86:
2435:(1160–1232) agree that al-Mughira was the first to suggest that Yazid be acknowledged as Mu'awiya's successor and that Ziyad supported the nomination with the caveat that Yazid abandon impious activities which could arouse opposition from the Muslim polity. According to al-Tabari, Mu'awiya publicly announced his decision in 675 or 676 and demanded oaths of allegiance be given to Yazid. Ibn al-Athir alone relates that delegations from all the provinces were summoned to Damascus where Mu'awiya lectured them on his rights as ruler, their duties as subjects and Yazid's worthy qualities, which was followed by the calls of al-Dahhak ibn Qays and other courtiers that Yazid be recognized as the caliph's successor. The delegates lent their support, with the exception of the senior Basran nobleman
1720:
2332:
2098:
10250:
2559:, Mu'awiya's successful rule was facilitated by the tribal composition of Syria. There, the Arabs who formed his support base were distributed throughout the countryside and were dominated by a single confederation, the Quda'a. This was in contrast to Iraq and Egypt, where the diverse tribal composition of the garrison towns meant that the government had no cohesive support base and had to create a delicate balance between the opposing tribal groups. As evidenced by the disintegration of Ali's Iraqi alliance, maintaining this balance was untenable. In her view, Mu'awiya's taking advantage of the tribal circumstances in Syria prevented the dissolution of the Caliphate in the civil war. In the words of the orientalist
1515:
2122:, the buffer zone between the Empire and the Caliphate. At least until Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid's death in 666, Homs served as the principal marshaling point for the offensives, and afterward Antioch served this purpose as well. The bulk of the troops fighting on the Anatolian and Armenian fronts hailed from the tribal groups that arrived from Arabia during and after the conquest. During his caliphate, Mu'awiya continued his past efforts to resettle and fortify the Syrian port cities. Due to the reticence of Arab tribesmen to inhabit the coastlands, in 663 Mu'awiya moved Persian civilians and personnel that he had previously settled in the Syrian interior into Acre and Tyre, and transferred
2749:, has made him a reviled figure in Shia Islam. According to the Shia, based on this alone Mu'awiya qualifies as an unbeliever, if he was a believer to begin with. In addition, he is held responsible for the killing of a number of Muhammad's companions at Siffin, having ordered the cursing of Ali from the pulpit, appointing Yazid as his successor, who went on to kill Husayn at Karbala, executing the pro-Alid Kufan nobleman Hujr ibn Adi, and assassinating Hasan by poisoning. As such, he has been a particular target of Shia traditions. Some traditions hold him to have been born of an illegitimate relationship between Abu Sufyan's wife Hind and Muhammad's uncle
774:
639:
2257:
2161:. Following the death of Constans II in July 668, Mu'awiya oversaw an increasingly aggressive policy of naval warfare against the Byzantines. According to the early Muslim sources, raids against the Byzantines peaked between 668 and 669. In each of those years there occurred six ground campaigns and a major naval campaign, the first by an Egyptian and Medinese fleet and the second by an Egyptian and Syrian fleet. The culmination of the campaigns was an assault on Constantinople, but the chronologies of the Arabic, Syriac, and Byzantine sources are contradictory. The traditional view by modern historians is of a
2025:
increased the
Alexandria garrison to 12,000 men and built a governor's residence in the city, whose Greek Christian population was generally hostile to Arab rule. When Utba's deputy in Alexandria complained that his troops were unable to control the city, Mu'awiya deployed a further 15,000 soldiers from Syria and Medina. The troops in Egypt were far less rebellious than their Iraqi counterparts, though elements in the Fustat garrison occasionally raised opposition to Mu'awiya's policies, culminating during Maslama's term with the widespread protest at Mu'awiya's seizure and allotment of crown lands in
2447:
of the
Kalbite Maysun, Mu'awiya bypassed his older son Abd Allah from his Qurayshite wife Fakhita. Although support from the Kalb and the Quda'a was guaranteed, Mu'awiya exhorted Yazid to widen his tribal support base in Syria. As the Qaysites were the predominant element in the northern frontier armies, Mu'awiya's appointment of Yazid to lead the war efforts with Byzantium may have served to foster Qaysite support for his nomination. Mu'awiya's efforts to that end were not entirely successful as reflected in a line by a Qaysite poet: "we will never pay allegiance to the son of a Kalbi woman ".
1428:(consultative council) to decide the caliphate. Ali rebuffed Mu'awiya's envoys and on 18 July declared that the Syrians remained obstinate in their refusal to recognize his sovereignty. On the following day, a week of duels between Ali's and Mu'awiya's top commanders ensued. The main battle between the two armies commenced on 26 July. As Ali's troops advanced toward Mu'awiya's tent, the governor of Syria ordered his elite troops forward and they bested the Iraqis before the tide turned against the Syrians the next day with the deaths of two of Mu'awiya's leading commanders,
1893:(tribal chieftains), who served as intermediaries between the authorities and the tribesmen in the garrisons. Mu'awiya's statecraft was likely inspired by his father, who utilized his wealth to establish political alliances. The caliph generally preferred bribing his opponents over direct confrontation. In the summation of Kennedy, Mu'awiya ruled by "making agreements with those who held power in the provinces, by building up the power of those who were prepared to co-operate with him and by attaching as many important and influential figures to his cause as possible".
1440:
1972:. As part of his reorganization efforts in Kufa, Ziyad confiscated its garrison's crown lands, which thenceforth became the possession of the caliph. Opposition to the confiscations raised by Hujr ibn Adi, whose pro-Alid advocacy had been tolerated by al-Mughira, was violently suppressed by Ziyad. Hujr and his retinue were sent to Mu'awiya for punishment and were executed on the caliph's orders, marking the first political execution in Islamic history and serving as a harbinger for future pro-Alid uprisings in Kufa. Ziyad died in 673 and his son
1349:, which ended in the deaths of al-Zubayr and Talha, both potential contenders for the caliphate, and the retirement of A'isha to Medina. With his position in Iraq, Egypt and Arabia secure, Ali turned his attention toward Mu'awiya. Unlike the other provincial governors, Mu'awiya had a strong and loyal power base, demanded revenge for the slaying of his Umayyad kinsman Uthman, and could not be easily replaced. At this point, Mu'awiya did not yet claim the caliphate and his principal aim was keeping power in Syria.
2539:('deputy of the messenger of God'), the title used by the other caliphs who preceded him. The title may have implied political as well as religious authority and divine sanctioning. He is reported by al-Baladhuri to have said "The earth belongs to God and I am the deputy of God". Nevertheless, whatever the absolutist connotations the title may have had, Mu'awiya evidently did not impose this religious authority. Instead, he governed indirectly like a supra-tribal chief using alliances with provincial
1475:, who was in Ali's army, expressed his fears of Byzantine and Persian attacks were the Muslims to exhaust themselves in the civil war. Upon receiving intelligence of this, Mu'awiya ordered the raising of the Qur'an leaves. Though this act represented a surrender of sorts as Mu'awiya abandoned, at least temporarily, his previous insistence on settling the dispute with Ali militarily and pursuing Uthman's killers into Iraq, it had the effect of sowing discord and uncertainty in Ali's ranks.
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unaccountable and amassed personal wealth. The tribal balance on which he relied was insecure and a slight fluctuation would lead to factionalism and infighting. When Yazid became caliph, he continued his father's model. Controversial as his nomination had been, he had to face the rebellions of Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr. Although he was able to defeat them with the help of his governors and the Syrian army, the system fractured as soon as he died in
November 683. The provincial
1960:. Busr had threatened to execute three of Ziyad's young sons in Basra to force his surrender, but Ziyad was ultimately persuaded by al-Mughira, his mentor, to submit to Mu'awiya's authority in 663. In a controversial step that secured the loyalty of the fatherless Ziyad, whom the caliph viewed as the most capable candidate to govern Basra, Mu'awiya adopted him as his paternal half-brother, to the protests of his own son Yazid, Ibn Amir and his Umayyad kinsmen in the Hejaz.
2582:, it was under the leadership of Marwan, founder of the new ruling Umayyad house, the Marwanids, and his son Abd al-Malik. Having realized the weakness of Mu'awiya's model and lacking in his political skill, the Marwanids abandoned his system in favor of a more traditional form of governance where the caliph was the central authority. Nonetheless, the hereditary succession introduced by Mu'awiya became a permanent feature of many of the Muslim governments that followed.
1850:). Mu'awiya was tolerant toward Syria's native Christian majority. In turn, the community was generally satisfied with his rule, under which their conditions were at least as favorable as under the Byzantines. Mu'awiya attempted to mint his own coins, but the new currency was rejected by the Syrians as it omitted the symbol of the cross. The sole epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, a Greek inscription dated to 663 discovered at the hot springs of
2727:) by the Sunnis. He is seen as transforming the caliphate into a worldly and despotic kingship. His acquisition of the caliphate through the civil war and his institution of the hereditary succession by appointing his son Yazid as heir apparent are the principal charges made against him. Although Uthman and Ali had been highly controversial during the early period, religious scholars in the 8th and 9th centuries compromised in order to appease and absorb the
2600:
some modern historians to question Mu'awiya's commitment to Islam. They have proposed that he adhered to a non-confessional or indeterminate form of monotheism, or may have been a
Christian. Asserting that the earliest Muslims did not see their faith as different from other monotheistic faiths, these historians see the earlier Medina-based caliphs in the same vein, but no public proclamations from their period exist. On the other hand, the historian
2038:
provinces nor the caliph's court, Mu'awiya largely limiting their influence to Medina, the old capital of the
Caliphate where most of the Umayyads and the wider Qurayshite former aristocracy remained headquartered. The loss of political power left the Umayyads of Medina resentful toward Mu'awiya, who may have become wary of the political ambitions of the much larger Abu al-As branch of the clan—to which Uthman had belonged—under the leadership of
2248:
make no mention of this treaty. Although the
Muslims did not achieve any permanent territorial gains in Anatolia during Mu'awiya's career, the frequent raids provided Mu'awiya's Syrian troops with war spoils and tribute, which helped ensure their continued allegiance, and sharpened their combat skills. Moreover, Mu'awiya's prestige was boosted and the Byzantines were precluded from any concerted campaigns against Syria.
1183:, citing concerns about the Muslim forces' safety at sea, but Uthman allowed him to commence the campaign in 647, after refusing an earlier entreaty. Mu'awiya's rationale was that the Byzantine-held island posed a threat to Arab positions along the Syrian coast, and that it could be easily neutralized. The exact year of the raid is unclear, with the early Arabic sources providing a range between 647 and 650, while two
2403:, who subsequently embraced Islam and joined his forces. In 678, a treaty between the Arabs and the Byzantines ceded Byzacena to the Caliphate, while forcing the Arabs to withdraw from the northern parts of the province. After Mu'awiya's death, his successor Yazid reappointed Uqba, Kasila defected and a Byzantine–Berber alliance ended Arab control over Ifriqiya, which was not reestablished until the reign of Caliph
1736:
expense of the Iraqi garrisons, also about 100,000 soldiers combined. The highest stipends were paid on an inheritable basis to 2,000 nobles of the Quda'a and Kinda tribes, the core components of his support base, who were further awarded the privilege of consultation for all major decisions and the rights to veto or propose measures. The respective leaders of the Quda'a and the Kinda, the
Kalbite chief
1506:. Ali abandoned the arbitration after the first meeting in which Abu Musa—who, unlike Amr, was not particularly attached to his principal's cause— accepted the Syrian side's claim that Uthman was wrongfully killed, a verdict that Ali opposed. The final meeting in Adhruh, which had been convened at Mu'awiya's request, collapsed, but by then Mu'awiya had emerged as a major contender for the caliphate.
1362:, he resolved to end the Umayyad family's hostility to Amr ibn al-As, the conqueror and former governor of Egypt, whom they accused of involvement in Uthman's death. Mu'awiya and Amr, who was popular with the Arab troops of Egypt, made a pact whereby the latter joined the coalition against Ali and Mu'awiya publicly agreed to install Amr as Egypt's lifetime governor should they oust Ali's appointee.
1490:, the agreement forced Ali "to deal with Mu'awiya on equal terms and abandon his unchallenged right to lead the community". Madelung asserts it "handed Mu'awiya a moral victory" before inducing a "disastrous split in the ranks of Ali's men". Indeed, upon Ali's return to his capital Kufa in September 658, a large segment of his troops who had opposed the arbitration defected, inaugurating the
1801:(reserved area) within mosques. The caliph's treasury was largely dependent on the tax revenues of Syria and income from the crown lands that he confiscated in Iraq and Arabia. He also received the customary fifth of the war booty acquired by his commanders during expeditions. In the Jazira, Mu'awiya coped with the tribal influx, which spanned previously established groups such as the
1929:, who possessed considerable administrative and military experience in Iraq and was highly familiar with the region's inhabitants and issues. Under his nearly decade-long administration, al-Mughira maintained peace in the city, overlooked transgressions that did not threaten his rule, allowed the Kufans to keep possession of the lucrative Sasanian crown lands in the
2636:, which in his case meant mildness, slowness to anger, subtlety, and management of people by perceiving their needs and desires. The historical tradition is rife with anecdotes of his political acumen and self-control. In one such anecdote, when inquired about allowing one of his courtiers to address him with arrogance, he remarked:
2596:), which was the determining factor in the choice of earlier caliphs, gave way to the might of the sword, the people became his subjects and he became the "absolute lord over their life and death". He strangled the communal spirit of Islam and used the religion as a tool of "social control, exploitation and military terrorization".
