139–140. 6887:, pp. 207–208. 6875:, pp. 247–248. 6773:, pp. 159–160. 6725:, pp. 303–304. 6713:, pp. 303–304. 6698:, pp. 273–274. 6546:, pp. 136–137. 6498:, pp. 621–622. 6486:, pp. 135–136. 6462:, pp. 269–270. 6267:, pp. 266–267. 6144:, pp. 102–103. 5948:, pp. 94, 106. 5924:, pp. 97, 100. 5852:, pp. 102–103. 5828:, pp. 304–305. 5816:, pp. 301–303. 5804:, pp. 299–300. 5792:, pp. 290–292. 5669:, pp. 162–163. 5645:, pp. 254–255. 5498:, pp. 232–233. 5474:, pp. 230–231. 5450:, pp. 204–205. 5414:, pp. 199–200. 5402:, pp. 196–197. 5199:, pp. 152–153. 5136:, pp. 184–185. 5124:, pp. 157–158. 5097:, pp. 541–542. 5007:, pp. 248–249. 4900:, pp. 215–216. 4856:, pp. 55, 132. 4689:, pp. 67, 246. 4595:, pp. 133–134. 4318:, while historians 4310:, al-Baladhuri and 4219:Marwan ibn al-Hakam 4116:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2489:Hisham ibn al-Kalbi 2268:; shaded in purple) 2040:Marwan ibn al-Hakam 1746:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1693:Maronite Chronicles 1647:Ali's assassination 1567:Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj 1500:Abu Musa al-Ash'ari 1473:al-Ash'ath ibn Qays 1399:Jarir ibn Abd Allah 1347:Battle of the Camel 1247:Battle of the Masts 1196:Khalifa ibn Khayyat 1155:in the vicinity of 1135:holdovers from the 924:Byzantine Palestine 662:, then part of the 652:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb 395:معاوية بن أبي سفيان 359:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb 135:Dynasty established 10314:Caliphs of Córdoba 9985:Wellhausen, Julius 9946:Lévi-Provençal, E. 9889:Lévi-Provençal, E. 9832:Lévi-Provençal, E. 9531:Morony, Michael G. 9234:Lévi-Provençal, E. 8894:Hoyland, Robert G. 8870:Hoyland, Robert G. 8822:Hirschfeld, Yizhar 8645:Hawting, Gerald R. 8621:Hawting, Gerald R. 8457:Lévi-Provençal, E. 7260:, p. 144–145. 4343:clan, rather than 4339:, the home of his 4199:Abd Allah ibn Amir 4110:'s defense from a 3378:Ramla (Umm Habiba) 2693:(king) instead of 2469:Awana ibn al-Hakam 2461:Abd Allah ibn Umar 2345: 2298:Ruwayfi ibn Thabit 2270: 2159:Antioch of Isauria 2155:Antioch of Pisidia 2111: 2093:War with Byzantium 1938:Abd Allah ibn Amir 1733: 1622:Busr ibn Abi Artat 1540: 1456: 1434:Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa 1383:Shurahbil ibn Simt 1208:Abd Allah ibn Qays 1204:Ubada ibn al-Samit 888:military districts 783: 648: 10481:People from Mecca 10433: 10432: 10324:Abd al-Rahman III 10304:Abd al-Rahman III 10106: 10105: 10097:Succeeded by 10038:978-90-04-21885-7 9805:978-90-256-0665-7 9677:978-90-04-11211-7 9622:978-90-04-11211-7 9567:978-0-521-29131-6 9546:978-0-87395-933-9 9501:978-0-674-73707-5 9480:978-90-04-07819-2 9391:978-90-04-25686-6 9354:Madelung, Wilferd 9288:978-0-19-164716-1 9186:978-90-04-40697-1 9179:. Leiden: Brill. 9162:978-0-465-09439-4 9138:978-0-306-81740-3 9114:978-0-582-40525-7 9040:978-0-521-19677-2 8958:978-0-19-537302-8 8909:978-0-19-991636-8 8861:978-0-19-920859-3 8813:978-90-04-09419-2 8762:978-90-04-08112-3 8691:978-90-04-12756-2 8612:978-0-7914-2393-6 8588:978-90-04-12756-2 8395:978-0-7546-6849-7 8319:"Caliphate" 8217:978-0-691-05327-1 8193:978-0-674-05097-6 8123:978-0-7189-0149-3 8116:. London: Luzac. 8010:978-90-04-11211-7 7918:978-90-04-08112-3 7825:, pp. 64–65. 7774:, pp. 83–85. 7563:, pp. 16–17. 7176:, pp. 90–91. 6836:, pp. 81–82. 6326:, pp. 84–85. 6302:, pp. 83–84. 6031:, pp. 86–87. 5549:, pp. 93–94. 5211:, pp. 86–87. 4634:, pp. 60–61. 4508:, pp. 20–21. 4496:, pp. 22–23. 4472:, pp. 21–22. 4324:Julius Wellhausen 4312:Mus'ab al-Zubayri 4183:al-Walid ibn Uqba 4042:Damascus district 4017: 4016: 4001: 4000: 2550:Julius Wellhausen 2437:al-Ahnaf ibn Qays 2116:Grigor Mamikonian 2048:al-Walid ibn Utba 1897:Iraq and the east 1868:Yizhar Hirschfeld 1837:Sarjun ibn Mansur 1367:al-Walid ibn Uqba 1315:besieged his home 1031:Sasanian Persians 934:and proceeded to 868:entered Jerusalem 864:Battle of Yarmouk 468:conquest of Syria 422:Umayyad Caliphate 403: 384: 383: 326: 325: 239:Umayyad Caliphate 195:Post discontinued 115:Umayyad Caliphate 16:(Redirected from 10493: 10364:Abd al-Rahman IV 10284:Abd ar-Rahman II 10259:Emirs of Córdoba 10252: 10132: 10125: 10118: 10109: 10108: 10076:Preceded by 10071: 10064: 10046: 10045: 10042: 10002: 9980: 9935: 9923: 9878: 9866: 9821: 9809: 9787: 9750: 9717: 9705: 9681: 9657:Heinrichs, W. P. 9638: 9626: 9602:Heinrichs, W. P. 9583: 9571: 9550: 9526: 9505: 9484: 9435: 9400:Miles, George C. 9395: 9373: 9349: 9316: 9292: 9278:Arabs in History 9268: 9223: 9211: 9190: 9166: 9142: 9118: 9094: 9070: 9044: 9025:Kaegi, Walter E. 9020: 9001:Kaegi, Walter E. 8996: 8987: 8962: 8937: 8913: 8889: 8865: 8841: 8817: 8789:Heinrichs, W. P. 8778: 8766: 8731: 8719: 8695: 8671:Heinrichs, W. P. 8652: 8640: 8616: 8592: 8568:Heinrichs, W. P. 8549: 8547:"Ziyād b. Abīhi" 8540: 8519: 8491: 8446: 8434: 8424: 8399: 8378: 8357: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8276: 8264: 8242: 8221: 8197: 8173: 8136: 8127: 8106: 8082: 8042: 8014: 7990:Heinrichs, W. P. 7971: 7969:"ʿUkba b. Nāfiʿ" 7962: 7922: 7887: 7875: 7838: 7832: 7826: 7820: 7814: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7787: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7763: 7757: 7751: 7745: 7739: 7733: 7722: 7716: 7710: 7704: 7698: 7692: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7647: 7641: 7630: 7624: 7615: 7609: 7603: 7597: 7576: 7570: 7564: 7558: 7552: 7546: 7537: 7531: 7525: 7519: 7513: 7507: 7501: 7495: 7486: 7480: 7474: 7468: 7462: 7456: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7408: 7402: 7396: 7390: 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7345: 7339: 7333: 7327: 7321: 7315: 7309: 7303: 7297: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7237: 7231: 7225: 7219: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7195: 7189: 7183: 7177: 7171: 7165: 7159: 7153: 7147: 7141: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7066: 7060: 7054: 7048: 7039: 7033: 7024: 7018: 7012: 7006: 7000: 6994: 6988: 6982: 6976: 6970: 6964: 6958: 6947: 6941: 6932: 6926: 6917: 6911: 6900: 6894: 6888: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6858: 6849: 6843: 6837: 6831: 6825: 6819: 6813: 6807: 6801: 6795: 6789: 6783: 6774: 6768: 6762: 6756: 6750: 6744: 6738: 6732: 6726: 6720: 6714: 6708: 6699: 6693: 6687: 6681: 6675: 6669: 6663: 6657: 6646: 6640: 6634: 6628: 6622: 6616: 6610: 6604: 6598: 6592: 6586: 6580: 6574: 6568: 6562: 6556: 6547: 6541: 6535: 6529: 6523: 6517: 6511: 6505: 6499: 6493: 6487: 6481: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6445: 6439: 6433: 6427: 6421: 6410: 6404: 6398: 6392: 6386: 6380: 6371: 6365: 6356: 6350: 6344: 6338: 6327: 6321: 6315: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6291: 6285: 6268: 6262: 6253: 6247: 6241: 6235: 6229: 6223: 6217: 6211: 6205: 6199: 6193: 6187: 6181: 6175: 6169: 6163: 6157: 6151: 6145: 6139: 6130: 6124: 6118: 6112: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6077: 6056: 6050: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6002: 