1037:. By the time the Muslims entered Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a had accumulated significant military experience and were accustomed to hierarchical order and military obedience. To harness their strength and thereby secure his foothold in Syria, Mu'awiya consolidated ties to the Kalb's ruling house, the clan of
2552:'s assessment, Mu'awiya was an accomplished diplomat "allowing matters to ripen of themselves, and only now and then assisting their progress". He further states that Mu'awiya had the ability to identify and employ the most talented men at his service and made even those whom he distrusted work for him.
2247:
in the Syrian littoral during that time. A thirty-year treaty was concluded, obliging the
Caliphate to pay an annual tribute of 3,000 gold coins, 50 horses and 30 slaves, and withdraw their troops from the forward bases they had occupied on the Byzantine coast. But other Byzantine and Islamic sources
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a generation later. The historian Marek
Jankowiak on the other hand, in a revisionist reconstruction of the events reliant on the Arabic and Syriac sources, asserts that the assault came earlier than what is reported by Theophanes, and that the multitude of campaigns that were reported during 668–669
2084:
One of the earliest known Arabic inscriptions from Mu'awiya's reign was found at a soil-conservation dam called
Sayisad 32 kilometers (20 mi) east of Ta'if, which credits Mu'awiya for the dam's construction in 677 or 678 and asks God to give him victory and strength. Mu'awiya is also credited as
2212:
In 669, Mu'awiya's navy raided as far as Sicily. The following year, the wide-scale fortification of Alexandria was completed. While the histories of al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri report that Mu'awiya's forces captured Rhodes in 672–674 and colonized the island for seven years before withdrawing during
1735:
There is little information in the early Muslim sources about Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, the center of his caliphate. He established his court in Damascus and moved the caliphal treasury there from Kufa. He relied on his Syrian tribal soldiery, numbering about 100,000 men, increasing their pay at the
1214:
before occupying the island. In either case, the Cypriots were forced to pay a tribute equal to that which they had paid the Byzantines. Mu'awiya established a garrison and a mosque to maintain the Caliphate's influence on the island, which became a staging ground for the Arabs and the Byzantines to
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was the first to have a bodyguard, police-force and chamberlains ... He had somebody walk in front of him with a spear, took alms out of the stipends and sat on a throne with the people below him ... He used forced labour for his building projects ... He was the first to turn this matter into mere
2599:
Mu'awiya was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. The inscriptions from his reign lacked any explicit reference to Islam or Muhammad and the only titles that appear are 'servant of God' and 'commander of the faithful'. This has led
2507:
gate of the city and the funeral prayers were led by al-Dahhak ibn Qays, who mourned Mu'awiya as the "stick of the Arabs and the blade of the Arabs, by means of whom God, Almighty and Great, cut off strife, whom He made sovereign over mankind, by means of whom he conquered countries, but now he has
2446:
According to Hinds, in addition to Yazid's nobility, age and sound judgement, "most important of all" was his connection to the Kalb. The Kalb-led Quda'a confederation was the foundation of Sufyanid rule and Yazid's succession signaled the continuation of this alliance. In nominating Yazid, the son
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Mu'awiya possessed more personal experience than any other caliph fighting the Byzantines, the principal external threat to the Caliphate, and pursued the war against the Empire more energetically and continuously than his successors. The First Fitna caused the Arabs to lose control over Armenia to
1886:
Mu'awiya's primary internal challenge was overseeing a Syria-based government that could reunite the politically and socially fractured Caliphate and assert authority over the tribes which formed its armies. He applied indirect rule to the Caliphate's provinces, appointing governors with full civil
1878:'s church after it was ruined in an earthquake in 679. He demonstrated a keen interest in Jerusalem. Although archaeological evidence is lacking, there are indications in medieval literary sources that a rudimentary mosque on the Temple Mount existed as early as Mu'awiya's time or was built by him.
1357:
Ali's victory in Basra left Mu'awiya vulnerable, his territory wedged between Ali's forces in Iraq and Egypt, while the war with the Byzantines was ongoing in the north. In 657 or 658 Mu'awiya secured his northern frontier with Byzantium by making a truce with the emperor, enabling him to focus the
1321:
when word reached them of Uthman's killing. Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was recognized as caliph in Medina. Mu'awiya withheld allegiance to Ali and, according to some reports, the latter deposed him by sending his own governor to Syria, who was denied entry into the province by Mu'awiya.
2613:
The surviving Muslim histories originated in Abbasid-era Iraq. The compilers, the narrators from whom the stories were collected, and the overall public sentiment in Iraq were hostile to the Syria-based Umayyads, under whom Syria was a privileged province and Iraq was locally perceived as a Syrian
2589:
states that although maintaining the integrity of the Caliphate would have been an achievement on its own, Mu'awiya was intent on vigorously continuing the conquests that had been initiated by Abu Bakr and Umar. By creating a formidable navy, he made the Caliphate the dominant force in the eastern
2422:
In a move unprecedented in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, Yazid, as his successor. The caliph likely held ambitions for his son's succession over a considerable period. In 666, he allegedly had his governor in Homs, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid, poisoned to remove him as a potential
2347:
The struggle over the succession of Constantine IV drew Byzantine focus away from the African front. In 670, Mu'awiya appointed Uqba as Egypt's deputy governor over the North African lands under Arab control west of Egypt. At the head of a 10,000-strong force, Uqba commenced his expedition against
2067:
and the barren valley of Mecca he dug numerous wells and canals, constructed dams and dikes to protect the soil from seasonal floods, and built fountains and reservoirs. His efforts saw extensive grain fields and date palm groves spring up across Mecca's suburbs, which remained in this state until
2731:
and pro-Alid factions. Uthman and Ali were thus regarded along with the first two caliphs as divinely guided, whereas Mu'awiya and those who came after him were viewed as oppressive tyrants. Nevertheless, the Sunnis accord him the status of a companion of Muhammad and consider him a scribe of the
2450:
In Medina, Mu'awiya's distant kinsmen Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Sa'id ibn al-As and Ibn Amir accepted Mu'awiya's succession order, albeit disapprovingly. Most opponents of Mu'awiya's order in Iraq and among the Umayyads and Quraysh of the Hejaz were ultimately threatened or bribed into acceptance. The
1989:
In Egypt Amr governed more as a partner of Mu'awiya than a subordinate until his death in 664. He was permitted to retain the surplus revenues of the province. The caliph ordered the resumption of Egyptian grain and oil shipments to Medina, ending the hiatus caused by the First Fitna. After Amr's
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dismiss the claim; the former called it an "absurdity" and "incredible" that Mu'awiya "would have deprived himself of one of his best men" and the more likely scenario was that Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid had been ill and Mu'awiya attempted to have him treated by Ibn Uthal, who was unsuccessful. De
1573:
in Iraq and whose grip in Basra and Iraq's eastern and southern dependencies was eroding. Though his hand was strengthened, Mu'awiya refrained from launching a direct assault against Ali. Instead, his strategy was to bribe the tribal chieftains in Ali's army to his side and harry the inhabitants
2604:
notes that Mu'awiya gave a very Islamic challenge to the Byzantine emperor Constans to "deny Jesus and turn to the Great God whom I worship, the God of our father Abraham" and speculates that Mu'awiya's tour of Christian sites in Jerusalem was done to demonstrate "the fact that he, and not the
2037:
Although revenge for Uthman's assassination had been the basis upon which Mu'awiya claimed the right to the caliphate, he neither emulated Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyad clan nor used them to assert his own power. With minor exceptions, members of the clan were not appointed to the wealthy
1963:
Following al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to Ziyad's Basran governorship, making him the caliph's virtual viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate. Ziyad tackled Iraq's core economic problem of overpopulation in the garrison cities and the consequent
1887:
and military authority. Although in principle governors were obliged to forward surplus tax revenues to the caliph, in practice most of the surplus was distributed among the provincial garrisons and Damascus received a negligible share. During Mu'awiya's caliphate, the governors relied on the
4221:
in his internal decision-making. Uthman demanded that the surplus revenue from the conquered lands, which had been declared state property by Umar but remained under the control of the conquering tribesmen, be forwarded to Medina. He also made land grants to his relatives and other prominent
2024:
The Arab presence in Egypt was mostly limited to the central garrison at Fustat and the smaller garrison at Alexandria. The influx of Syrian troops brought by Amr in 658 and the Basran troops sent by Ziyad in 673 swelled Fustat's 15,000-strong garrison to 40,000 during Mu'awiya's reign. Utba
2650:) of tribal chiefs, and persuading them with flattery, arguments, and presents. This is exemplified in a saying attributed to him: "I never use my voice if I can use my money, never my whip if I can use my voice, never my sword if I can use my whip; but, if I have to use my sword, I will."
2765:) son of an accursed man" and prophesying that he will die as an unbeliever. Unlike the Sunnis, the Shia deny him the status of a companion and also refute the Sunni claims that he was a scribe of the Qur'anic revelation. Like other opponents of Ali, Mu'awiya is cursed in a ritual called
2566:
In the long-term, Mu'awiya's system proved precarious and unviable. Reliance on personal relations meant his government was dependent on paying and pleasing its agents instead of commanding them. This created a "system of indulgence", according to Crone. The governors became increasingly
4088:
who reports in the early Islamic sources connect to the city's conquest, are mentioned as witnesses. The date of the inscription is several years after Abu Ubayda's death and roughly corresponds with the death of Abd al-Rahman, but coincides with the governorship of Mu'awiya, who was a
1055:
Mu'awiya's reliance on the native Syrian Arab tribes was compounded by the heavy toll inflicted on the Muslim troops in Syria by the plague of Amwas, which caused troop numbers to dwindle from 24,000 in 637 to 4,000 in 639. Moreover, the focus of Arabian tribal migration was toward the
1068:
formed part of Mu'awiya's army in northern Syria. To help pay for his troops, Mu'awiya requested and was granted ownership by Uthman of the abundant, income-producing, Byzantine crown lands in Syria, which were previously designated by Umar as communal property for the Muslim army.
2085:
the patron of a second dam called al-Khanaq 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) east of Medina, according to an inscription found at the site. This is possibly the dam between Medina and the gold mines of the Banu Sulaym tribe attributed to Mu'awiya by the historians al-Harbi (d. 898) and
2200:, who formed a pact with the caliph, in spring 667. The caliph dispatched an army under Fadala, but before it could be joined by the Armenians, Saborios died. Mu'awiya then sent reinforcements led by Yazid who led the Arab army's invasion in the summer. An Arab fleet reached the
1552:
from the Syrians. In response, Ali broke off communications with Mu'awiya, mobilized for war and invoked a curse against Mu'awiya and his close retinue as a ritual in the morning prayers. Mu'awiya reciprocated in kind against Ali and his closest supporters in his own domain.
1497:
The initial agreement postponed the arbitration to a later date. Information in the early Muslim sources about the time, place and outcome of the arbitration is contradictory, but there were likely two meetings between Mu'awiya's and Ali's respective representatives, Amr and
2686:
and an introduction of dynastic rule on par with the Byzantines and Sasanians. The civil war that erupted after Mu'awiya's death is asserted to have been the direct consequence of Yazid's nomination. In the Islamic tradition, Mu'awiya and the Umayyads are given the title of
2712:
writing in the 690s "has nothing but praise for the first Umayyad caliph ... of whose reign he says 'the peace throughout the world was such that we have never heard, either from our fathers or from our grandparents, or seen that there had ever been any like it'".
1419:
near Raqqa and engaged in days of skirmishes interrupted by a month-long truce on 19 June. During the truce, Mu'awiya dispatched an embassy led by Habib ibn Maslama, who presented Ali with an ultimatum to hand over Uthman's alleged killers, abdicate and allow a
1008:
confederation present throughout Syria. Medina consistently courted the Kalb, which had remained mostly neutral during the Arab–Byzantine wars, particularly after the central government's entreaties to the Byzantines' principal Arab allies, the Christian
2080:
the lands of Hadarim, where he employed 4,000 slaves, likely to cultivate its fields. The caliph gained possession of estates in and near Ta'if which, together with the lands of his brothers Anbasa and Utba, formed a considerable cluster of properties.