5993: 5987: 5981: 5975: 5966: 5960: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5865: 5859: 5853: 5847: 5841: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5817: 5811: 5805: 5799: 5793: 5787: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5728: 5722: 5709: 5703: 5697: 5691: 5682: 5676: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5463: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5427: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5325: 5319: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5295: 5289: 5280: 5274: 5268: 5262: 5256: 5250: 5241: 5235: 5212: 5206: 5200: 5194: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5156: 5150: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5110: 5104: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5071: 5065: 5052: 5046: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5017: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4945: 4939: 4928: 4922: 4901: 4895: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4857: 4851: 4842: 4836: 4807: 4801: 4792: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4696: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4635: 4629: 4620: 4614: 4608: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4444: 4438: 4393: 4379: 4373: 4366:Karl-Heinz Ohlig 4354: 4348: 4316:Wilferd Madelung 4296: 4290: 4284: 4267: 4261: 4246: 4240: 4238: 4229: 4223: 4163: 4157: 4146: 4140: 4100: 4094: 4075: 4072: 4055: 4049: 4030: 4007: 3952: 3950: 3822: 3820: 3683: 3681: 3525: 3523: 3493: 3491: 3354: 3352: 3330: 3328: 3315: 3313: 2824: 2823: 2814: 2813: 2772: 2764: 2758: 2741: 2726: 2710:John bar Penkaye 2707: 2698: 2692: 2685: 2678:authoritarianism 2675: 2649: 2635: 2595: 2572: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2501:Elias of Nisibis 2413: 2411: 2390: 2286:Byzantine Africa 2231: 2229: 2194:Fadala ibn Ubayd 2190:Ibn Abd al-Hakam 2171: 2168: 2011: 2009: 2000: 1998: 1912: 1906: 1892: 1849: 1847: 1831: 1829: 1815:Qinnasrin–Jazira 1800: 1792: 1784: 1776: 1770: 1765:), chancellery ( 1764: 1758: 1547: 1545:amir al-mu'minin 1485: 1482:amir al-mu'minin 1453:Battle of Siffin 1450: 1427: 1411:Battle of Siffin 1274:Theodore Rshtuni 1240: 1238: 1210:, who landed at 1051: 1048: 1039:Bahdal ibn Unayf 975: 973: 964:Wilferd Madelung 857: 855: 843: 840: 812: 755: 664:Byzantine Empire 654:was a prominent 532:, who conquered 526:Battle of Siffin 510:Byzantine Empire 499: 497: 480: 478: 465: 463: 415: 412: 408: 398: 396: 321: 320: 308: 307: 212: 209: 103: 100: 88: 74: 65: 62:Amir al-Mu'minin 47: 46: 39: 38: 21: 10501: 10500: 10496: 10495: 10494: 10492: 10491: 10490: 10436: 10435: 10434: 10429: 10418: 10397:Abd al-Rahman V 10316: 10308: 10269:Abd al-Rahman I 10261: 10253: 10244: 10167: 10159: 10141: 10139:Umayyad dynasty 10136: 10102: 10093: 10088: 10086:Caliph of Islam 10081: 10065: 10059: 10058: 10055:Umayyad Dynasty 10051: 10050:Mu'awiya I 10039: 10012: 10009: 10007:Further reading 9806: 9678: 9649:Bosworth, C. E. 9623: 9594:Bosworth, C. E. 9568: 9547: 9502: 9481: 9448:Bosworth, C. E. 9392: 9370: 9289: 9208: 9187: 9163: 9139: 9115: 9091: 9067: 9041: 9017: 8976:10.2307/1596048 8970:(64): 101–113. 8968:Studia Islamica 8959: 8934: 8910: 8886: 8862: 8814: 8781:Bosworth, C. E. 8763: 8734:Bosworth, C. E. 8692: 8663:Bosworth, C. E. 8637: 8613: 8589: 8560:Bosworth, C. E. 8531:(2/3): 97–102. 8516: 8396: 8375: 8261:10.25673/112254 8239: 8218: 8202:Donner, Fred M. 8194: 8178:Donner, Fred M. 8151:Bosworth, C. E. 8124: 8103: 8087:Crone, Patricia 8047:Crone, Patricia 8039: 8019:Crone, Patricia 8011: 7982:Bosworth, C. E. 7919: 7890:Bosworth, C. E. 7846: 7841: 7833: 7829: 7821: 7817: 7809: 7805: 7797: 7790: 7782: 7778: 7770: 7766: 7758: 7754: 7746: 7742: 7734: 7725: 7717: 7713: 7705: 7701: 7693: 7689: 7681: 7677: 7669: 7665: 7657: 7650: 7642: 7633: 7625: 7618: 7610: 7606: 7598: 7579: 7575:, pp. 3–6. 7571: 7567: 7559: 7555: 7547: 7540: 7532: 7528: 7520: 7516: 7508: 7504: 7496: 7489: 7481: 7477: 7469: 7465: 7457: 7450: 7442: 7438: 7430: 7426: 7418: 7411: 7403: 7399: 7393:Wellhausen 1927 7391: 7384: 7376: 7372: 7364: 7360: 7356:, pp. 6–7. 7352: 7348: 7340: 7336: 7328: 7324: 7316: 7312: 7306:Wellhausen 1927 7304: 7300: 7292: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7268: 7264: 7258:Wellhausen 1927 7256: 7252: 7244: 7240: 7234:Wellhausen 1927 7232: 7228: 7220: 7216: 7208: 7204: 7196: 7192: 7184: 7180: 7172: 7168: 7160: 7156: 7150:Wellhausen 1927 7148: 7144: 7138:Wellhausen 1927 7136: 7132: 7124: 7120: 7114:Wellhausen 1927 7112: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7088: 7084: 7076: 7069: 7063:Wellhausen 1927 7061: 7057: 7049: 7042: 7034: 7027: 7019: 7015: 7007: 7003: 6997:Wellhausen 1927 6995: 6991: 6983: 6979: 6971: 6967: 6961:Christides 2000 6959: 6950: 6942: 6935: 6927: 6920: 6914:Christides 2000 6912: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6859: 6852: 6844: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6808: 6804: 6796: 6792: 6784: 6777: 6769: 6765: 6757: 6753: 6745: 6741: 6733: 6729: 6721: 6717: 6709: 6702: 6694: 6690: 6682: 6678: 6670: 6666: 6658: 6649: 6643:Wellhausen 1927 6641: 6637: 6629: 6625: 6617: 6613: 6605: 6601: 6593: 6589: 6581: 6577: 6569: 6565: 6557: 6550: 6544:Wellhausen 1927 6542: 6538: 6530: 6526: 6518: 6514: 6508:Wellhausen 1927 6506: 6502: 6494: 6490: 6484:Wellhausen 1927 6482: 6478: 6472:Wellhausen 1927 6470: 6466: 6458: 6454: 6446: 6442: 6434: 6430: 6422: 6413: 6405: 6401: 6395:Wellhausen 1927 6393: 6389: 6381: 6374: 6368:Wellhausen 1927 6366: 6359: 6353:Wellhausen 1927 6351: 6347: 6339: 6330: 6322: 6318: 6310: 6306: 6298: 6294: 6286: 6271: 6263: 6256: 6248: 6244: 6236: 6232: 6224: 6220: 6212: 6208: 6200: 6196: 6190:Hirschfeld 1987 6188: 6184: 6176: 6172: 6164: 6160: 6154:Wellhausen 1927 6152: 6148: 6140: 6133: 6127:Sprengling 1939 6125: 6121: 6113: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6078: 6059: 6051: 6047: 6039: 6035: 6027: 6023: 6015: 6011: 6003: 5996: 5990:Wellhausen 1927 5988: 5984: 5976: 5969: 5963:Wellhausen 1927 5961: 5952: 5944: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5920: 5916: 5908: 5904: 5896: 5892: 5884: 5880: 5872: 5868: 5860: 5856: 5850:Wellhausen 1927 5848: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5824: 5820: 5812: 5808: 5800: 5796: 5788: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5766:Wellhausen 1927 5764: 5760: 5752: 5748: 5742:Wellhausen 1927 5740: 5731: 5723: 5712: 5704: 5700: 5692: 5685: 5677: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5617: 5613: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5581: 5577: 5569: 5565: 5557: 5553: 5545: 5541: 5533: 5529: 5521: 5514: 5506: 5502: 5494: 5490: 5482: 5478: 5470: 5466: 5458: 5454: 5446: 5442: 5434: 5430: 5422: 5418: 5410: 5406: 5398: 5394: 5386: 5382: 5374: 5370: 5364:Wellhausen 1927 5362: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5326: 5322: 5316:Wellhausen 1927 5314: 5310: 5302: 5298: 5290: 5283: 