559:, correspondence, and chancellery. He was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. Externally, he engaged his troops in almost yearly land and sea raids against the Byzantines, including a
2503:(d. 1046) says it occurred on 21 April. In his last testament, Mu'awiya told his family "Fear God, Almighty and Great, for God, praise Him, protects whoever fears Him, and there is no protector for one who does not fear God". He was buried next to the
728:, who had embraced Islam fifteen years earlier. The marriage may have reduced Abu Sufyan's hostility toward Muhammad and Abu Sufyan negotiated with him in Medina in 630 after confederates of the Quraysh violated the Hudaybiyya truce. When Muhammad
4126:
and the early Muslim elite sought to secure Syria, with which they had long been acquainted, for themselves and encouraged the nomadic Arab late converts among the Muslim troops to immigrate to Iraq. According to Madelung, Umar may have promoted
1467:(d. 742), this prompted Amr ibn al-As to counsel Mu'awiya the following morning to have a number of his men tie leaves of the Qur'an on their lances in an appeal to the Iraqis to settle the conflict through consultation. According to the scholar
2804:. At about the same time, the Shia were permitted by the Buyids and the Sunni Abbasid caliphs to perform the ritual cursing of Mu'awiya in mosques. In 10th–11th-century Egypt, the figure of Mu'awiya occasionally played a similar role, with the
2046:. The latter was instructed to demolish Marwan's house, but refused and when Marwan was restored in 674, he also refused Mu'awiya's order to demolish Sa'id's house. Mu'awiya dismissed Marwan once more in 678, replacing him with his own nephew,
618:. While there is considerable admiration for Mu'awiya in the contemporary sources, he has been criticized for lacking the justice and piety of the Rashidun and transforming the office of the caliphate into a kingship. Besides these criticisms,
1393:, by allowing the latter's confiscation of the district's treasury to go unpunished. The efforts bore fruit and demands for war against Ali grew throughout Mu'awiya's domain. When Ali sent his envoy, the veteran commander and chieftain of the
2426:
It was not until the latter half of his reign that Mu'awiya publicly declared Yazid heir apparent, though the early Muslim sources offer divergent details about the timing and location of the events relating to the decision. The accounts of
2208:
through the winter, besieged Constantinople in spring 668, but due to famine and disease, lifted the siege in late June. The Arabs continued their campaigns in Constantinople's vicinity before withdrawing to Syria most likely in late 669.
2573:
defected to Ibn al-Zubayr, as did the Qaysite tribes, who had migrated to Syria during Mu'awiya's reign and were opposed to the Quda'a confederation on whom Sufyanid power rested. In a matter of months the authority of Yazid's successor,
9714:
2063:, the summer in Ta'if, the winter in Mecca". He purchased several large tracts throughout Arabia and invested considerable sums to develop the lands for agricultural use. According to the Muslim literary tradition, in the plain of
1976:
was appointed gradually by Mu'awiya to all of his father's former offices. In effect, by relying on al-Mughira and Ziyad and his sons, Mu'awiya franchised the administration of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate to members of the elite
1674:
and Mu'awiya entered Kufa in July or September 661 and was recognized as caliph. This year is considered by a number of the early Muslim sources as 'the year of unity' and is generally regarded as the start of Mu'awiya's caliphate.
1624:
to conquer the Hejaz and Yemen. He directed Busr to intimidate Medina's inhabitants without harming them, spare the Meccans and kill anyone in Yemen who refused to pledge their allegiance. Busr advanced through Medina, Mecca and
688:
In 624, Muhammad and his followers attempted to intercept a Meccan caravan led by Mu'awiya's father on its return from Syria, prompting Abu Sufyan to call for reinforcements. The Qurayshite relief army was routed in the ensuing
966:, who surmises that Umar had little choice, due to the lack of a suitable alternative to Mu'awiya in Syria and the ongoing plague in the region, which precluded the deployment of commanders more preferable to Umar from Medina.
2590:
Mediterranean and the Aegean. Control of northeastern Iran was secured and the Caliphate's frontier was expanded in North Africa. Madelung deems Mu'awiya a corruptor of the caliphal office, under whom the precedence in Islam (
7884:
844:. The caliph appointed Mu'awiya commander of Yazid's vanguard. Through these appointments Abu Bakr gave the family of Abu Sufyan a stake in the conquest of Syria, where Abu Sufyan already owned property in the vicinity of
2467:, all prominent Medina-based sons of earlier caliphs or close companions of Muhammad. As they possessed the nearest claims to the caliphate, Mu'awiya was determined to obtain their recognition. According to the historian
1678:
Before and/or after Ali's death, Mu'awiya received oaths of allegiance in one or two formal ceremonies in Jerusalem, the first in late 660 or early 661 and the second in July 661. The 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer
1458:
Mu'awiya rejected suggestions from his advisers to engage Ali in a duel and definitively end hostilities. The battle climaxed on the so-called 'Night of Clamor' on 28 July, which saw Ali's forces take the advantage in a
9818:
980:, was confirmed as governor of the Homs-Jazira district. In late 646 or early 647, Uthman attached the Homs-Jazira district to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship, greatly increasing the military manpower at his disposal.
2423:
rival to Yazid. The Syrian Arabs, with whom Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid was popular, had viewed the governor as the caliph's most suitable successor by dint of his military record and descent from Khalid ibn al-Walid.
1556:
In July, Mu'awiya dispatched an army under Amr to Egypt after a request for intervention from pro-Uthman mutineers in the province who were being suppressed by the governor, Caliph Abu Bakr's son and Ali's stepson,
9377:
Marsham, Andrew (2013). "The Architecture of Allegiance in Early Islamic Late Antiquity: The Accession of Mu'awiya in Jerusalem, ca. 661 CE". In Beihammer, Alexander; Constantinou, Stavroula; Parani, Maria (eds.).
2626:
publicly condemned Mu'awiya and other Umayyad caliphs. As such, the Muslim historical tradition is by and large anti-Umayyad. Nonetheless, in the case of Mu'awiya it portrays him in a relatively balanced manner.
1645:, he withdrew upon the approach of a Kufan relief force. News of Busr's actions in Arabia spurred Ali's troops to rally behind his planned campaign against Mu'awiya, but the expedition was aborted as a result of
949:
The successive promotions of Abu Sufyan's sons contradicted Umar's efforts to otherwise curtail the influence of the Qurayshite aristocracy in the Muslim state in favor of the earliest Muslim converts (i.e. the
2016:
in 667. Maslama remained governor for the duration of Mu'awiya's reign, significantly expanding Fustat and its mosque and boosting the city's importance in 674 by relocating Egypt's main shipyard to the nearby
677:, the dominant tribe of Mecca, during the early stages of the Quraysh's conflict with Muhammad. The latter also hailed from the Quraysh and was distantly related to Mu'awiya via their common paternal ancestor,
1060:. Mu'awiya oversaw a liberal recruitment policy that resulted in considerable numbers of Christian tribesmen and frontier peasants filling the ranks of his regular and auxiliary forces. Indeed, the Christian
9875:
9635:
2680:, as opposed to the humility of Muhammad. Mu'awiya was compared to these monarchs mainly because he appointed his son Yazid as the next caliph, which was viewed as a violation of the Islamic principle of
2519:, the autonomous 9th-century ruler of Egypt and Syria, erected a structure on the grave in 883 or 884 and employed members of the public to regularly recite the Qur'an and light candles around the tomb.
1777:). According to al-Tabari, following an assassination attempt by the Kharijite al-Burak ibn Abd Allah on Mu'awiya while he was praying in the mosque of Damascus in 661, Mu'awiya established a caliphal
8728:
2042:. The caliph attempted to weaken the clan by provoking internal divisions. Among the measures taken was the replacement of Marwan from the governorship of Medina in 668 with another leading Umayyad,
9580:
2054:(the clan of Muhammad and Caliph Ali), the families of Muhammad's closest companions, the once-prominent Banu Makhzum, and the Ansar was generally characterized by suspicion or outright hostility.
1215:
launch raids against each other's territories. The inhabitants of Cyprus were largely left to their own devices and archaeological evidence indicates uninterrupted prosperity during this period.
9932:
1272:, the third attempt in 650 ended with a three-year truce reached between Mu'awiya and the Byzantine envoy Procopios in Damascus. In 653, Mu'awiya received the submission of the Armenian leader
2614:
colony. Moreover, the Abbasids, having overthrown the Umayyads in 750, saw them as illegitimate rulers and further tarnished their memory to enhance their own legitimacy. Abbasid caliphs like
2114:
native, pro-Byzantine princes, but in 661 Habib ibn Maslama re-invaded the region. The following year, Armenia became a tributary of the Caliphate and Mu'awiya recognized the Armenian prince
1310:, prompting Mu'awiya to expel him. Uthman's confiscation of crown lands in Iraq and his alleged nepotism drove the Quraysh and the dispossessed elites of Kufa and Egypt to oppose the caliph.
4252:'s Iraqi forces gained the advantage during the battle prompting the Syrians to appeal for a settlement by arbitration. This is contrasted by a number of early non-Muslim sources, including
2742:). On these accounts, he is also respected. Some Sunnis defend his war against Ali holding that although he was in error, he acted according to his best judgment and had no evil intentions.
2232:), the Byzantines began a counteroffensive against the Caliphate, first raiding Egypt in 672 or 673, while in winter 673, Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays led a large fleet that raided
2788:, the figure of Mu'awiya became a propaganda tool used by the Shia and the Sunnis opposed to them. Strong pro-Mu'awiya sentiments were voiced by Sunnis in several Abbasid cities, including
1206:. Katwa died on the island and at some point Mu'awiya married her sister Fakhita. In a different narrative by the early Muslim sources, the raid was instead conducted by Mu'awiya's admiral
918:). When Yazid succumbed to the plague later that year, Umar appointed Mu'awiya the military and fiscal governor of Damascus, and possibly Jordan as well. In 640 or 641, Mu'awiya captured
2118:
as its commander. Not long after the civil war, Mu'awiya broke the truce with Byzantium, and on a near-annual or bi-annual basis the caliph engaged his Syrian troops in raids across the
4286:
1306:, who had been sent to Damascus for openly condemning Uthman's enrichment of his kinsmen. He criticized the lavish sums that Mu'awiya invested in building his Damascus residence, the
4277:
between 679 and 681 and noted that a makeshift Muslim prayer house built of beams and clay with a capacity for 3,000 worshipers had been erected on the Temple Mount, while a Jewish
2443:(896–956) and al-Tabari do not mention provincial delegations other than a Basran embassy led by Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad in 678–679 or 679–680, respectively, which recognized Yazid.
2243:
In 677, 678 or 679, according to Theophanes, Mu'awiya sued for peace with Constantine IV, possibly as a result of the destruction of his fleet or the Byzantines' deployment of the
4165:
Uthman's efforts to maintain Qurayshite control over the Caliphate and assert control over the loose financial system of Umar, saw the appointment of his close relatives from the
7850:
Athamina, Khalil (1994). "The Appointment and Dismissal of Khalid ibn al-Walid from the Supreme Command: A Study of the Political Strategy of the Early Muslim Caliphs in Syria".
2753:. His conversion to Islam is held to be devoid of any conviction and to have been motivated by convenience after Muhammad conquered Mecca. On this basis he is given the title of
2511:
Mu'awiya's grave was a visitation site as late as the 10th century. Al-Mas'udi holds that a mausoleum was built over the grave and was open to visitors on Mondays and Thursdays.
1478:
The caliph adhered to the will of the majority in his army and accepted the proposal to arbitrate. Moreover, Ali agreed to Amr's, or Mu'awiya's, demand to omit his formal title,
2563:, the success of Mu'awiya's style of governance is "attested by the fact that he managed to hold his kingdom together without ever having to resort to using his Syrian troops".
2188:
represented the coordinated efforts by Mu'awiya to conquer the Byzantine capital. Al-Tabari reports that Mu'awiya's son Yazid led a campaign against Constantinople in 669 and
2379:
Mu'awiya dismissed Uqba in 673, probably out of concern that he would form an independent power base in the lucrative regions that he had conquered. The new Arab province,
1907:
upstarts and the nascent Muslim elite, the latter of which was further divided between Ali's partisans and the Kharijites. Mu'awiya's ascent signaled the rise of the Kufan
1322:
This is rejected by Madelung, according to whom no formal relations existed between the caliph and the governor of Syria for seven months from the date of Ali's election.
4118:'s dismissal from the general command in Syria and the subsequent recall to Iraq of the numerous tribesmen in Khalid's army, who were likely perceived as a threat by the
8523:
Hasson, Isaac (1982). "Remarques sur l'inscription de l'époque de Mu'āwiya à Ḥammat Gader" [Notes on the inscription from the time of Mu'āwiya to Ḥammat Gader].
4206:
2721:
In contrast to the four earlier caliphs, who are considered as models of piety and having governed with justice, Mu'awiya is not recognized as a rightly-guided caliph (
528:
in 657, prompting an abortive series of arbitration talks to settle the dispute. Afterward, Mu'awiya gained recognition as caliph by his Syrian supporters and his ally
2240:, in 673 or 674. The next year, Abd Allah ibn Qays and Fadala landed in Crete and in 675 or 676, a Byzantine fleet assaulted Maraclea, killing the governor of Homs.