5275: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5251: 5244: 5236: 5215: 5207: 5203: 5195: 5186: 5178: 5174: 5166: 5159: 5151: 5140: 5132: 5128: 5120: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5081: 5074: 5066: 5055: 5047: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5018: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4948: 4940: 4931: 4923: 4904: 4896: 4887: 4879: 4875: 4867: 4860: 4854:Wellhausen 1927 4852: 4845: 4837: 4810: 4802: 4795: 4787: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4724: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4697: 4693: 4685: 4681: 4673: 4669: 4661: 4657: 4649: 4638: 4630: 4623: 4615: 4611: 4603: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4555: 4548: 4540: 4536: 4528: 4524: 4516: 4512: 4506:Wellhausen 1927 4504: 4500: 4494:Wellhausen 1927 4492: 4488: 4480: 4476: 4468: 4464: 4456: 4447: 4439: 4406: 4402: 4397: 4396: 4380: 4376: 4355: 4351: 4297: 4293: 4268: 4264: 4247: 4243: 4230: 4226: 4187:Sa'id ibn al-As 4164: 4160: 4147: 4143: 4135:, aristocratic 4101: 4097: 4073: 4069:to the Muslims 4056: 4052: 4046:Yaqut al-Hamawi 4031: 4027: 4022: 4013: 4012: 4005: 4002: 3947: 3817: 3678: 3520: 3488: 3349: 3325: 3310: 2719: 2670:of the Arabs' ( 2611: 2525: 2517:Ahmad ibn Tulun 2513:Ibn Taghribirdi 2481: 2473:Muslim ibn Uqba 2420: 2408: 2254: 2226: 2169: 2095: 2044:Sa'id ibn al-As 2035: 2006: 1995: 1987: 1950:Ziyad ibn Abihi 1923:Malik al-Ashtar 1899: 1884: 1864:bath facilities 1844: 1826: 1717: 1672:Hasan abdicated 1660: 1655: 1609:to collect the 1512: 1488:Hugh N. Kennedy 1413: 1407: 1355: 1296: 1290: 1235: 1165: 1094:garrison cities 1078:Greek Christian 1049: 1027:Syrian frontier 998:Dumat al-Jandal 986: 970: 884:plague of Amwas 852: 841: 771: 766: 695:Utba ibn Rabi'a 636: 626:revelation. In 494: 487:Umayyad kinsman 475: 460: 413: 302: 278: 253: 233: 213: 210: 148: 104: 101: 77: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10499: 10489: 10488: 10483: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10458: 10453: 10448: 10431: 10430: 10423: 10420: 10419: 10417: 10416: 10411: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10387: 10380: 10373: 10366: 10361: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10341: 10336: 10331: 10326: 10320: 10318: 10310: 10309: 10307: 10306: 10301: 10296: 10291: 10286: 10281: 10276: 10271: 10265: 10263: 10255: 10254: 10247: 10245: 10243: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10171: 10169: 10161: 10160: 10158: 10157: 10152: 10146: 10143: 10142: 10135: 10134: 10127: 10120: 10112: 10104: 10103: 10098: 10095: 10090:Umayyad Caliph 10082: 10077: 10073: 10072: 10052: 10049: 10044: 10043: 10037: 10008: 10005: 10004: 10003: 9981: 9942:Kramers, J. H. 9938:Gibb, H. A. R. 9924: 9885:Kramers, J. H. 9881:Gibb, H. A. R. 9867: 9828:Kramers, J. H. 9824:Gibb, H. A. R. 9810: 9804: 9788: 9768:10.1086/370538 9751: 9706: 9696:(1): 100–111. 9682: 9676: 9653:van Donzel, E. 9641:Bearman, P. J. 9627: 9621: 9598:van Donzel, E. 9586:Bearman, P. J. 9572: 9566: 9551: 9545: 9533:, ed. (1987). 9527: 9506: 9500: 9485: 9479: 9452:van Donzel, E. 9436: 9416:10.1086/370887 9410:(4): 236–242. 9396: 9390: 9374: 9368: 9350: 9332:(3): 535–550. 9317: 9293: 9287: 9273:Lewis, Bernard 9269: 9230:Kramers, J. H. 9226:Gibb, H. A. R. 9216:Lammens, Henri 9212: 9206: 9191: 9185: 9171:Kohlberg, Etan 9167: 9161: 9143: 9137: 9119: 9113: 9095: 9089: 9071: 9065: 9045: 9039: 9021: 9015: 8997: 8988: 8963: 8957: 8938: 8932: 8914: 8908: 8890: 8884: 8866: 8860: 8842: 8818: 8812: 8785:van Donzel, E. 8767: 8761: 8738:van Donzel, E. 8720: 8696: 8690: 8667:van Donzel, E. 8655:Bearman, P. J. 8641: 8635: 8617: 8611: 8599:, ed. (1996). 8597:Hawting, G. R. 8593: 8587: 8564:van Donzel, E. 8552:Bearman, P. J. 8541: 8520: 8514: 8492: 8453:Kramers, J. H. 8449:Gibb, H. A. R. 8439:Gibb, H. A. R. 8435: 8415:(2): 259–278. 8400: 8394: 8379: 8373: 8358: 8342:Ars Orientalis 8334: 8324:Chisholm, Hugh 8310: 8265: 8243: 8237: 8222: 8216: 8198: 8192: 8174: 8139:van Donzel, E. 8128: 8122: 8107: 8101: 8083: 8043: 8037: 8015: 8009: 7986:van Donzel, E. 7974:Bearman, P. J. 7963: 7937:(2): 157–164. 7923: 7917: 7894:van Donzel, E. 7876: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7839: 7827: 7815: 7803: 7801:, p. 104. 7788: 7786:, p. 103. 7776: 7764: 7752: 7740: 7738:, p. 105. 7723: 7711: 7709:, p. 115. 7707:Humphreys 2006 7699: 7697:, p. 349. 7687: 7675: 7663: 7661:, p. 115. 7648: 7646:, p. 134. 7631: 7629:, p. 121. 7627:Humphreys 2006 7616: 7614:, p. 119. 7612:Humphreys 2006 7604: 7577: 7573:Humphreys 2006 7565: 7553: 7551:, p. 233. 7538: 7526: 7514: 7502: 7487: 7483:Humphreys 2006 7475: 7463: 7448: 7436: 7434:, p. 310. 7424: 7409: 7397: 7382: 7378:Humphreys 2006 7370: 7358: 7346: 7334: 7322: 7320:, p. 213. 7310: 7308:, p. 139. 7298: 7286: 7284:, p. 210. 7274: 7262: 7250: 7238: 7226: 7224:, p. 177. 7214: 7202: 7190: 7178: 7166: 7164:, p. 309. 7154: 7142: 7140:, p. 142. 7130: 7128:, p. 183. 7118: 7106: 7094: 7082: 7067: 7065:, p. 137. 7055: 7053:, p. 139. 7040: 7025: 7013: 7001: 6999:, p. 146. 6989: 6977: 6975:, p. 217. 6965: 6963:, p. 790. 6948: 6946:, p. 209. 6933: 6918: 6916:, p. 789. 6901: 6889: 6877: 6865: 6850: 6848:, p. 254. 6846:Jankowiak 2013 6838: 6826: 6814: 6810:Jankowiak 2013 6802: 6800:, p. 318. 6798:Jankowiak 2013 6790: 6788:, p. 316. 6786:Jankowiak 2013 6775: 6763: 6759:Jankowiak 2013 6751: 6747:Jankowiak 2013 6739: 6737:, p. 290. 6735:Jankowiak 2013 6727: 6715: 6711:Jankowiak 2013 6700: 6696:Jankowiak 2013 6688: 6676: 6664: 6662:, p. 273. 6660:Jankowiak 2013 6647: 6645:, p. 115. 6635: 6633:, p. 247. 6623: 6619:Al-Rashid 2008 6611: 6609:, p. 270. 6607:Al-Rashid 2008 6599: 6597:, p. 237. 6587: 6585:, p. 238. 6575: 6573:, p. 170. 6563: 6561:, p. 236. 6548: 6536: 6534:, p. 346. 6524: 6512: 6510:, p. 136. 6500: 6488: 6476: 6474:, p. 135. 6464: 6452: 6450:, p. 272. 6440: 6438:, p. 269. 6428: 6426:, p. 268. 6411: 6399: 6397:, p. 124. 6387: 6385:, p. 520. 6372: 6370:, p. 121. 6357: 6355:, p. 120. 6345: 6328: 6316: 6304: 6292: 6269: 6254: 6242: 6230: 6218: 6216:, p. 159. 6206: 6194: 6192:, p. 107. 6182: 6170: 6168:, p. 842. 6158: 6156:, p. 134. 6146: 6142:Humphreys 2006 6131: 6129:, p. 182. 6119: 6096: 6084: 6082:, p. 266. 6057: 6045: 6043:, p. 223. 6033: 6021: 6009: 5994: 5982: 5967: 5965:, p. 131. 5950: 5938: 5926: 5914: 5902: 5890: 5878: 5876:, p. 317. 5866: 5864:, p. 166. 5854: 5842: 5840:, p. 307. 5830: 5818: 5806: 5794: 5782: 5780:, p. 289. 5770: 5768:, p. 100. 5758: 5746: 5729: 5710: 5708:, p. 258. 5698: 5696:, p. 257. 5683: 5681:, p. 165. 5671: 5659: 5647: 5635: 5633:, p. 101. 5623: 5621:, p. 162. 5611: 5609:, p. 245. 5599: 5587: 5585:, p. 100. 5575: 5563: 5561:, p. 238. 5551: 5539: 5527: 5525:, p. 383. 5512: 5510:, p. 235. 5500: 5488: 5476: 5464: 5452: 5440: 5438:, p. 203. 5428: 5426:, p. 224. 5416: 5404: 5392: 5380: 5368: 5356: 5344: 5340:Humphreys 2006 5332: 5320: 5308: 5306:, p. 930. 5296: 5281: 5279:, p. 184. 5269: 5265:Humphreys 2006 5257: 5242: 5240:, p. 265. 