1839:. The latter had served Mu'awiya in the same capacity before his attainment of the caliphate, and Sarjun's father was the likely holder of the office under Emperor
2491:(d. 819) placing it on 7 April, al-Waqidi on 21 April and al-Mada'ini on 29 April. Yazid, who was away from Damascus at the time of his father's death, is held by
2372:
and the coastal areas, which had remained under Byzantine control, to serve as a base for further expeditions. It also aided Muslim conversion efforts among the
4311:
1691:, and received his formal oaths of allegiance there. According to the earliest extant source about Mu'awiya's accession in Jerusalem, the near-contemporaneous
4057:
Mu'awiya is probably the 'Mu'awiya' mentioned as the 'writer' in an Arabic inscription, apparently dated to 652, excavated at the southwestern section of the
2759:(freed slave of Muhammad). A number of hadiths are ascribed to Muhammad condemning Mu'awiya and his father Abu Sufyan in which he is called "an accursed man (
2196:
respectively. According to Jankowiak, Mu'awiya likely ordered the invasion during an opportunity presented by the rebellion of the Byzantine Armenian general
2145:(d. 941), the first raid of Mu'awiya's caliphate occurred in 662 or 663, during which his forces inflicted a heavy defeat on a Byzantine army with numerous
1948:. He was unable to maintain order in Basra, where there was growing resentment toward the distant campaigns. Consequently, Mu'awiya replaced Ibn Amir with
1617:
oasis. This initial foray was defeated by the Kufans, while an attempt to extract oaths of allegiance from the Quraysh of Mecca in April 660 also failed.
3993:
2471:(d. 764), before his death, Mu'awiya ordered certain measures to be taken against them, entrusting these tasks to his loyalists al-Dahhak ibn Qays and
1096:
were established to house Muslim troops and their administration, in Syria the troops settled in existing cities, including Damascus, Homs, Jerusalem,
1092:
to Byzantine territory, while those who remained held pro-Byzantine sympathies. In contrast to the other conquered regions of the Caliphate, where new
10013:
Shahin, Aram A. (2012). "In Defense of Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān: Treatises and Monographs on Muʿāwiya from the Eighth to the Nineteenth Centuries". In
1401:, to Mu'awiya, the latter responded with a letter that amounted to a declaration of war against the caliph, whose legitimacy he refused to recognize.
1398:
756:(scribes), being one of seventeen literate members of the Quraysh at that time. Abu Sufyan moved to Medina to maintain his newfound influence in the
1952:
in 664 or 665. The latter had been the longest of Ali's loyalists to withhold recognition of Mu'awiya's caliphate and had barricaded himself in the
1385:, who was widely respected in Syria, to rally the Yemenites to his side. He then enlisted support from the dominant tribal leader of Palestine, the
2585:
Kennedy views the preservation of the Caliphate's unity as Mu'awiya's greatest achievement. Expressing a similar viewpoint, Mu'awiya's biographer
829:
and Banu Abd Shams, to shore up support for the Caliphate. Among those Qurayshites whom he appointed to suppress the rebel Arab tribes during the
10485:
1901:
Challenges to central authority in general, and to Mu'awiya's rule in particular, were most acute in Iraq, where divisions were rife between the
1167:
Mu'awiya initiated the Arab naval campaigns against the Byzantines in the eastern Mediterranean, requisitioning the harbors of Tripoli, Beirut,
2395:
to replace Uqba, who was arrested and transferred to Mu'awiya's custody in Damascus. Abu al-Muhajir continued the westward campaigns as far as
1711:, both adjacent to the Temple Mount. The Maronite Chronicles also maintain that Mu'awiya "did not wear a crown like other kings in the world".
2676:). 'Khosrow' was used by the Arabs as a reference to Sasanian Persian monarchs in general, who the Arabs associated with worldly splendor and
2630:
On the one hand, it portrays him as a successful ruler who implemented his will with persuasion instead of force. It stresses his quality of
2548:
Apart from his war with Ali, he did not deploy his Syrian troops domestically, and often used monetary gifts as a tool to avoid conflict. In
2236:
and the coasts of Cilicia and Lycia. The Byzantines landed a major victory against an Arab army and fleet led by Sufyan ibn Awf, possibly at
1968:. This also consolidated the previously weak and unstable Arab position in the Caliphate's easternmost province and enabled conquests toward
4136:
748:
with Medina as the seat of the Muslim government. As part of Muhammad's efforts to reconcile with the Quraysh, Mu'awiya was made one of his
2578:, was restricted to Damascus and its environs. Although the Umayyads, backed by the Quda'a, were able to reconquer the Caliphate after the
2102:
1226:
in 653. From the raid on Rhodes, Mu'awiya remitted significant war spoils to Uthman. In 654 or 655, a joint naval expedition launched from
606:, as his successor. It was an unprecedented move in Islamic politics and opposition to it by prominent Muslim leaders, including Ali's son
551:
Domestically, Mu'awiya relied on loyalist Syrian Arab tribes and Syria's Christian-dominated bureaucracy. He is credited with establishing
8443:
1964:
scarcity of resources by reducing the number of troops on the payrolls and dispatching 50,000 Iraqi soldiers and their families to settle
10460:
8328:
1862:("God's Servant Mu'awiya, commander of the faithful"; the caliph's name is preceded by a cross) and credits him for restoring Roman-era
1633:
and its vicinity on account of past criticism of Uthman or ties to Ali, massacred numerous tribesmen of the Hamdan and townspeople from
9305:
The Byzantine Response to the Spread of the Arabs. Studies on the structural change of the Byzantine state in the 7th and 8th centuries
2343:
in 670, during Mu'awiya's reign. Uqba served as Mu'awiya's lieutenant governor over North Africa until the caliph dismissed him in 673.
1670:, the commander of Hasan's vanguard, to desert his post and sent envoys to negotiate with Hasan. In return for a financial settlement,
8649:
1913:
represented by Ali's erstwhile backers al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and Jarir ibn Abd Allah, at the expense of Ali's old guard represented by
1136:
821:, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven from his erstwhile Meccan opponents, and the mass defections of several
2644:
The tradition presents him operating in the way of a traditional tribal sheikh who lacks absolute authority; summoning delegations (
2640:
I do not insert myself between the people and their tongue, so long as they do not insert themselves between us and our sovereignty.
1542:
Following the breakdown of the arbitration talks, Amr and the Syrian delegates returned to Damascus, where they greeted Mu'awiya as
1276:, which the Byzantine emperor practically conceded when he withdrew from Armenia that year. In 655, Mu'awiya's lieutenant commander
9301:
Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd
8602:
The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVII: The First Civil War: From the Battle of Siffīn to the Death of ʿAlī, A.D. 656–661/A.H. 36–40
2146:
2811:
caliphs introducing measures opposed to Mu'awiya's memory and opponents of the government using him as a tool to berate the Shia.
2057:
Despite his relocation to Damascus, Mu'awiya remained fond of his original homeland and made known his longing for "the spring in
1486:(commander of the faithful, the traditional title of a caliph), from the initial arbitration document. According to the historian
8546:
8133:
2308:, a Qurayshite commander who had played a key role in the Arabs' capture of Cyrenaica in 641, reasserted Muslim influence in the
630:, Mu'awiya is reviled for opposing Ali, accused of poisoning his son Hasan, and held to have accepted Islam without conviction.
85:
10407:
10383:
7968:
744:, Mu'awiya had secretly become a Muslim from the time of the Hudaybiyya negotiations. By 632 Muslim authority extended across
10036:
9803:
9675:
9620:
9565:
9544:
9499:
9478:
9389:
9286:
9184:
9160:
9136:
9112:
9038:
8956:
8907:
8859:
8811:
8775:
8760:
8689:
8610:
8586:
8393:
8215:
8191:
8121:
8008:
7916:
2702:
The contemporary non-Muslim sources generally present a benign image of Mu'awiya. The Greek historian Theophanes calls him a
2184:
2162:
1365:
Although he had the firm backing of the Kalb, to shore up the rest of his base in Syria, Mu'awiya was advised by his kinsman
560:
9534:
1835:
Syria retained its Byzantine-era bureaucracy, which was staffed by Christians including the head of the tax administration,
1629:, encountering no resistance and gaining those cities' recognition of Mu'awiya. In Yemen, Busr executed several notables in
10465:
10455:
9220:
4131:
and Mu'awiya as guarantors of the Caliphate's authority in Syria against the growing "strength and high ambitions" of the
2653:
On the other hand, the tradition also portrays him as a despot who perverted the caliphate into kingship. In the words of
2487:(April or May 680 CE), at around the age of 80. The medieval accounts vary regarding the specific date of his death, with
8273:
9962:
9905:
9848:
9732:
9661:
9606:
9464:
9250:
8797:
8746:
8675:
8572:
8473:
8291:
8155:
7994:
7902:
4239:
came to mean a civil war or rebellion which causes rifts in the unified Muslim community and endangers believers' faith.
1662:
After Ali was killed, Mu'awiya left al-Dahhak ibn Qays in charge of Syria and led his army toward Kufa, where Ali's son
1254:
10475:
10470:
10129:
3542:
1606:
9367:
9205:
9088:
9064:
9014:
8931:
8883:
8634:
8513:
8372:
8236:
8100:
8036:
2460:
2149:
slain. In the next year a raid led by Busr reached Constantinople and in 664 or 665, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid raided
1370:
1358:
bulk of his troops on the impending battle with the caliph. After failing to gain the defection of Egypt's governor,
870:
with Caliph Umar in 637. Afterward, Mu'awiya and Yazid were dispatched by Abu Ubayda to conquer the coastal towns of
142:
2097:
1870:, "by this deed, the new caliph sought to please" his Christian subjects. The caliph often spent his winters at his
10154:
2047:
1569:, leader of the pro-Uthman rebels. The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the authority of Ali, who was bogged down
867:
575:, the latter of whom he controversially adopted as his brother. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of
10249:
8875:
After Bardaisan: Studies on Continuity and Change in Syriac Christianity in Honour of Professor Han J. W. Drijvers
1813:
confederations and civil war refugees from Kufa and Basra, by administratively detaching the military district of
424:, ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet
2013:
9945:
9888:
9831:
9233:
8456:
930:, completing the Muslim conquest of Palestine. As early as 640 or 641, Mu'awiya may have led a campaign against
833:(632–633) was Mu'awiya's brother Yazid. Afterward, he was dispatched as one of four commanders in charge of the
10149:
9536:
The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVIII: Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Muʿāwiyah, 661–680 A.D./A.H. 40–60
9443:
4153:
1579:
671:
2126:, elite Persian soldiers, from Kufa and Basra to the garrison at Antioch. A few years later, Mu'awiya settled
486:
9307:] (in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München.
4174:
4093:. Sharon thus surmises the inscription was a legal document written by Mu'awiya to commemorate the surrender.
2218:
911:
834:
467:
1940:, who had served in the office under Uthman. During Mu'awiya's reign, Ibn Amir recommenced expeditions into
8252:
Arabische Nation und islamische Geschichte: Die Umayyaden im Urteil arabischer Autoren des 20. Jahrhunderts
2260:
A map depicting growth of the Caliphate. During the reign of Mu'awiya, the Muslims conquered the region of
1198:, Mu'awiya led the raid in person accompanied by his wife, Katwa bint Qaraza ibn Abd Amr of the Qurayshite
1013:, were rebuffed. Before the advent of Islam in Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a, long under the influence of
31:
17:
1575:
9509:
Al-Rashid, Saad bin Abdulaziz (2008). "Sadd al-Khanaq: An Early Umayyad Dam near Medina, Saudi Arabia".
1671:
1076:-speaking Christian population remained largely intact, the Muslim conquest had caused a mass flight of
724:
between the Quraysh and Muhammad in 628. The following year, Muhammad married Mu'awiya's widowed sister
10480:
9688:(2018). "Witnessed by Three Disciples of the Prophet: The Jerusalem 32 Inscription from 32 AH/652 CE".
9357:
4149:
2464:
1933:
district and, unlike under past administrations, consistently and timely paid the garrison's stipends.
1381:, who collectively dominated the Homs garrison. He employed the veteran commander and Kindite nobleman
1277:
1014:
650:
Mu'awiya's year of birth is uncertain, with 597, 603 or 605 cited by early Islamic sources. His father
10401:
4326:
consider Mu'awiya's role in the affair as an allegation of the early Muslim sources. The Orientalists
862:, as the general commander of the Muslim army in Syria in 636 after the rout of the Byzantines at the
10204:
9652:
9597:
9451:
9399:
8784:
8737:
8666:
8563:
8138:
7985:
7893:
3978:
2750:
1057:
866:, which paved the way for the conquest of the rest of Syria. Mu'awiya was among the Arab troops that
90:
10338:
4173:
to all of the Caliphate's major governorships. These provincial appointments included Syria and the
1981:
clan, which had long-established ties to the Quraysh and were instrumental in the conquest of Iraq.
1719:
9941:
9884:
9827:
9229:
8991:
Jankowiak, Marek (2013). "The First Arab Siege of Constantinople". In Zuckerman, Constantin (ed.).
8452:
7926:
7879:
4299:
4253:
4210:
4077:
4066:
4061:
in 1968. The inscription consists of nine lines, only few of which are legible, that the historian
2331:
2214:
2173:
2086:
1926:
1741:
1531:
859:
533:
10413:
10293:
10288:
2179:
However, the dating and the very historicity of this view has been challenged; the Oxford scholar
1337:, who feared the loss of their own influence under Ali. The ensuing civil war became known as the
10369:
10219:
10194:
9104:
The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century
8948:
3853:
3484:
2456:
2404:
1704:
1548:, signaling their recognition of him as caliph. In April or May 658, Mu'awiya received a general
1298:
Mu'awiya's domain was generally immune to the growing discontent prevailing in Medina, Egypt and
977:
615:
611:
505:
10313:
9345:
8995:. Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance. pp. 237–320.
1740:
and the Homs-based Shurahbil, formed part of his Syrian inner circle along with the Qurayshites
962:, the branch of the Banu Abd Shams to which Mu'awiya belonged. This is doubted by the historian
10122:
8851:
Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century
4214:
4085:
3079:
2777:
2746:
2217:
casts doubt on these events and holds that the island was only raided by Mu'awiya's lieutenant
1566:
1499:
1472:
1326:
521:
516:
in 656, Mu'awiya took up the cause of avenging the murdered caliph and opposed the election of
433:
399:
10298:
10273:
10390:
10376:
10353:
10343:
9813:
9539:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
9052:
8845:
8605:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
4285:
holds that Mu'awiya rebuilt the Temple Mount's walls. The mid-10th-century Arabic chronicler
4081:
3377:
2183:
considers that no siege of Constantinople took place, and that the story was inspired by the
2180:
2142:
1973:
1918:
1667:
1558:
1433:
1330:
1230:, Egypt and the harbors of Syria routed a Byzantine fleet commanded by the Byzantine Emperor
976:), Mu'awiya's governorship was enlarged to include Palestine, while a companion of Muhammad,
741:
638:
10258:
4148:
After Mu'awiya divorced Na'ila bint Umara al-Kalbiyya, she was wed to Mu'awiya's close aide
1874:
palace near the Sea of Galilee. Mu'awiya was also credited with ordering the restoration of
10445:
10234:
10209:
9296:
8917:
8313:
4385:
4327:
4128:
3341:
2958:
2849:
2586:
2392:
1646:
1429:
1258:
733:
721:
714:
694:
678:
572:
537:
185:
1683:
holds that Mu'awiya had further developed a mosque originally built by Caliph Umar on the
1139:
in the early 7th century. Upon Uthman's direction, Mu'awiya settled groups of the nomadic
8:
10450:
8318:
4389:
4302:
poisoned by his Christian doctor Ibn Uthal is found in the medieval Islamic histories of
4218:
4115:
3696:
3365:
3072:
2488:
2277:
2192:
reports that the Egyptian and Syrian navies joined the assault, led by Uqba ibn Amir and
2158:
2039:
1991:
1810:
1745:
1696:
1692:
1481:
1464:
1346:
1303:
1246:
1195:
651:
440:
358:
61:
9988:
2280:
were renewed during Mu'awiya's reign. In 665 or 666 Ibn Hudayj led an army which raided
9927:
9870:
9779:
9771:
9697:
9656:
9601:
9518:
9427:
9419:
9341:
8979:
8833:
8788:
8670:
8567:
8532:
8426:
8349:
8074:
7989:
7954:
7946:
7867:
4198:
4186:
2468:
2297:
2154:
2043:
1937:
1621:
1570:
1382:
1203:
1042:
825:
tribes, Abu Bakr reached out to the Quraysh, particularly its two strongest clans, the
808:
429:
270:
1723:
A Greek inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring the Roman-era bath facilities at
642:
The Caliphate's growth. By the time Muhammad died in 632, Islam had spread throughout
10323:
10303:
10164:
10115:
10032:
9994:
9984:
9972:
9915:
9858:
9799:
9783:
9742:
9709:
9671:
9616:
9561:
9540:
9530:
9495:
9474:
9431:
9385:
9363:
9337:
9308:
9282:
9260:
9201:
9180:
9156:
9132:
9108:
9084:
9060:
9034:
9010:
8952:
8927:
8903:
8893:
8879:
8869:
8855:
8821:
8807:
8756:
8685:
8630:
8606:
8582:
8509:
8483:
8389:
8368:
8301:
8232:
8211:
8187:
8165:
8117:
8096:
8078:
8066:
8032:
8004:
7958:
7912:
4323:
4257:
4182:
3535:
2808:
2549:
2500:
2436:
2115:
2069:
1867:
1836:
1514:
1468:
1366:
1262:
1207:
919:
863:
814:
729:
564:
448:
421:
283:
238:
114:
2780:
among Muslims in the 10th century, while the Abbasid Caliphate was dominated by the
2348:
the territories west of Cyrenaica. As he advanced, his army was joined by Islamized
2150:
2134:
who had defected from the Byzantines during one of his forces' Anatolian campaigns.
2101:
Map showing the raids, battles and naval engagements between the Arab Caliphate and
1578:
against nomads and Muslim pilgrims in the desert west of Kufa. This was followed by
10425:
10363:
10283:
10024:
9763:
9644:
9589:
9411:
9353:
9333:
9170:
8971:
8711:
8658:
8555:
8416:
8256:
8250:
8058:
7977:
7938:
7859:
4365:
4315:
4111:
3689:
3667:
2805:
2709:
2677:
2285:
2193:
2189:
1965:
1452:
1416:
1410:
1359:
1273:
1089:
1052:. He also married Maysun's paternal cousin, Na'ila bint Umara, for a short period.
1038:
963:
923:
663:
584:
525:
509:
9322:"Cyprus and Its Legal and Historiographical Significance in Early Islamic History"
2383:(modern-day Tunisia), remained subordinate to the governor of Egypt, who sent his
1699:
author, Mu'awiya received the pledges of the tribal chieftains and then prayed at
817:
dynastic successors. Having to contend with challenges to his leadership from the
10396:
10268:
10138:
10085:
10054:
10018:
9791:
9640:
9585:
9555:
9489:
9381:
Court Ceremonies and Rituals of Power in Byzantium and the Medieval Mediterranean
9379:
9276:
9195:
9174:
9150:
9146:
9126:
9122:
9102:
9098:
9078:
9074:
9048:
9028:
9004:
8966:
Jandora, John W. (1986). "Developments in Islamic Warfare: The Early Conquests".
8942:
8921:
8897:
8873:
8849:
8654:
8624:
8600:
8551:
8499:
8383:
8362:
8226:
8205:
8181:
8111:
8090:
8026:
7973:
4194:
4166:
4045:
2993:
2708:, 'first among equals'. According to Kennedy, the Nestorian Christian chronicler
2516:
2512:
2472:
1949:
1922:
1487:
1463:
as the death toll mounted on both sides. According to the account of the scholar
1317:
in June 656. Mu'awiya dispatched a relief army toward Medina, but it withdrew at
1314:
1211:
1030:
997:
959:
883:
595:
513:
390:
348:
336:
70:
773:
10184:
10089:
9957:
9949:
9900:
9892:
9843:
9835:
9727:
9723:
9648:
9593:
9459:
9447:
9439:
9245:
9237:
9197:
Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival During the Buyid Age
8872:(1999). "Jacob of Edessa on Islam". In Reinink, G. J.; Klugkist, A. C. (eds.).
8792:
8780:
8741:
8733:
8662:
8644:
8559:
8468:
8460:
8286:
8282:
8246:
8201:
8177:
8150:
8146:
8086:
8046:
8018:
7981:
7897:
7889:
4381:
4361:
4357:
4303:
4190:
4170:
4037:
3674:
3094:
2667:
2623:
2601:
2575:
2556:
2452:
2428:
2296:
before withdrawing to Egypt. The following year Mu'awiya dispatched Fadala and
2222:
2201:
1855:
1814:
1728:
1587:
1390:
1218:
Dominance of the eastern Mediterranean enabled Mu'awiya's naval forces to raid
1184:
1132:
1026:
903:
895:
706:
690:
682:
667:
659:
607:
432:('rightly-guided') caliphs. Unlike his predecessors, who had been close, early
368:
10028:
9128:
The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In
8421:
8404:
8340:(1966). "The Earliest Islamic Commemorative Structures, Notes and Documents".
7942:
10439:
10358:
10078:
9998:
9976:
9953:
9937:
9919:
9896:
9880:
9862:
9839:
9823:
9746:
9719:
9455:
9312:
9272:
9264:
9241:
9225:
9215:
8620:
8596:
8487:
8464:
8448:
8438:
8385:
Money, Power and Politics in Early Islamic Syria: A Review of Current Debates
8323:
8305:
8278:
8169:
8142:
8070:
8062:
4331:
4107:
2785:
2654:
2504:
2440:
2336:
2305:
2127:
2002:
1957:
1818:
1663:
1446:
1374:
1307:
1168:
1077:
993:
955:
899:
886:
in 639, Umar split the command of Syria, appointing Yazid as governor of the
818:
778:
580:
541:
529:
482:
249:
167:
138:
8049:(1994). "Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?".
7863:
2021:
from Alexandria due to the latter's vulnerability to Byzantine naval raids.
1561:. The latter's troops were defeated by Amr's forces, the provincial capital
1162:
693:, in which Mu'awiya's elder brother Hanzala and their maternal grandfather,
567:
and the eastern provinces, he delegated authority to the powerful governors
10014:
9685:
9630:
9575:
9024:
9000:
8770:
8723:
8699:
8268:
8228:
Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship: Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage
8022:
4369:
4340:
4319:
4256:, according to whom the Syrians were victorious, an assertion supported by
4234:
4132:
4062:
4058:
4041:
4033:
2781:
2619:
2579:
2560:
2484:
2432:
2265:
2064:
1914:
1780:
1688:
1684:
1595:
1318:
1188:
1172:
1109:
891:
826:
737:
736:
embraced Islam. According to accounts cited by the early Muslim historians
619:
9080:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
8715:
8332:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–54.
4335:
Goeje further doubts the credibility of the reports as they originated in
2364:. In the last region he established a permanent Arab garrison town called
1325:
Soon after becoming caliph, Ali was opposed by much of the Quraysh led by
958:, this exceptional treatment stemmed from Umar's personal respect for the
10328:
10224:
8337:
3943:
2492:
2077:
2051:
2018:
1969:
1851:
1802:
1724:
1583:
1523:
1519:
1378:
1338:
1293:
1231:
1199:
1018:
915:
614:, persisted after Mu'awiya's death, culminating with the outbreak of the
9993:. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
9701:
9522:
8837:
8536:
8430:
7950:
2256:
697:, were killed. Abu Sufyan replaced the slain leader of the Meccan army,
10278:
10199:
8983:
8899:
In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire
8495:
8353:
8255:. Beirut: Orient-Institut der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.
7871:
3109:
2728:
2317:
2153:
in northeastern Anatolia. In the late 660s, Mu'awiya's forces attacked
1821:. However, al-Baladhuri attributes this change to Mu'awiya's successor
1737:
1708:
1680:
1642:
1509:
1227:
1140:
1010:
830:
725:
627:
568:
545:
9775:
9557:
Islamic History, A New Interpretation: Volume 1, AD 600–750 (A.H. 132)
9423:
7527:
1439:
1104:. Mu'awiya restored, repopulated and garrisoned the coastal cities of
768:
504:
tribe, developed the defenses of its coastal cities, and directed the
10348:
10333:
10239:
10229:
4307:
4274:
4119:
2733:
2615:
2496:
2273:
2244:
2205:
2138:
2119:
2106:
2073:
1840:
1638:
1634:
1549:
1491:
1334:
1179:. Umar had rejected Mu'awiya's request to launch a naval invasion of
1152:
1144:
1101:
1065:
1061:
1005:
989:
951:
907:
813:('rightly-guided') caliphs to distinguish them from Mu'awiya and his
623:
501:
9321:
8975:
8260:
4152:
and after the latter's death, to another of Mu'awiya's close aides,
2699:(caliph), though the succeeding Abbasids are recognized as caliphs.
10214:
10189:
9767:
9415:
8405:"Egypt under Muʿāwiya Part II: Middle Egypt, Fusṭāṭ and Alexandria"
6716:
4106:'s efforts to make the native Syrian Arab tribes the foundation of
3813:
3321:
3133:
2380:
2369:
2365:
2353:
2349:
2340:
2281:
2261:
2197:
2029:
to his son Yazid, which compelled the caliph to reverse his order.
1871:
1700:
1626:
1527:
1284:
and deported Rshtuni to Syria, solidifying Arab rule over Armenia.
1269:
1117:
1097:
1034:
1022:
939:
935:
927:
845:
786:
698:
576:
456:
425:
234:
163:
10107:
7741:
6803:
4598:
2276:
since the 640s other than periodic raids, the expeditions against
1751:
Mu'awiya is credited by the early Muslim sources for establishing
1460:
751:
10179:
10099:
9057:
The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517
8028:
God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam
7388:
7386:
6513:
5983:
5747:
4280:
4123:
3516:
2801:
2789:
2768:
2400:
2396:
2373:
2293:
2237:
2123:
2105:
during Mu'awiya's governorship of Syria (640–661) and Mu'awiya's
1953:
1863:
1822:
1796:
1610:
1281:
1129:
1121:
1105:
1085:
1073:
1001:
943:
931:
674:
603:
444:
343:
331:
291:
156:
8382:
Foss, Clive (2016) . "Muʿāwiya's State". In Haldon, John (ed.).