5213: 5201: 5184: 5172: 5157: 5155:, p. 185. 5138: 5126: 5111: 5109:, p. 158. 5099: 5087: 5085:, p. 540. 5072: 5070:, p. 539. 5053: 5051:, p. 157. 5036: 5034:, p. 248. 5024: 5009: 4997: 4985: 4983:, p. 403. 4973: 4971:, p. 191. 4961: 4959:, p. 112. 4946: 4944:, p. 245. 4929: 4927:, p. 111. 4902: 4885: 4883:, p. 215. 4873: 4869:Humphreys 2006 4858: 4843: 4841:, p. 267. 4808: 4793: 4781: 4779:, p. 263. 4769: 4767:, p. 104. 4754: 4752:, p. 106. 4742: 4740:, p. 920. 4730: 4728:, p. 493. 4715: 4713:, p. 152. 4703: 4701:, p. 245. 4691: 4679: 4677:, p. 911. 4667: 4665:, p. 153. 4655: 4636: 4621: 4619:, p. 154. 4609: 4597: 4585: 4583:, p. 259. 4573: 4561: 4546: 4534: 4522: 4510: 4498: 4486: 4484:, p. 868. 4474: 4462: 4460:, p. 151. 4445: 4443:, p. 264. 4403: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4382:Hind bint Utba 4374: 4362:Yehuda D. Nevo 4358:Fred M. Donner 4356:These include 4349: 4291: 4262: 4241: 4224: 4171:Banu Abd Shams 4158: 4141: 4095: 4050: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4015: 4014: 4004: 4003: 3999: 3997: 3996: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3951: 743–744 3941: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3821: 720–724 3811: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3687: 3685: 3682: 683–684 3672: 3670: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3545: 3540: 3538: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3524: 680–683 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3492: 685–705 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3380: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 661–680 3346: 3344: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 684–685 3319: 3317: 3314: 644–656 3303: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3136: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3077: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2996: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2724:khalifa rashid 2718: 2715: 2705:protosymboulos 2610: 2607: 2602:Robert Hoyland 2557:Patricia Crone 2530:khalifat Allah 2524: 2521: 2480: 2477: 2453:Husayn ibn Ali 2431:(752–843) and 2419: 2416: 2412: 685–705 2350:Luwata Berbers 2316:oasis and the 2253: 2250: 2230: 668–685 2223:Constantine IV 2202:Sea of Marmara 2170: 674–678 2094: 2091: 2034: 2031: 2010: 665–667 1999: 664–665 1986: 1983: 1898: 1895: 1883: 1880: 1856:Sea of Galilee 1848: 610–641 1830: 680–683 1716: 1713: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1588:Sufyan ibn Awf 1511: 1508: 1443:The standard ( 1409:Main article: 1406: 1403: 1391:Natil ibn Qays 1354: 1351: 1289: 1286: 1282:Theodosiopolis 1239: 641–668 1164: 1161: 985: 982: 974: 644–656 904:Iyad ibn Ghanm 856: 634–644 770: 767: 765: 762: 730:captured Mecca 707:Battle of Uhud 691:Battle of Badr 683:Hind bint Utba 668:Banu Abd Shams 635: 632: 498: 644–656 479: 634–644 474:'s caliphate ( 464: 632–634 449:captured Mecca 382: 381: 376: 372: 371: 369:Hind bint Utba 366: 362: 361: 356: 352: 351: 346: 340: 339: 334: 328: 327: 324: 323: 313: 312: 304: 303: 301: 300: 297: 294: 288: 286: 280: 279: 277: 276: 273: 268: 265: 261: 259: 255: 254: 248: 246: 242: 241: 230: 226: 225: 211: 597–605 205: 201: 200: 197: 196: 193: 189: 188: 183: 179: 178: 175: 171: 170: 160: 159: 154: 150: 149: 147: 146: 136: 132: 130: 126: 125: 122: 118: 117: 106: 105: 91:Sasanian-style 89: 81: 80: 76: 75: 71:Khalifat Allah 66: 54: 49: 48: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10498: 10487: 10484: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10443: 10441: 10427: 10421: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10409: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10392: 10388: 10386: 10385: 10381: 10379: 10378: 10374: 10372: 10371: 10367: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10322: 10321: 10319: 10315: 10311: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10295: 10292: 10290: 10287: 10285: 10282: 10280: 10277: 10275: 10272: 10270: 10267: 10266: 10264: 10260: 10256: 10251: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10172: 10170: 10166: 10162: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10147: 10144: 10140: 10133: 10128: 10126: 10121: 10119: 10114: 10113: 10110: 10101: 10092: 10091: 10087: 10080: 10079:Hasan ibn Ali 10074: 10069: 10062: 10057: 10056: 10047: 10040: 10034: 10030: 10026: 10022: 10021: 10016: 10015:Cobb, Paul M. 10011: 10010: 10000: 9996: 9992: 9991: 9986: 9982: 9978: 9974: 9970: 9966: 9964: 9959: 9955: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9925: 9921: 9917: 9913: 9909: 9907: 9902: 9898: 9894: 9890: 9886: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9868: 9864: 9860: 9856: 9852: 9850: 9845: 9841: 9837: 9833: 9829: 9825: 9820: 9815: 9811: 9807: 9801: 9797: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9752: 9748: 9744: 9740: 9736: 9734: 9729: 9725: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9707: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9687: 9686:Sharon, Moshe 9683: 9679: 9673: 9669: 9665: 9663: 9658: 9654: 9650: 9646: 9645:Bianquis, Th. 9642: 9637: 9632: 9631:Shahid, Irfan 9628: 9624: 9618: 9614: 9610: 9608: 9603: 9599: 9595: 9591: 9590:Bianquis, Th. 9587: 9582: 9577: 9576:Shahid, Irfan 9573: 9569: 9563: 9559: 9558: 9552: 9548: 9542: 9538: 9537: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9507: 9503: 9497: 9493: 9492: 9486: 9482: 9476: 9472: 9468: 9466: 9461: 9457: 9453: 9449: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9425: 9421: 9417: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9393: 9387: 9383: 9382: 9375: 9371: 9369:0-521-56181-7 9365: 9361: 9360: 9355: 9351: 9347: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9318: 9314: 9310: 9306: 9302: 9298: 9294: 9290: 9284: 9280: 9279: 9274: 9270: 9266: 9262: 9258: 9254: 9252: 9247: 9243: 9239: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9207:90-04-09736-8 9203: 9199: 9198: 9192: 9188: 9182: 9178: 9177: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9158: 9154: 9153: 9148: 9147:Kennedy, Hugh 9144: 9140: 9134: 9130: 9129: 9124: 9123:Kennedy, Hugh 9120: 9116: 9110: 9106: 9105: 9100: 9099:Kennedy, Hugh 9096: 9092: 9090:0-415-25093-5 9086: 9082: 9081: 9076: 9075:Kennedy, Hugh 9072: 9068: 9066:0-521-47137-0 9062: 9058: 9054: 9050: 9049:Kennedy, Hugh 9046: 9042: 9036: 9032: 9031: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9016:0-521-41172-6 9012: 9008: 9007: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8989: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8969: 8964: 8960: 8954: 8950: 8946: 8945: 8939: 8935: 8933:1-85168-402-6 8929: 8925: 8924: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8905: 8901: 8900: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8885:90-429-0735-5 8881: 8877: 8876: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8857: 8853: 8852: 8847: 8843: 8839: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8809: 8805: 8801: 8799: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8771:Hinds, Martin 8768: 8764: 8758: 8754: 8750: 8748: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8724:Hinds, Martin 8721: 8717: 8713: 8710:(1): 93–129. 8709: 8705: 8701: 8700:Hinds, Martin 8697: 8693: 8687: 8683: 8679: 8677: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8660: 8659:Bianquis, Th. 8656: 8651: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8636:0-415-24072-7 8632: 8628: 8627: 8622: 8618: 8614: 8608: 8604: 8603: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8574: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8557: 8556:Bianquis, Th. 8553: 8548: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8530: 8527:(in French). 8526: 8521: 8517: 8515:3-406-48654-1 8511: 8507: 8503: 8502: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8475: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8445: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8401: 8397: 8391: 8387: 8386: 8380: 8376: 8374:0-520-23665-3 8370: 8366: 8365: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8293: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8275: 8270: 8269:Gardet, Louis 8266: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8253: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8238:90-04-10010-5 8234: 8230: 8229: 8223: 8219: 8213: 8209: 8208: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8189: 8185: 8184: 8179: 8175: 8171: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8157: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8140: 8135: 8129: 8125: 8119: 8115: 8114: 8108: 8104: 8102:0-521-52940-9 8098: 8094: 8093: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8038:0-521-32185-9 8034: 8030: 8029: 8024: 8023:Hinds, Martin 8020: 8016: 8012: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7996: 7991: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7978:Bianquis, Th. 7975: 7970: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7904: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7848: 7847: 7836: 7831: 7824: 7819: 7813:, p. 82. 7812: 7807: 7800: 7799:Kohlberg 2020 7795: 7793: 7785: 7784:Kohlberg 2020 7780: 7773: 7768: 7761: 7760:Kohlberg 2020 7756: 7749: 7748:Kohlberg 2020 7744: 7737: 7736:Kohlberg 2020 7732: 7730: 7728: 7721:, p. 14. 7720: 7715: 7708: 7703: 7696: 7691: 7685:, p. 65. 7684: 7679: 7672: 7667: 7660: 7655: 7653: 7645: 7640: 7638: 7636: 7628: 7623: 7621: 7613: 7608: 7602:, p. 42. 7601: 7596: 7594: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7586: 7584: 7582: 7574: 7569: 7562: 7557: 7550: 7545: 7543: 7535: 7530: 7523: 7518: 7512:, p. 98. 7511: 7506: 7499: 7498:Madelung 1997 7494: 7492: 7484: 7479: 7473:, p. 82. 7472: 7467: 7461:, p. 34. 7460: 7455: 7453: 7446:, p. 98. 7445: 7440: 7433: 7428: 7422:, p. 33. 7421: 7416: 7414: 7407:, p. 30. 7406: 7401: 7394: 7389: 7387: 7380:, p. 93. 7379: 7374: 7367: 7362: 7355: 7350: 7344:, p. 18. 7343: 7338: 7331: 7326: 7319: 7314: 7307: 7302: 7295: 7290: 7283: 7278: 7271: 7266: 7259: 7254: 7248:, p. 43. 7247: 7242: 7235: 7230: 7223: 7218: 7211: 7210:Madelung 1997 7206: 7200:, p. 45. 7199: 7194: 7188:, p. 91. 7187: 7182: 7175: 7170: 7163: 7158: 7151: 7146: 7139: 7134: 7127: 7122: 7115: 7110: 7104:, p. 90. 7103: 7098: 7092:, p. 85. 7091: 7086: 7080:, p. 28. 7079: 7078:de Goeje 1911 7074: 7072: 7064: 7059: 7052: 7047: 7045: 7037: 7036:Madelung 1997 7032: 7030: 7022: 7021:Madelung 1997 7017: 7010: 7005: 6998: 6993: 6987:, p. 67. 6986: 6981: 6974: 6969: 6962: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6945: 6940: 6938: 6931:, p. 13. 6930: 6925: 6923: 6915: 6910: 6908: 6906: 6899:, p. 12. 6898: 6893: 6886: 6881: 6874: 6869: 6863:, p. 88. 6862: 6857: 6855: 6847: 6842: 6835: 6830: 6824:, p. 46. 6823: 6818: 6811: 6806: 6799: 6794: 6787: 6782: 6780: 6772: 6771:Bosworth 1996 6767: 6760: 6755: 6748: 6743: 6736: 6731: 6724: 6719: 6712: 6707: 6705: 6697: 6692: 6685: 6680: 6673: 6668: 6661: 6656: 6654: 6652: 6644: 6639: 6632: 6627: 6620: 6615: 6608: 6603: 6596: 6591: 6584: 6579: 6572: 6567: 6560: 6555: 6553: 6545: 6540: 6533: 6532:Madelung 1997 6528: 6521: 6520:Madelung 1997 6516: 6509: 6504: 6497: 6496:Bosworth 1991 6492: 6485: 6480: 6473: 6468: 6461: 6456: 6449: 6444: 6437: 6432: 6425: 6420: 6418: 6416: 6409:, p. 41. 6408: 6403: 6396: 6391: 6384: 6379: 6377: 6369: 6364: 6362: 6354: 6349: 6343:, p. 85. 6342: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6325: 6320: 6314:, p. 84. 6313: 6308: 6301: 6296: 6290:, p. 83. 6289: 6284: 6282: 6280: 6278: 6276: 6274: 6266: 6261: 6259: 6251: 6246: 6240:, p. 33. 6239: 6234: 6228:, p. 23. 6227: 6222: 6215: 6210: 6204:, p. 99. 6203: 6198: 6191: 6186: 6180:, p. 83. 6179: 6174: 6167: 6162: 6155: 6150: 6143: 6138: 6136: 6128: 6123: 6117:, p. 87. 6116: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6105: 6103: 6101: 6093: 6088: 6081: 6076: 6074: 6072: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6062: 6055:, p. 13. 6054: 6049: 6042: 6037: 6030: 6025: 6019:, p. 44. 6018: 6013: 6007:, p. 20. 6006: 6001: 5999: 5991: 5986: 5980:, p. 86. 5979: 5974: 5972: 5964: 5959: 5957: 5955: 5947: 5942: 5935: 5930: 5923: 5918: 5912:, p. 96. 5911: 5906: 5900:, p. 93. 5899: 5894: 5887: 5886:Madelung 1997 5882: 5875: 5874:Madelung 1997 5870: 5863: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5839: 5838:Madelung 1997 5834: 5827: 5826:Madelung 1997 5822: 5815: 5814:Madelung 1997 5810: 5803: 5802:Madelung 1997 5798: 5791: 5790:Madelung 1997 5786: 5779: 5778:Madelung 1997 5774: 5767: 5762: 5755: 5754:Madelung 1997 5750: 5744:, p. 99. 5743: 5738: 5736: 5734: 5727:, p. 69. 5726: 5721: 5719: 5717: 5715: 5707: 5706:Madelung 1997 5702: 5695: 5694:Madelung 1997 5690: 5688: 5680: 5675: 5668: 5663: 5657:, p. 99. 5656: 5651: 5644: 5643:Madelung 1997 5639: 5632: 5627: 5620: 5615: 5608: 5607:Madelung 1997 5603: 5597:, p. 79. 5596: 5591: 5584: 5579: 5573:, p. 98. 5572: 5567: 5560: 5559:Madelung 1997 5555: 5548: 5543: 5536: 5531: 5524: 5523:Vaglieri 1960 5519: 5517: 5509: 5508:Madelung 1997 5504: 5497: 5496:Madelung 1997 5492: 5486:, p. 63. 5485: 5480: 5473: 5472:Madelung 1997 5468: 5461: 5460:Madelung 1997 5456: 5449: 5448:Madelung 1997 5444: 5437: 5436:Madelung 1997 5432: 5425: 5424:Madelung 1997 5420: 5413: 5412:Madelung 1997 5408: 5401: 5400:Madelung 1997 5396: 5389: 5388:Madelung 1997 5384: 5378:, p. 74. 5377: 5372: 5366:, p. 76. 5365: 5360: 5354:, p. 28. 5353: 5348: 5342:, p. 77. 5341: 5336: 5330:, p. 76. 5329: 5324: 5317: 5312: 5305: 5300: 5294:, p. 27. 5293: 5288: 5286: 5278: 5277:Madelung 1997 5273: 5267:, p. 74. 5266: 5261: 5255:, p. 62. 5254: 5249: 5247: 5239: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5210: 5209:Madelung 1997 5205: 5198: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5182:, p. 70. 5181: 5176: 5170:, p. 84. 5169: 5168:Madelung 1997 5164: 5162: 5154: 5149: 5147: 5145: 5143: 5135: 5130: 5123: 5122:Bosworth 1996 5118: 5116: 5108: 5107:Bosworth 1996 5103: 5096: 5091: 5084: 5079: 5077: 5069: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5050: 5049:Bosworth 1996 5045: 5043: 5041: 5033: 5028: 5022:, p. 12. 