8317:
6706:
6704:
6137:
6135:
5453:
4849:
4847:
4782:
1613:
and oaths of allegiance to Mu'awiya from the inhabitants of the
1313:
Uthman sent for assistance from Mu'awiya when rebels from Egypt
622:
tradition honors him as a companion of Muhammad and a scribe of
10020:
The Lineaments of Islam: Studies in Honor of Fred McGraw Donner
7493:
7491:
7287:
7263:
7107:
7031:
7029:
5927:
5309:
4336:
4270:
3306:
2361:
2325:
2313:
2309:
2301:
2233:
2058:
2026:
1978:
1941:
1875:
1788:
1630:
1574:
along Iraq's western frontier. The first raid was conducted by
1562:
1503:
1394:
1386:
1268:
Meanwhile, after two previous attempts by the Arabs to conquer
1250:
1223:
1180:
1113:
1081:
879:
875:
798:
790:
745:
710:
702:
643:
599:
588:
490:
417:
222:
110:
94:
9402:(1948). "Early Islamic Inscriptions Near Ṭāʾif in the Ḥijāz".
8993:
Travaux et mémoires, Vol. 17: Constructing the Seventh Century
8824:(1987). "The History and Town-Plan of Ancient Ḥammat Gādẹ̄r".
7383:
7251:
7227:
7143:
6752:
6740:
6665:
6612:
6537:
6477:
6085:
5843:
5117:
5115:
4562:
2012:), successively served as governors before Mu'awiya appointed
1727:
in 663, the sole epigraphic attestation of Mu'awiya's rule in
1605:(western Arabia, where Mecca and Medina are located), sending
1591:
1415:
In the first week of June 657, the armies of Mu'awiya and Ali
1021:
church, had served Byzantium as subordinates of its Ghassanid
9200:(Second Revised ed.). Leiden, New York and Koln: Brill.
8364:
Quṣayr ʻAmra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria
7654:
7652:
7515:
7476:
6956:
6954:
6952:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6701:
6689:
6363:
6361:
6132:
5958:
5956:
5954:
5879:
5528:
4844:
4202:
4090:
2797:
2793:
2386:
2357:
2321:
2289:
2131:
1945:
1930:
1806:
1754:
1614:
1602:
1423:
1342:
1333:, both prominent companions of Muhammad, and Muhammad's wife
1242:
1219:
1176:
1156:
1093:
871:
757:
655:
556:
552:
512:, including the first Muslim naval campaigns. In response to
452:
378:
218:
214:
8626:
The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750
8367:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
7929:(1996). "Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period".
7753:
7622:
7620:
7488:
7203:
7026:
7014:
6781:
6779:
6764:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6489:
6260:
6258:
5819:
5807:
5795:
5783:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5381:
5192:
5190:
5188:
4893:
4891:
4889:
4627:
4625:
4248:
The consensus in the early Muslim sources holds that Caliph
1666:
had been nominated as his successor. He successfully bribed
1257:. The Arabs were commanded by either the governor of Egypt,
447:
kinsman and later Mu'awiya's brother-in-law, until Muhammad
7794:
7792:
7731:
7729:
7727:
6878:
5939:
5915:
5689:
5687:
5636:
5489:
5465:
5441:
5405:
5393:
5112:
4388:'s brother Rabi'a, was the mother of Mu'awiya, Hanzala and
4344:
4289:
explicitly states that Mu'awiya built a mosque on the site.
4178:
4103:
2605:
Byzantine emperor, was now God's representative on earth".
1299:
1148:
887:
822:
794:
717:
in 627, he lost his leadership position among the Quraysh.
471:
9491:
Twelve Infallible Men: The Imams and the Making of Shiʿism
9359:
The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate
9176:
In Praise of the Few. Studies in Shiʿi Thought and History
7664:
7649:
7639:
7637:
7635:
7544:
7542:
7347:
7323:
7299:
7131:
7073:
7071:
7056:
6990:
6949:
6939:
6937:
6902:
6677:
6636:
6501:
6465:
6388:
6358:
6346:
6243:
6183:
6147:
6120:
5951:
5759:
5518:
5516:
5044:
5042:
5040:
4864:
4862:
4499:
4487:
9756:
The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
9059:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–85.
8501:
Die Kalifen von Kairo: Die Fatimiden in Ägypten, 973–1074
8113:
The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (a Political Study)
7816:
7700:
7617:
7605:
7595:
7593:
7591:
7589:
7587:
7585:
7583:
7581:
7566:
7554:
7454:
7452:
7167:
7002:
6866:
6856:
6854:
6839:
6791:
6776:
6728:
6648:
6600:
6378:
6376:
6336:
6334:
6332:
6317:
6293:
6283:
6281:
6279:
6277:
6275:
6273:
6255:
6110:
6108:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6022:
6000:
5998:
5973:
5971:
5730:
5720:
5718:
5716:
5714:
5660:
5202:
5185:
5163:
5161:
4998:
4952:
4950:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4886:
4760:
4758:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4622:
4586:
4552:
4550:
4249:
4139:, who had played a prominent role in the Muslim conquest.
1535:
1302:
against Uthman's policies in the 650s. The exception was
1194:
According to the 9th-century historians al-Baladhuri and
1163:
Naval campaigns against Byzantium and conquest of Armenia
1125:
802:
517:
7828:
7789:
7777:
7765:
7724:
7371:
7359:
7046:
7044:
6554:
6552:
6525:
6453:
6075:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6065:
6063:
6061:
5867:
5831:
5771:
5699:
5684:
5357:
5287:
5285:
5127:
5088:
5015:
5013:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4834:
4832:
4799:
4797:
4680:
2745:
Mu'awiya's war with Ali, whom the Shia hold as the true
2339:, the Arab commander who conquered Ifriqiya and founded
2076:
region in central Arabia, Mu'awiya confiscated from the
1866:
for the benefit of the sick. According to the historian
1565:
was captured and Muhammad was executed on the orders of
793:(leader of the Muslim community). He and his successors
9053:"Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate, 641–868"
9030:
Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa
7688:
7632:
7539:
7425:
7415:
7413:
7155:
7068:
6966:
6934:
6924:
6922:
6827:
6419:
6417:
6415:
6207:
6159:
6034:
5600:
5552:
5513:
5501:
5429:
5417:
5333:
5270:
5258:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5217:
5148:
5146:
5144:
5142:
5100:
5078:
5076:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5037:
4859:
4830:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4818:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4770:
4721:
4719:
4574:
4463:
4436:
4434:
4432:
4430:
4428:
1601:
In 659 or 660, Mu'awiya expanded the operations to the
942:. In 644, he led a foray against the Anatolian city of
436:, Mu'awiya was a relatively late follower of Muhammad.
9494:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
8409:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
8186:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
7578:
7503:
7464:
7449:
7437:
7311:
7275:
7239:
7215:
7179:
7119:
7095:
6851:
6815:
6400:
6373:
6329:
6305:
6270:
6097:
6046:
5995:
5968:
5903:
5891:
5855:
5711:
5540:
5248:
5246:
5158:
4986:
4974:
4962:
4947:
4903:
4755:
4731:
4668:
4637:
4547:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4408:
2483:
Mu'awiya died from an illness in Damascus in Rajab 60
2050:. Besides his own clan, Mu'awiya's relations with the
1925:. Mu'awiya's initial choice to govern Kufa in 661 was
1620:
In the summer, Mu'awiya dispatched a large army under
1534:, respectively represent the territories under Caliph
9754:
Sprengling, Martin (1939). "From Persian to Arabic".
8506:
The Caliphs of Cairo: The Fatimids in Egypt, 973–1074
8092:
Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity
7335:
7041:
6624:
6588:
6576:
6564:
6549:
6195:
6058:
5672:
5612:
5588:
5345:
5321:
5297:
5282:
5173:
5025:
5010:
4930:
4874:
4794:
4743:
4704:
4656:
4610:
2495:(d. 774) to have succeeded him on 7 April, while the
1936:
In Basra, Mu'awiya reappointed his Abd Shams kinsman
988:
During the reign of Uthman, Mu'awiya allied with the
579:(central North Africa) was launched by the commander
451:
in 630. Afterward, Mu'awiya became one of Muhammad's
9796:
Byzantium in the Seventh Century, Volume IV: 668–685
7804:
7676:
7410:
7398:
7191:
6978:
6919:
6890:
6441:
6429:
6412:
6010:
5624:
5576:
5369:
5214:
5139:
5073:
5054:
4809:
4716:
4692:
4535:
4523:
4278:
4232:
2766:
2760:
2754:
2737:
2722:
2694:
2688:
2681:
2671:
2645:
2631:
2591:
2568:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2384:
1908:
1902:
1888:
1794:
1786:
1778:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1752:
1543:
1510:
Claim to the caliphate and resumption of hostilities
1479:
1444:
1421:
806:
749:
732:
in 630, Mu'awiya, his father, and his elder brother
404:
68:
59:
8629:(Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge.
8183:
Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam
7712:
7083:
6231:
6219:
6171:
5648:
5564:
5477:
5243:
4475:
4446:
4405:
4102:According to the historian Khalil Athamina, Caliph
2703:
2417:
2376:tribes that dominated the surrounding countryside.
2251:
2172:, based on the history of the Byzantine chronicler
1714:
1522:. The areas shaded in green, namely the regions of
1404:
769:
Early military career and administrative promotions
540:in 661, Mu'awiya compelled Ali's son and successor
9931:
9874:
9817:
9713:
9634:
9579:
9219:
8774:
8727:
8648:
8545:
8442:
8272:
8132:
7967:
7883:
4511:
2773:, which is held by many Shia to be an obligation.
2545:, his personal skills, persuasive power, and wit.
1817:from Homs, according to the 8th-century historian
1369:to secure an alliance with the Yemenite tribes of
8944:Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory
2204:by autumn, while Yazid and Fadala, having raided
1253:, opening the way for an ultimately unsuccessful
524:, the two led their armies to a stalemate at the
10437:
8057:(1). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.: 1–57.
709:in 625. After his abortive siege of Muhammad in
594:Although Mu'awiya confined the influence of his
9762:(2). The University of Chicago Press: 175–224.
8844:
6722:
1502:, the first in Dumat al-Jandal and the last in
1124:. In Tripoli he settled significant numbers of
983:
720:Mu'awiya's father was not a participant in the
30:"Mu'awiya" redirects here. For other uses, see
10023:. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 177–208.
9511:Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
8923:Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan: From Arabia to Empire
1881:
1759:(government departments) for correspondences (
954:and Ansar groups). According to the historian
10123:
9384:. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 87–114.
9131:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press.
2608:
2451:remaining principle opposition emanated from
2439:, who was ultimately bribed into compliance.
1191:cite two raids launched between 648 and 650.
858:) appointed a leading companion of Muhammad,
701:, and led the Meccans to victory against the
9715:"Filasṭīn – I. Palestine under Islamic Rule"
8702:(1972). "The Siffin Arbitration Agreement".
4314:, among others and is accepted by historian
2300:to raid the commercially valuable island of
1530:, and pink, namely the regions of Syria and
317:
43:
8826:Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins
2272:Although the Arabs had not advanced beyond
2213:the reign of Yazid I, the modern historian
1641:. Before he could continue his campaign in
882:. Following the death of Abu Ubayda in the
685:, was also a member of the Banu Abd Shams.
548:was acknowledged throughout the Caliphate.
10130:
10116:
9983:
9963:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9906:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9849:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9753:
9733:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9662:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9607:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9465:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9251:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8820:
8798:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8747:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8676:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8573:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8474:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8292:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8156:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8017:
7995:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
7965:
7903:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
7658:
7392:
7365:
7353:
7305:
7257:
7233:
7149:
7137:
7113:
7062:
6996:
6960:
6913:
6642:
6543:
6507:
6483:
6471:
6394:
6367:
6352:
6189:
6153:
6126:
5989:
5962:
5849:
5765:
5741:
5363:
5315:
4853:
4505:
4493:
4048:identified it as a village called Biqinis.
536:from Ali's governor in 658. Following the
500:). He allied with the province's powerful
84:
9971:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 866–867.
9857:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 381–386.
9741:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 910–913.
9670:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 402–403.
9615:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 190–192.
9560:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9508:
9473:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 184–185.
9362:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9259:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 919–920.
9033:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9009:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9006:Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
8990:
8916:
8806:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 263–268.
8755:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 137–140.
8684:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 309–311.
8581:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 519–522.
8420:
8300:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 930–931.
8210:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
8164:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 493–494.
8095:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8031:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8003:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 789–790.
7911:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 621–623.
7706:
7626:
7611:
7572:
7482:
7377:
6845:
6809:
6797:
6785:
6758:
6746:
6734:
6710:
6695:
6659:
6618:
6606:
6141:
5339:
5264:
4868:
633:
9812:
9352:
9326:Journal of the American Oriental Society
9169:
8312:
7925:
7878:
7849:
7798:
7783:
7759:
7747:
7735:
7497:
7209:
7077:
7035:
7020:
6770:
6531:
6519:
6495:
5885:
5873:
5837:
5825:
5813:
5801:
5789:
5777:
5753:
5705:
5693:
5642:
5606:
5558:
5522:
5507:
5495:
5471:
5459:
5447:
5435:
5423:
5411:
5399:
5387:
5276:
5208:
5167:
5121:
5106:
5048:
4992:
4788:
4776:
4650:
4631:
4580:
4556:
4347:where Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid had died.