5021: 5016: 5014: 5006: 5001: 4995:, p. 82. 4994: 4993:Madelung 1997 4989: 4982: 4977: 4970: 4965: 4958: 4953: 4951: 4943: 4938: 4936: 4934: 4926: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4899: 4894: 4892: 4890: 4882: 4877: 4871:, p. 61. 4870: 4865: 4863: 4855: 4850: 4848: 4840: 4835: 4833: 4831: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4813: 4806:, p. 95. 4805: 4800: 4798: 4790: 4789:Athamina 1994 4785: 4778: 4777:Athamina 1994 4773: 4766: 4761: 4759: 4751: 4746: 4739: 4734: 4727: 4722: 4720: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4695: 4688: 4683: 4676: 4671: 4664: 4659: 4653:, p. 61. 4652: 4651:Madelung 1997 4647: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4633: 4632:Madelung 1997 4628: 4626: 4618: 4613: 4606: 4601: 4594: 4589: 4582: 4581:Athamina 1994 4577: 4570: 4565: 4559:, p. 45. 4558: 4557:Madelung 1997 4553: 4551: 4544:, p. 54. 4543: 4538: 4532:, p. 52. 4531: 4526: 4520:, p. 49. 4519: 4514: 4507: 4502: 4495: 4490: 4483: 4478: 4471: 4466: 4459: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4442: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4404: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4353: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4333: 4332:Henri Lammens 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4295: 4288: 4283: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4266: 4260:court poetry. 4259: 4255: 4251: 4245: 4237: 4236: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4189:, Basra with 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4162: 4155: 4151: 4145: 4138: 4134: 4133:South Arabian 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4099: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4032:According to 4029: 4025: 4011: 3998: 3995: 3980: 3945: 3933: 3931: 3865: 3863: 3855: 3815: 3803: 3800: 3792: 3791: 3784: 3776: 3723: 3712: 3710: 3709: 3698: 3691: 3676: 3669: 3656: 3654: 3643: 3640: 3632: 3630: 3622: 3620: 3612: 3610: 3609: 3602: 3594: 3592: 3576: 3574: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3537: 3518: 3486: 3474: 3471: 3463: 3461: 3460: 3429: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3417: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3367: 3343: 3323: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3293: 3291: 3283: 3281: 3273: 3271: 3263: 3261: 3253: 3251: 3243: 3241: 3240: 3229: 3205: 3203: 3195: 3193: 3177: 3175: 3152: 3145: 3143: 3138: 3135: 3111: 3096: 3081: 3074: 3070: 3067: 3059: 3057: 3056: 3015: 3011: 3009: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2960: 2952: 2949: 2913: 2911: 2910: 2903: 2885: 2883: 2865: 2863: 2856: 2854: 2851: 2825: 2821: 2820: 2816: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2806:Isma'ili Shia 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2786:Buyid dynasty 2784:emirs of the 2783: 2779: 2774: 2771: 2770: 2763: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2740: 2739:katib al-wahi 2735: 2730: 2725: 2714: 2711: 2706: 2700: 2697: 2691: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2673:Kisra al-Arab 2669: 2663: 2658: 2656: 2651: 2648: 2641: 2637: 2634: 2628: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2606: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2571: 2564: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2551: 2546: 2543: 2537: 2531: 2520: 2518: 2515:asserts that 2514: 2509: 2506: 2505:Bab al-Saghir 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2424: 2415: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2388: 2382: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2342: 2338: 2337:Uqba ibn Nafi 2333: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2306:Uqba ibn Nafi 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2249: 2246: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2177: 2175: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2141:(d. 923) and 2140: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2108: 2104: 2099: 2090: 2088: 2082: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2060: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2030: 2028: 2022: 2020: 2015: 2004: 2003:Uqba ibn Amir 1993: 1982: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1905: 1894: 1891: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1824: 1820: 1819:Sayf ibn Umar 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1798: 1791: 1790: 1783: 1782: 1775: 1769: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1676: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1554: 1551: 1546: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1516: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1483: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1454: 1449: 1448: 1441: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1425: 1418: 1417:met at Siffin 1412: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1361: 1360:Qays ibn Sa'd 1350: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1309: 1308:Khadra Palace 1305: 1301: 1295: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1245:coast at the 1244: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1100:, Aleppo and 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1053: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1025:to guard the 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 994:Syrian steppe 991: 981: 979: 967: 965: 961: 957: 956:Leone Caetani 953: 947: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 849: 847: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 811: 810: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 780: 775: 761: 759: 754: 753: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 718: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 686: 684: 680: 676: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 645: 640: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 592: 590: 586: 582: 581:Uqba ibn Nafi 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 549: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 530:Amr ibn al-As 527: 523: 520:. During the 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 492: 488: 484: 473: 469: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 437: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 407: 401: 392: 388: 380: 377: 373: 370: 367: 363: 360: 357: 353: 350: 347: 345: 341: 338: 335: 333: 329: 314: 309: 305: 298: 295: 293: 290: 289: 287: 285: 281: 274: 272: 269: 266: 263: 262: 260: 256: 251: 250:Bab al-Saghir 247: 243: 240: 236: 231: 227: 224: 220: 216: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 187: 184: 180: 176: 172: 169: 165: 161: 158: 155: 151: 144: 140: 139:Hasan ibn Ali 137: 134: 133: 131: 127: 123: 119: 116: 112: 107: 96: 92: 87: 82: 79: 73: 72: 67: 64: 63: 58: 57: 56: 53: 50: 40: 37: 33: 19: 10406: 10402:Muhammad III 10389: 10382: 10375: 10368: 10195:Abd al-Malik 10174: 10084: 10070:26 April 680 10067: 10060: 10053: 10019: 9989: 9968: 9961: 9911: 9904: 9876:"Abū Sufyān" 9854: 9847: 9795: 9759: 9755: 9738: 9731: 9693: 9689: 9667: 9660: 9612: 9605: 9556: 9535: 9514: 9510: 9490: 9470: 9463: 9407: 9403: 9380: 9358: 9329: 9325: 9304: 9300: 9277: 9256: 9249: 9196: 9175: 9151: 9127: 9103: 9079: 9056: 9029: 9005: 8992: 8967: 8943: 8926:. Oneworld. 8922: 8898: 8874: 8850: 8829: 8825: 8803: 8796: 8752: 8745: 8707: 8703: 8681: 8674: 8625: 8601: 8578: 8571: 8528: 8524: 8505: 8500: 8479: 8472: 8412: 8408: 8384: 8363: 8345: 8341: 8338:Grabar, Oleg 8327: 8297: 8290: 8251: 8247:Ende, Werner 8227: 8206: 8182: 8161: 8154: 8112: 8091: 8054: 8050: 8027: 8000: 7993: 7934: 7930: 7908: 7901: 7855: 7851: 7844:Bibliography 7830: 7823:Kraemer 1992 7818: 7806: 7779: 7767: 7755: 7743: 7714: 7702: 7695:Kennedy 2007 7690: 7678: 7666: 7644:Hoyland 2015 7607: 7600:Hawting 2000 7568: 7561:Hawting 2000 7556: 7549:Hoyland 2015 7534:Hoyland 2015 7529: 7522:Hoyland 2015 7517: 7510:Hoyland 2015 7505: 7478: 7471:Kennedy 2004 7466: 7459:Kennedy 2016 7444:Kennedy 2004 7439: 7432:Hawting 2002 7427: 7400: 7373: 7368:, p. 6. 7361: 7349: 7337: 7325: 7313: 7301: 7289: 7277: 7265: 7253: 7246:Hawting 2000 7241: 7229: 7217: 7205: 7193: 7186:Marsham 2013 7181: 7174:Marsham 2013 7169: 7162:Hawting 2002 7157: 7145: 7133: 7121: 7109: 7102:Marsham 2013 7097: 7085: 7058: 7016: 7004: 6992: 6980: 6973:Kennedy 2007 6968: 6944:Kennedy 2007 6892: 6885:Kennedy 2007 6880: 6868: 6861:Kennedy 2004 6841: 6829: 6822:Stratos 1978 6817: 6805: 6793: 6766: 6754: 6742: 6730: 6718: 6691: 6679: 6667: 6638: 6626: 6614: 6602: 6590: 6578: 6566: 6539: 6527: 6515: 6503: 6491: 6479: 6467: 6455: 6443: 6431: 6407:Hawting 2000 6402: 6390: 6348: 6341:Kennedy 2004 6324:Kennedy 2004 6319: 6312:Kennedy 2004 6307: 6300:Kennedy 2004 6295: 6288:Kennedy 2004 6245: 6233: 6221: 6214:Hoyland 1999 6209: 6197: 6185: 6173: 6166:Hawting 2000 6161: 6149: 6122: 6115:Kennedy 2004 6087: 6053:Kennedy 2001 6048: 6041:Hawting 1996 6036: 6029:Kennedy 2004 6024: 6012: 6005:Kennedy 2001 5985: 5978:Kennedy 2004 5946:Marsham 2013 5941: 5934:Marsham 2013 5929: 5922:Marsham 2013 5917: 5910:Marsham 2013 5905: 5898:Marsham 2013 5893: 5881: 5869: 5857: 5845: 5833: 5821: 5809: 5797: 5785: 5773: 5761: 5749: 5725:Kennedy 1998 5701: 5674: 5662: 5650: 5638: 5626: 5614: 5602: 5595:Kennedy 2004 5590: 5578: 5566: 5554: 5542: 5530: 5503: 5491: 5479: 5467: 5455: 5443: 5431: 5419: 5407: 5395: 5383: 5371: 5359: 5352:Hawting 2000 5347: 5335: 5328:Kennedy 2004 5323: 5311: 5299: 5292:Hawting 2000 5272: 5260: 5204: 5180:Kennedy 2004 5175: 5129: 5102: 5090: 5027: 5020:Kennedy 2001 5000: 4988: 4981:Shahid 2000b 4976: 4969:Shahid 2000a 4964: 4957:Jandora 1986 4925:Jandora 1986 4876: 4804:Kennedy 2007 4784: 4772: 4765:Marsham 2013 4745: 4738:Lammens 1960 4733: 4706: 4694: 4682: 4675:Sourdel 1965 4670: 4658: 4612: 4600: 4588: 4576: 4564: 4542:Kennedy 2004 4537: 4530:Kennedy 2004 4525: 4513: 4501: 4489: 4477: 4470:Hawting 2000 4465: 4377: 4370:Gerd R. Puin 4352: 4341:Banu Makhzum 4320:Martin Hinds 4294: 4265: 4244: 4227: 4222:Qurayshites. 4161: 4144: 4098: 4084:, two other 4063:Moshe Sharon 4059:Temple Mount 4053: 4034:al-Baladhuri 4028: 4009: 3485:Abd al-Malik 3348:Mu'awiya I ( 2782:Twelver Shia 2776:Amid rising 2775: 2744: 2736:revelation ( 2720: 2701: 2665: 2660: 2652: 2643: 2639: 2629: 2612: 2598: 2584: 2565: 2561:Martin Hinds 2554: 2547: 2526: 2510: 2482: 2449: 2445: 2433:Ibn al-Athir 2425: 2421: 2378: 2346: 2271: 2266:North Africa 2242: 2211: 2185:actual siege 2178: 2136: 2112: 2083: 2061: 2056: 2036: 2023: 1988: 1962: 1956:fortress in 1935: 1915:Hujr ibn Adi 1900: 1885: 1859: 1834: 1750: 1734: 1689:Jami Al-Aqsa 1685:Temple Mount 1677: 1661: 1619: 1600: 1555: 1541: 1496: 1477: 1457: 1414: 1364: 1356: 1324: 1319:Wadi al-Qura 1312: 1297: 1267: 1217: 1193: 1166: 1071: 1054: 1023:client kings 987: 968: 948: 906:governor of 850: 827:Banu Makhzum 784: 738:al-Baladhuri 719: 687: 672:polytheistic 670:clan of the 649: 620:Sunni Muslim 596:Umayyad clan 593: 557:postal route 550: 508:against the 438: 386: 385: 78: 55: 52: 36: 10446:600s births 10339:Muhammad II 10329:Al-Hakam II 10225:Al-Walid II 10185:Mu'awiya II 10150:Family tree 9958:Pellat, Ch. 9950:Schacht, J. 9901:Pellat, Ch. 9893:Schacht, J. 9844:Pellat, Ch. 9836:Schacht, J. 9728:Schacht, J. 9724:Pellat, Ch. 9710:Sourdel, D. 9460:Pellat, Ch. 9246:Pellat, Ch. 9238:Schacht, J. 8832:: 101–116. 8802:Volume VII: 8793:Pellat, Ch. 8742:Pellat, Ch. 8496:Halm, Heinz 8469:Pellat, Ch. 8461:Schacht, J. 8287:Schacht, J. 8283:Pellat, Ch. 8147:Pellat, Ch. 7898:Pellat, Ch. 7772:Pierce 2016 7671:Morony 1986 7342:Grabar 1966 7330:Morony 1987 7318:Morony 1987 7294:Morony 1987 7282:Morony 1987 7270:Morony 1987 7222:Donner 2012 7126:Morony 1987 6383:Hasson 2002 6202:Hasson 1982 5862:Donner 2012 5679:Donner 2012 5667:Donner 2012 5619:Donner 2012 5376:Shaban 1976 5304:Gardet 1965 5197:Donner 2012 5032:Donner 2014 5005:Donner 2014 4942:Donner 2014 4898:Morony 1987 4881:Morony 1987 4750:Donner 2014 4711:Donner 2012 4663:Donner 2014 4617:Donner 2014 4605:Sharon 2018 4593:Donner 2014 4569:Fowden 2004 4304:al-Mada'ini 4167:Banu Umayya 3944:Al-Walid II 3675:Mu'awiya II 2717:Muslim view 2624:al-Mu'tadid 2576:Mu'awiya II 2499:chronicler 2493:Abu Mikhnaf 2429:al-Mada'ini 2320:capital of 2130:with 5,000 2089:(d. 1533). 2078:Banu Hanifa 2052:Banu Hashim 2019:Roda Island 1974:Ubayd Allah 1970:Transoxiana 1852:Hamat Gader 1725:Hamat Gader 1584:Ayn al-Tamr 1520:First Fitna 1518:Map of the 1430:Ubayd Allah 1339:First Fitna 1294:First Fitna 1288:First Fitna 1263:Abu'l-A'war 1232:Constans II 1200:Banu Nawfal 1019:Monophysite 916:Mesopotamia 182:Predecessor 129:Predecessor 10451:680 deaths 10440:Categories 10424:indicates 10414:Hisham III 10317:(929–1031) 10294:al-Mundhir 10289:Muhammad I 10279:Al-Hakam I 10200:Al-Walid I 10175:Mu'awiya I 9737:Volume II: 9440:Morony, M. 8947:. Oxford: 8751:Volume VI: 8680:Volume XI: 8577:Volume XI: 8296:Volume II: 8160:Volume IV: 7907:Volume VI: 7811:Hyder 2006 7683:Lewis 2002 7420:Crone 2003 7405:Crone 2003 7198:Crone 1994 7051:Hinds 1991 7009:Hinds 1991 6985:Lewis 2002 6929:Kaegi 2010 6897:Kaegi 2010 6873:Kaegi 1995 6834:Lilie 1976 6684:Kaegi 1995 6672:Kaegi 1995 6631:Kaegi 1995 6595:Miles 1948 6583:Miles 1948 6571:Dixon 1971 6559:Miles 1948 6265:Hinds 1993 6092:Crone 1994 6080:Hinds 1993 6017:Crone 1994 5655:Hinds 1972 5631:Hinds 1972 5583:Hinds 1972 5571:Hinds 1972 5547:Hinds 1972 5535:Crone 2003 5484:Lewis 2002 5253:Lewis 2002 5238:Hinds 1993 5153:Kaegi 1995 5134:Kaegi 1995 5095:Lynch 2016 5083:Lynch 2016 5068:Lynch 2016 4839:Hinds 1993 4726:Dixon 1978 4699:Kaegi 1995 4687:Kaegi 1995 4518:Lewis 2002 4482:Watt 1960b 4458:Watt 1960a 4441:Hinds 1993 4400:References 4137:Himyarites 4074: 637 3110:Abu Sufyan 2657:(d. 898): 2655:al-Ya'qubi 2441:Al-Mas'udi 2318:Garamantes 2176:(d. 818). 2147:patricians 2109:(661–680). 2087:al-Samhudi 1738:Ibn Bahdal 1709:Gethsemane 1681:al-Maqdisi 1643:Hadhramawt 1494:movement. 