2527:Like Uthman, Mu'awiya adopted the title
2522:
2330:
2255:
2096:
1718:
1513:
1438:
772:
763:
637:
9790:
9708:
9629:
9574:
9376:
9214:
9193:
9145:
9121:
9097:
9073:
9047:
8965:
8892:
8868:
8643:
8619:
8595:
8508:] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck.
7822:
7694:
7643:
7599:
7560:
7548:
7533:
7521:
7509:
7470:
7458:
7443:
7431:
7245:
7185:
7173:
7161:
7101:
6972:
6943:
6884:
6860:
6821:
6406:
6340:
6323:
6311:
6299:
6287:
6213:
6165:
6114:
6052:
6040:
6028:
6004:
5977:
5945:
5933:
5921:
5909:
5897:
5724:
5594:
5351:
5327:
5291:
5179:
5019:
4980:
4968:
4956:
4924:
4803:
4764:
4737:
4674:
4541:
4529:
4469:
4217:. He also relied on his Umayyad cousin
1352:
1187:inscriptions in the Cypriot village of
14:
10486:One Thousand and One Nights characters
10438:
9684:
9553:
9529:
9487:
9438:
8543:
8522:
8444:"ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Khālid b. al-Walīd"
8360:
8336:
8267:
8200:
8176:
7771:
7670:
7341:
7329:
7317:
7293:
7281:
7269:
7221:
7125:
6382:
6201:
5861:
5678:
5666:
5618:
5375:
5303:
5196:
5031:
5004:
4941:
4897:
4880:
4749:
4710:
4662:
4616:
4604:
4592:
4568:
2001:) and an early companion of Muhammad,
1137:Sasanian occupation of Byzantine Syria
591:on the eastern frontier were resumed.
416:–April 680) was the founder and first
124:January 661 – April 680
10111:
9926:
9869:
9398:
9319:
9295:
9271:
9023:
8999:
8940:
8769:
8722:
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5133:
5094:
5082:
5067:
4838:
4725:
4698:
4686:
4517:
4481:
4457:
4440:
4044:. The 13th-century Syrian geographer
3992:
3990:
3988:
3986:
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3119:
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2988:
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2907:
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2857:
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2846:
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2842:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2399:and defeated the Awraba Berber chief
2368:, at a relatively safe distance from
2324:. He may have raided as far south as
2092:
1744:, son of the distinguished commander
1128:, while sending to Homs, Antioch and
969:Upon the accession of Caliph Uthman (
9914:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 151.
9107:(Second ed.). Harlow: Longman.
8494:
8437:
8402:
8381:
8245:
8224:
7931:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
7834:
7718:
7089:
6459:
6447:
6435:
6423:
6249:
6237:
6225:
6177:
4114:counterattack was the main cause of
4065:tentatively concludes relate to the
4036:, Abu Sufyan owned a village in the
2352:and their combined forces conquered
2163:great series of naval-borne assaults
1896:
1860:Abd Allah Mu'awiya, amir al-mu'minin
1341:. Ali defeated the triumvirate near
1249:. Constans II was forced to sail to
781:in the first decades of Islamic rule
443:had opposed Muhammad, their distant
10137:
9281:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8902:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8854:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8482:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 85.
4177:under his Umayyad cousin Mu'awiya,
1255:Arab naval attack on Constantinople
1041:, by wedding the latter's daughter
1033:and the latter's Arab clients, the
658:merchant who led trade caravans to
394:
318:
44:
24:
10461:Generals of the Rashidun Caliphate
10006:
9083:. London and New York: Routledge.
8388:. London and New York: Routledge.
1436:, the so-called 'king of Himyar'.
1000:in the south to the approaches of
835:Muslim conquest of Byzantine Syria
666:. He emerged as the leader of the
267:Fakhita bint Qurayza al-Nawfaliyya
25:
10497:
9152:Caliphate: The History of an Idea
8134:"Kalb b. Wabara – Islamic Period"
4040:region, which formed part of the
1538:'s and Mu'awiya's control in 658.
10248:
9346:10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.3.0535
9338:10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.3.0535
8131:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer A. (1978).
8110:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer A. (1971).
4375:
4350:
4292:
4287:al-Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi
4263:
4181:successively under the Umayyads
2418:Nomination of Yazid as successor
2252:Conquest of central North Africa
2072:era, which began in 750. In the
1921:, the son of Ali's leading aide
1715:Domestic rule and administration
1405:Battle of Siffin and arbitration
722:truce negotiations at Hudaybiyya
470:. He moved up the ranks through
264:Katwa bint Qurayza al-Nawfaliyya
27:Founder of the Umayyad Caliphate
9798:. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.
9404:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
8231:(2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill.
7843:
4242:
4225:
4197:under Uthman's maternal cousin
4159:
4142:
4096:
4051:
4026:
3948:
3818:
3679:
3521:
3489:
3350:
3326:
3311:
2409:
2227:
2014:Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari
2007:
1996:
1845:
1827:
1649:by a Kharijite in January 661.
1607:Abd Allah ibn Mas'ada al-Fazari
1236:
1064:and the mixed Muslim–Christian
1004:and the chief component of the
992:, the predominant tribe in the
971:
853:
583:in 670, while the conquests in
495:
476:
466:) as a deputy commander in the
461:
428:and immediately after the four
8878:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
7966:Christides, Vassilios (2000).
7536:, pp. 135–136, 266 n. 30.
4213:under Uthman's foster brother
4010:Dashed line indicates marriage
2716:
2533:('deputy of God'), instead of
2120:mountainous Anatolian frontier
1287:
561:failed siege of Constantinople
271:Maysun bint Bahdal al-Kalbiyya
13:
1:
10391:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud
10377:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud
9990:The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall
4399:
4070:
2555:In the view of the historian
2221:in 679 or 680. Under Emperor
2219:Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi
2166:
1731:, the center of his caliphate
1151:tribes to areas north of the
1046:
838:
481:) until becoming governor of
455:. He was appointed by Caliph
410:
275:Na'ila bint Umara al-Kalbiyya
207:
98:
4607:, pp. 100–101, 108–109.
4298:The claim that Mu'awiya had
4122:and its allies, in 636. The
2666:Al-Baladhuri calls him the '
2580:decade-long second civil war
2391:(non-Arab, Muslim freedman)
2304:. Meanwhile, in 662 or 667,
1657:
1652:
1590:'s successful raids against
1586:then, in the summer of 660,
1571:battling Kharijite defectors
1432:, a son of Caliph Umar, and
996:extending from the oasis of
984:Consolidation of local power
902:, and the veteran commander
785:After Muhammad died in 632,
602:, he nominated his own son,
7:
10466:Rashidun governors of Syria
10456:7th-century Umayyad caliphs
9055:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).
8207:The Early Islamic Conquests
4279:
4233:
4209:of the Banu Abd Shams, and
4154:Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari
2767:
2761:
2755:
2738:
2723:
2704:
2695:
2689:
2682:
2672:
2646:
2632:
2592:
2569:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2385:
1909:
1903:
1889:
1882:Governance in the provinces
1795:
1787:
1779:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1753:
1695:, composed by an anonymous
1580:Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari
1576:al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri
1544:
1480:
1445:
1422:
1261:, or Mu'awiya's lieutenant
851:Abu Bakr's successor Umar (
807:
750:
544:to abdicate and Mu'awiya's
405:
97:minted in Mu'awiya's name,
69:
60:
10:
10502:
9690:Israel Exploration Journal
9194:Kraemer, Joel L. (1992) .
8941:Hyder, Syed Akbar (2006).
8776:"Muʿāwiya I b. Abī Sufyān"
8704:Journal of Semitic Studies
8525:Israel Exploration Journal
4150:Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri
2817:Family tree of Mu'awiya I
2609:Early historical tradition
2465:Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr
2165:against Constantinople in
2137:Based on the histories of
1990:death, Mu'awiya's brother
1858:, refers to the caliph as
1748:, and al-Dahhak ibn Qays.
1408:
1291:
1278:Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri
1202:, alongside the commander
922:, the district capital of
29:
10476:People of the First Fitna
10471:Companions of the Prophet
10422:
10312:
10257:
10246:
10163:
10145:
10096:
10083:
10075:
10048:
10029:10.1163/9789004231948_010
9517:. Archaeopress: 265–275.
9155:. New York: Basic Books.
8422:10.1017/S0041977X09000512
7943:10.1017/S1356186300007161
4067:capitulation of Jerusalem
3926:
3924:
3908:
3906:
3878:
3876:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3786:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3774:
3766:
3764:
3736:
3734:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3638:
3636:
3634:
3628:
3626:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3604:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3562:
3560:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3455:
3453:
3445:
3443:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3397:
3395:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3167:
3165:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3141:
3139:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3051:
3049:
3017:
3013:
3007:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2905:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2292:and temporarily captured
2068:deteriorating during the
2032:
1526:, Arabia, Persia and the
1080:urbanites from Damascus,
1029:against invasions by the
374:
364:
354:
342:
330:
315:
310:
306:
282:
257:
244:
232:April 680 (aged c. 75–83)
228:
203:
199:
191:
181:
173:
162:
152:
128:
120:
108:
83:
51:
41:
32:Mu'awiya (disambiguation)
10408:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali
10384:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali
9488:Pierce, Matthew (2016).
8063:10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1
7750:, p. 105, note 136.
7296:, pp. 209, 213–214.
6812:, pp. 278–279, 316.
6674:, pp. 244–245, 247.
5756:, pp. 262–263, 287.
5462:, pp. 225–226, 229.
4791:, pp. 262, 265–268.
4300:Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid
4254:Theophanes the Confessor
4169:and its parent clan the
4078:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah
4019:
2478:
2215:Clifford Edmund Bosworth
2174:Theophanes the Confessor
1984:
1793:(select troops) and the
1771:) and the postal route (
1742:Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid
1072:Although Syria's rural,
978:Umayr ibn Sa'd al-Ansari
860:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah
758:nascent Muslim community
485:during the reign of his
439:Mu'awiya and his father
316:Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān(
10370:Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir
9554:Shaban, M. A. (1976) .
9320:Lynch, Ryan J. (2016).
8949:Oxford University Press
8650:"Yazīd (I) b. Muʿāwiya"
8329:Encyclopædia Britannica
7864:10.1163/157005894X00191
7272:, p. 210, 212–213.
6522:, p. 345, note 90.
6094:, p. 45, note 239.
5936:, pp. 87, 89, 101.
5537:, p. 203, note 30.
4571:, p. 151, note 54.
4384:, the granddaughter of
4231:Historically, the term
4201:of the Banu Abd Shams,
2457:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
2405:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
1705:Tomb of the Virgin Mary
1687:, the precursor of the
805:are often known as the
616:Second Muslim Civil War
612:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
598:to the governorship of
406:Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān
8846:Howard-Johnston, James
8544:Hasson, Isaac (2002).
8361:Fowden, Garth (2004).
7885:"Marwān I b. al-Ḥakam"
7659:Crone & Hinds 2003
7366:Crone & Hinds 2003
7354:Crone & Hinds 2003
5992:, pp. 59–60, 131.
4269:The Christian pilgrim
4215:Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh
4207:Ali ibn Adi ibn Rabi'a
4086:companions of Muhammad
2778:religious sectarianism
2664:
2642:
2344:
2335:A statue representing
2312:region, capturing the
2284:(southern district of
2278:Byzantine North Africa
2269:
2110:
1732:
1582:'s abortive attack on
1539:
1455:
1259:Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh
1058:Sasanian front in Iraq
782:
647:
634:Origins and early life
553:government departments
522:First Muslim Civil War
514:Uthman's assassination
434:companions of Muhammad
414: 597, 603 or 605
9297:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes
8918:Humphreys, R. Stephen
8314:de Goeje, Michael Jan
8225:Elad, Amikam (1999).
7858:(2). Brill: 253–272.
6252:, pp. 23–24, 33.
4082:Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf
2747:successor of Muhammad
2659:
2638:
2523:Assessment and legacy
2334:
2328:in modern-day Niger.
2259:
2181:James Howard-Johnston
2143:Agapius of Hierapolis
2100:
1944:, reaching as far as
1927:al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba
1805:, newcomers from the
1785:(personal guard) and
1722:
1668:Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas
1517:
1451:) of Mu'awiya at the
1442:
1015:Greco-Aramaic culture
777:Map of the region of
776:
764:Governorship of Syria
681:. Mu'awiya's mother,
641:
10359:Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti
8403:Foss, Clive (2009).
7524:, p. 266 n. 30.
7116:, pp. 141, 143.
6761:, pp. 304, 316.
6749:, pp. 267, 274.
6723:Howard-Johnston 2010
6686:, pp. 245, 247.
6621:, pp. 271, 273.
5888:, pp. 320, 322.
5390:, pp. 191, 196.
5318:, p. 55–56, 76.