1471:(d. 723), 1292:See also: 1241:) off the 1228:Alexandria 1050: 650 1011:Ghassanids 842: 634 831:Ridda wars 726:Umm Habiba 628:Shia Islam 569:al-Mughira 546:suzerainty 506:war effort 445:Qurayshite 441:Abu Sufyan 387:Mu'awiya I 252:, Damascus 102: 674 42:Mu'awiya I 10349:Hisham II 10334:Hisham II 10262:(756–929) 10240:Marwan II 10230:Yazid III 10168:(661–750) 9999:752790641 9977:495469456 9967:Volume I: 9954:Lewis, B. 9920:495469456 9910:Volume I: 9897:Lewis, B. 9863:495469456 9853:Volume I: 9840:Lewis, B. 9784:170486943 9747:495469475 9720:Lewis, B. 9666:Volume X: 9611:Volume X: 9469:Volume V: 9456:Lewis, B. 9432:162403885 9313:797598069 9265:495469456 9255:Volume I: 9242:Lewis, B. 9003:(1995) . 8729:"Makhzūm" 8488:495469456 8478:Volume I: 8465:Lewis, B. 8306:495469475 8279:Lewis, B. 8249:(1977) . 8204:(2014) . 8180:(2012) . 8170:758278456 8143:Lewis, B. 8089:(2003) . 8079:154370527 8071:0021-1818 8051:Der Islam 8025:(2003) . 7999:Volume X: 7959:163550092 7835:Halm 2003 7719:Ende 1977 7090:Gibb 1960 6460:Foss 2009 6448:Foss 2009 6436:Foss 2009 6424:Foss 2009 6250:Elad 1999 6238:Elad 1999 6226:Elad 1999 6178:Foss 2016 4308:al-Tabari 4275:Jerusalem 4120:Banu Kalb 4112:Byzantine 3848:Abd Allah 3511:Abd Allah 2959:Abu al-As 2662:kingship. 2620:al-Ma'mun 2616:al-Saffah 2497:Nestorian 2274:Cyrenaica 2264:(central 2245:Mardaites 2206:Chalcedon 2139:al-Tabari 2107:caliphate 2103:Byzantine 1854:near the 1841:Heraclius 1658:Accession 1653:Caliphate 1492:Kharijite 1469:al-Sha'bi 1327:al-Zubayr 1280:captured 1153:Euphrates 1102:Qinnasrin 1066:Banu Tayy 1062:Tanukhids 990:Banu Kalb 952:Muhajirun 900:Palestine 742:Ibn Hajar 502:Banu Kalb 489:, Caliph 400:romanized 296:Abd Allah 192:Successor 174:In Office 153:Successor 10428:usurpers 10426:Hammudid 10354:Sulayman 10344:Sulayman 10299:Abdullah 10274:Hisham I 10215:Yazid II 10205:Sulayman 10190:Marwan I 10094:661–680 9987:(1927). 9960:(eds.). 9930:(1960). 9903:(eds.). 9873:(1960). 9846:(eds.). 9816:(1960). 9794:(1978). 9730:(eds.). 9712:(1965). 9702:26740639 9659:(eds.). 9636:"Ṭayyīʾ" 9633:(2000). 9604:(eds.). 9581:"Tanūkh" 9578:(2000). 9523:41223953 9471:Khe–Mahi 9462:(eds.). 9442:(1986). 9356:(1997). 9299:(1976). 9275:(2002). 9248:(eds.). 9221:"Baḥdal" 9218:(1960). 9173:(2020). 9149:(2016). 9125:(2007). 9101:(2004). 9077:(2001). 9051:(1998). 9027:(2010). 8920:(2006). 8896:(2015). 8848:(2010). 8838:27931308 8795:(eds.). 8773:(1993). 8753:Mahk–Mid 8744:(eds.). 8726:(1991). 8673:(eds.). 8647:(2002). 8623:(2000). 8570:(eds.). 8537:27925830 8498:(2003). 8471:(eds.). 8441:(1960). 8431:40379004 8348:: 7–46. 8316:(1911). 8289:(eds.). 8271:(1965). 8162:Iran–Kha 8153:(eds.). 7992:(eds.). 7951:25183178 7909:Mahk–Mid 7900:(eds.). 7882:(1991). 4273:visited 3814:Yazid II 3536:Al-Walid 3372:Muhammad 3322:Marwan I 3134:Muhammad 3132:Prophet 3080:Al-Hakam 2734:Qur'anic 2729:Uthmanid 2381:Ifriqiya 2370:Carthage 2366:Kairouan 2360:and the 2354:Ghadamis 2341:Kairouan 2282:Byzacena 2262:Ifriqiya 2198:Saborios 2151:Koloneia 1966:Khurasan 1872:Sinnabra 1703:and the 1701:Golgotha 1611:alms tax 1559:Muhammad 1528:Caucasus 1465:al-Zuhri 1118:Maraclea 1098:Tiberias 1035:Lakhmids 1017:and the 960:Umayyads 940:Anatolia 936:Euchaita 920:Caesarea 910:and the 892:Damascus 846:Damascus 809:Rashidun 787:Abu Bakr 699:Abu Jahl 624:Qur'anic 589:Sijistan 585:Khurasan 577:Ifriqiya 457:Abu Bakr 430:Rashidun 426:Muhammad 375:Religion 337:Sufyanid 235:Damascus 164:Governor 10235:Ibrahim 10180:Yazid I 10100:Yazid I 10017:(ed.). 9444:"Kisrā" 8984:1596048 8804:Mif–Naz 8354:4629220 8326:(ed.). 8274:"Fitna" 7872:4057449 7852:Arabica 4281:midrash 4258:Umayyad 4191:Bahrayn 4124:Quraysh 3517:Yazid I 3336:Hanzala 2809:Fatimid 2802:Isfahan 2790:Baghdad 2769:tabarra 2696:khalifa 2668:Khosrow 2508:died". 2397:Tlemcen 2294:Bizerte 2238:Sillyon 2124:Asawira 2070:Abbasid 1954:Istakhr 1919:Ibrahim 1823:Yazid I 1797:maqsura 1762:rasa'il 1345:at the 1270:Armenia 1212:Salamis 1133:Persian 1130:Baalbek 1122:Baniyas 1106:Antioch 1090:Tripoli 1086:Latakia 1074:Aramaic 1002:Palmyra 944:Amorium 932:Cilicia 928:Ascalon 914:(Upper 815:Umayyad 789:became 713:at the 705:at the 703:Muslims 675:Quraysh 646:(green) 604:Yazid I 453:scribes 420:of the 402:: 349:Umayyad 344:Dynasty 177:639–661 157:Yazid I 113:of the 93:silver 10220:Hisham 10066: 10035: 9997: 9975: 9956:& 9933:"Badr" 9918: 9899:& 9861: 9842:& 9802: 9782: 9776:528934 9774: 9745: 9726:& 9700: 9674: 9655:& 9619: 9600:& 9564: 9543: 9521: 9498: 9477: 9458:& 9430: 9424:542216 9422: 9388: 9366: 9344: 9311: 9285: 9263: 9244:& 9204: 9183: 9159: 9135: 9111: 9087: 9063: 9037: 9013: 8982: 8955: 8930: 8906: 8882: 8858: 8836: 8810: 8791:& 8759: 8740:& 8688: 8669:& 8633: 8609: 8585: 8566:& 8535: 8512: 8486: 8467:& 8429: 8392: 8371: 8352: 8304: 8285:& 8235: 8214: 8190: 8168: 8149:& 8120: 8099: 8077: 8069: 8035: 8007: 7988:& 7957: 7949: 7915: 7896:& 7870: 4386:Umayya 4368:, and 4337:Medina 4271:Arculf 4205:under 4175:Jazira 4091:scribe 4008: 4006: 3860:Hashim 3690:Khalid 3543:Uthman 3360:Anbasa 3307:Uthman 2850:Umayya 2622:, and 2593:sabiqa 2570:ashraf 2542:ashraf 2401:Kasila 2374:Berber 2314:Zawila 2310:Fezzan 2302:Djerba 2288:) and 2234:Smyrna 2128:Apamea 2074:Yamama 2065:Arafat 2059:Juddah 2033:Arabia 2027:Fayyum 1979:Thaqif 1942:Sistan 1910:ashraf 1904:ashraf 1890:ashraf 1876:Edessa 1811:Rabi'a 1803:Sulaym 1789:shurta 1768:khatam 1755:diwans 1697:Syriac 1639:Ma'rib 1635:Sana'a 1631:Najran 1563:Fustat 1504:Adhruh 1395:Bajila 1389:chief 1387:Judham 1379:Hamdan 1371:Himyar 1335:A'isha 1251:Sicily 1243:Lycian 1224:Rhodes 1189:Solois 1181:Cyprus 1175:, and 1114:Tartus 1082:Aleppo 1043:Maysun 1006:Quda'a 912:Jazira 896:Jordan 880:Byblos 876:Beirut 801:, and 799:Uthman 791:caliph 752:kātibs 746:Arabia 711:Medina 656:Meccan 644:Arabia 610:, and 608:Husayn 600:Medina 491:Uthman 418:caliph 391:Arabic 365:Mother 355:Father 258:Spouse 245:Burial 223:Arabia 143:caliph 111:Caliph 95:dirham 45:معاوية 10155:Media 10068:Died: 10061:Born: 9936:. In 9879:. In 9822:. In 9780:S2CID 9772:JSTOR 9718:. In 9698:JSTOR 9639:. In 9584:. In 9519:JSTOR 9446:. In 9428:S2CID 9420:JSTOR 9342:JSTOR 9303:[ 9224:. In 8980:JSTOR 8834:JSTOR 8779:. In 8732:. In 8653:. In 8550:. In 8533:JSTOR 8504:[ 8447:. In 8427:JSTOR 8350:JSTOR 8322:. In 8277:. In 8137:. In 8075:S2CID 7972:. In 7955:S2CID 7947:JSTOR 7888:. In 7868:JSTOR 4235:fitna 4211:Egypt 4203:Mecca 4129:Yazid 4108:Syria 4038:Balqa 4020:Notes 3994:Yazid 3668:Atika 3342:Yazid 3073:Affan 2798:Raqqa 2794:Wasit 2762:la'in 2756:taliq 2751:Abbas 2690:malik 2683:shura 2647:wufud 2479:Death 2387:mawla 2362:Jarid 2358:Gafsa 2326:Kawar 2322:Germa 2290:Gabes 2132:Slavs 1985:Egypt 1946:Kabul 1931:Jibal 1807:Mudar 1781:haras 1774:barid 1729:Syria 1664:Hasan 1627:Ta'if 1615:Tayma 1603:Hejaz 1596:Anbar 1532:Egypt 1461:melée 1424:shura 1375:Kinda 1343:Basra 1331:Talha 1220:Crete 1185:Greek 1177:Jaffa 1157:Raqqa 1141:Tamim 1110:Balda 872:Sidon 819:Ansar 779:Syria 734:Yazid 660:Syria 563:. 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