4328:Michael Jan de Goeje
3979:Ali (Abu al-Umaytir)
3854:Ziyad (Abu Muhammad)
3697:Abd Allah (al-Uswar)
2587:R. Stephen Humphreys
2536:khalifat rasul Allah
2393:Abu al-Muhajir Dinar
1550:pledge of allegiance
1353:Preparations for war
1304:Abu Dharr al-Ghifari
938:, deep in Byzantine
926:, and then captured
715:Battle of the Trench
679:Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy
573:Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan
555:responsible for the
538:assassination of Ali
319:معاوية ابن أبي سفيان
186:Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan
10165:Caliphs of Damascus
9928:Watt, W. Montgomery
9871:Watt, W. Montgomery
9819:"ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib"
9814:Vaglieri, L. Veccia
9792:Stratos, Andreas N.
8716:10.1093/jss/17.1.93
7927:Bosworth, C. Edmund
7880:Bosworth, C. Edmund
7837:, pp. 90, 192.
7762:, pp. 105–106.
7673:, pp. 184–185.
7500:, pp. 326–327.
7485:, pp. 112–113.
7395:, pp. 137–138.
7332:, pp. 213–214.
7236:, pp. 145–146.
7212:, pp. 342–343.
7152:, pp. 143–144.
7038:, pp. 340–342.
7023:, pp. 339–340.
7011:, pp. 139–140.
6887:, pp. 207–208.
6875:, pp. 247–248.
6773:, pp. 159–160.
6725:, pp. 303–304.
6713:, pp. 303–304.
6698:, pp. 273–274.
6546:, pp. 136–137.
6498:, pp. 621–622.
6486:, pp. 135–136.
6462:, pp. 269–270.
6267:, pp. 266–267.
6144:, pp. 102–103.
5948:, pp. 94, 106.
5924:, pp. 97, 100.
5852:, pp. 102–103.
5828:, pp. 304–305.
5816:, pp. 301–303.
5804:, pp. 299–300.
5792:, pp. 290–292.
5669:, pp. 162–163.
5645:, pp. 254–255.
5498:, pp. 232–233.
5474:, pp. 230–231.
5450:, pp. 204–205.
5414:, pp. 199–200.
5402:, pp. 196–197.
5199:, pp. 152–153.
5136:, pp. 184–185.
5124:, pp. 157–158.
5097:, pp. 541–542.
5007:, pp. 248–249.
4900:, pp. 215–216.
4856:, pp. 55, 132.
4689:, pp. 67, 246.
4595:, pp. 133–134.
4318:, while historians
4310:, al-Baladhuri and
4219:Marwan ibn al-Hakam
4116:Khalid ibn al-Walid
2489:Hisham ibn al-Kalbi
2268:; shaded in purple)
2040:Marwan ibn al-Hakam
1746:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1693:Maronite Chronicles
1647:Ali's assassination
1567:Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj
1500:Abu Musa al-Ash'ari
1473:al-Ash'ath ibn Qays
1399:Jarir ibn Abd Allah
1347:Battle of the Camel
1247:Battle of the Masts
1196:Khalifa ibn Khayyat
1155:in the vicinity of
1135:holdovers from the
924:Byzantine Palestine
662:, then part of the
652:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb
395:معاوية بن أبي سفيان
359:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb
135:Dynasty established
10314:Caliphs of Córdoba
9985:Wellhausen, Julius
9946:Lévi-Provençal, E.
9889:Lévi-Provençal, E.
9832:Lévi-Provençal, E.
9531:Morony, Michael G.
9234:Lévi-Provençal, E.
8894:Hoyland, Robert G.
8870:Hoyland, Robert G.
8822:Hirschfeld, Yizhar
8645:Hawting, Gerald R.
8621:Hawting, Gerald R.
8457:Lévi-Provençal, E.
7260:, p. 144–145.
4343:clan, rather than
4339:, the home of his
4199:Abd Allah ibn Amir
4110:'s defense from a
3378:Ramla (Umm Habiba)
2693:(king) instead of
2469:Awana ibn al-Hakam
2461:Abd Allah ibn Umar
2345:
2298:Ruwayfi ibn Thabit
2270:
2159:Antioch of Isauria
2155:Antioch of Pisidia
2111:
2093:War with Byzantium
1938:Abd Allah ibn Amir
1733:
1622:Busr ibn Abi Artat
1540:
1456:
1434:Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa
1383:Shurahbil ibn Simt
1208:Abd Allah ibn Qays
1204:Ubada ibn al-Samit
888:military districts
783:
648:
10481:People from Mecca
10433:
10432:
10324:Abd al-Rahman III
10304:Abd al-Rahman III
10106:
10105:
10097:Succeeded by
10038:978-90-04-21885-7
9805:978-90-256-0665-7
9677:978-90-04-11211-7
9622:978-90-04-11211-7
9567:978-0-521-29131-6
9546:978-0-87395-933-9
9501:978-0-674-73707-5
9480:978-90-04-07819-2
9391:978-90-04-25686-6
9354:Madelung, Wilferd
9288:978-0-19-164716-1
9186:978-90-04-40697-1
9179:. Leiden: Brill.
9162:978-0-465-09439-4
9138:978-0-306-81740-3
9114:978-0-582-40525-7
9040:978-0-521-19677-2
8958:978-0-19-537302-8
8909:978-0-19-991636-8
8861:978-0-19-920859-3
8813:978-90-04-09419-2
8762:978-90-04-08112-3
8691:978-90-04-12756-2
8612:978-0-7914-2393-6
8588:978-90-04-12756-2
8395:978-0-7546-6849-7
8319:"Caliphate"
8217:978-0-691-05327-1
8193:978-0-674-05097-6
8123:978-0-7189-0149-3
8116:. London: Luzac.
8010:978-90-04-11211-7
7918:978-90-04-08112-3
7825:, pp. 64–65.
7774:, pp. 83–85.
7563:, pp. 16–17.
7176:, pp. 90–91.
6836:, pp. 81–82.
6326:, pp. 84–85.
6302:, pp. 83–84.
6031:, pp. 86–87.
5549:, pp. 93–94.
5211:, pp. 86–87.
4634:, pp. 60–61.
4508:, pp. 20–21.
4496:, pp. 22–23.
4472:, pp. 21–22.
4324:Julius Wellhausen
4312:Mus'ab al-Zubayri
4183:al-Walid ibn Uqba
4042:Damascus district
4017:
4016:
4001:
4000:
2550:Julius Wellhausen
2437:al-Ahnaf ibn Qays
2116:Grigor Mamikonian
2048:al-Walid ibn Utba
1897:Iraq and the east
1868:Yizhar Hirschfeld
1837:Sarjun ibn Mansur
1367:al-Walid ibn Uqba
1315:besieged his home
1031:Sasanian Persians
934:and proceeded to
868:entered Jerusalem
864:Battle of Yarmouk
468:conquest of Syria
422:Umayyad Caliphate
403:
384:
383:
326:
325:
239:Umayyad Caliphate
195:Post discontinued
115:Umayyad Caliphate
16:(Redirected from
10493:
10364:Abd al-Rahman IV
10284:Abd ar-Rahman II
10259:Emirs of Córdoba
10252:
10132:
10125:
10118:
10109:
10108:
10076:Preceded by
10071:
10064:
10046:
10045:
10042:
10002:
9980:
9935:
9923:
9878:
9866:
9821:
9809:
9787:
9750:
9717:
9705:
9681:
9657:Heinrichs, W. P.
9638:
9626:
9602:Heinrichs, W. P.
9583:
9571:
9550:
9526:
9505:
9484:
9435:
9400:Miles, George C.
9395:
9373:
9349:
9316:
9292:
9278:Arabs in History
9268:
9223:
9211:
9190:
9166:
9142:
9118:
9094:
9070:
9044:
9025:Kaegi, Walter E.
9020:
9001:Kaegi, Walter E.
8996:
8987:
8962:
8937:
8913:
8889:
8865:
8841:
8817:
8789:Heinrichs, W. P.
8778:
8766:
8731:
8719:
8695:
8671:Heinrichs, W. P.
8652:
8640:
8616:
8592:
8568:Heinrichs, W. P.
8549:
8547:"Ziyād b. Abīhi"
8540:
8519:
8491:
8446:
8434:
8424:
8399:
8378:
8357:
8333:
8321:
8309:
8276:
8264:
8242:
8221:
8197:
8173:
8136:
8127:
8106:
8082:
8042:
8014:
7990:Heinrichs, W. P.
7971:
7969:"ʿUkba b. Nāfiʿ"
7962:
7922:
7887:
7875:
7838:
7832:
7826:
7820:
7814:
7808:
7802:
7796:
7787:
7781:
7775:
7769:
7763:
7757:
7751:
7745:
7739:
7733:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7704:
7698:
7692:
7686:
7680:
7674:
7668:
7662:
7656:
7647:
7641:
7630:
7624:
7615:
7609:
7603:
7597:
7576:
7570:
7564:
7558:
7552:
7546:
7537:
7531:
7525:
7519:
7513:
7507:
7501:
7495:
7486:
7480:
7474:
7468:
7462:
7456:
7447:
7441:
7435:
7429:
7423:
7417:
7408:
7402:
7396:
7390:
7381:
7375:
7369:
7363:
7357:
7351:
7345:
7339:
7333:
7327:
7321:
7315:
7309:
7303:
7297:
7291:
7285:
7279:
7273:
7267:
7261:
7255:
7249:
7243:
7237:
7231:
7225:
7219:
7213:
7207:
7201:
7195:
7189:
7183:
7177:
7171:
7165:
7159:
7153:
7147:
7141:
7135:
7129:
7123:
7117:
7111:
7105:
7099:
7093:
7087:
7081:
7075:
7066:
7060:
7054:
7048:
7039:
7033:
7024:
7018:
7012:
7006:
7000:
6994:
6988:
6982:
6976:
6970:
6964:
6958:
6947:
6941:
6932:
6926:
6917:
6911:
6900:
6894:
6888:
6882:
6876:
6870:
6864:
6858:
6849:
6843:
6837:
6831:
6825:
6819:
6813:
6807:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6783:
6774:
6768:
6762:
6756:
6750:
6744:
6738:
6732:
6726:
6720:
6714:
6708:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6681:
6675:
6669:
6663:
6657:
6646:
6640:
6634:
6628:
6622:
6616:
6610:
6604:
6598:
6592:
6586:
6580:
6574:
6568:
6562:
6556:
6547:
6541:
6535:
6529:
6523:
6517:
6511:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6475:
6469:
6463:
6457:
6451:
6445:
6439:
6433:
6427:
6421:
6410:
6404:
6398:
6392:
6386:
6380:
6371:
6365:
6356:
6350:
6344:
6338:
6327:
6321:
6315:
6309:
6303:
6297:
6291:
6285:
6268:
6262:
6253:
6247:
6241:
6235:
6229:
6223:
6217:
6211:
6205:
6199:
6193:
6187:
6181:
6175:
6169:
6163:
6157:
6151:
6145:
6139:
6130:
6124:
6118:
6112:
6095:
6089:
6083:
6077:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6026:
6020:
6014:
6008:
6002:
5993:
5987:
5981:
5975:
5966:
5960:
5949:
5943:
5937:
5931:
5925:
5919:
5913:
5907:
5901:
5895:
5889:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5865:
5859:
5853:
5847:
5841:
5835:
5829:
5823:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5757:
5751:
5745:
5739:
5728:
5722:
5709:
5703:
5697:
5691:
5682:
5676:
5670:
5664:
5658:
5652:
5646:
5640:
5634:
5628:
5622:
5616:
5610:
5604:
5598:
5592:
5586:
5580:
5574:
5568:
5562:
5556:
5550:
5544:
5538:
5532:
5526:
5520:
5511:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5469:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5445:
5439:
5433:
5427:
5421:
5415:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5373:
5367:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5337:
5331:
5325:
5319:
5313:
5307:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5280:
5274:
5268:
5262:
5256:
5250:
5241:
5235:
5212:
5206:
5200:
5194:
5183:
5177:
5171:
5165:
5156:
5150:
5137:
5131:
5125:
5119:
5110:
5104:
5098:
5092:
5086:
5080:
5071:
5065:
5052:
5046:
5035:
5029:
5023:
5017:
5008:
5002:
4996:
4990:
4984:
4978:
4972:
4966:
4960:
4954:
4945:
4939:
4928:
4922:
4901:
4895:
4884:
4878:
4872:
4866:
4857:
4851:
4842:
4836:
4807:
4801:
4792:
4786:
4780:
4774:
4768:
4762:
4753:
4747:
4741:
4735:
4729:
4723:
4714:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4660:
4654:
4648:
4635:
4629:
4620:
4614:
4608:
4602:
4596:
4590:
4584:
4578:
4572:
4566:
4560:
4554:
4545:
4539:
4533:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4509:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4485:
4479:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4455:
4444:
4438:
4393:
4379:
4373:
4366:Karl-Heinz Ohlig
4354:
4348:
4316:Wilferd Madelung
4296:
4290:
4284:
4267:
4261:
4246:
4240:
4238:
4229:
4223:
4163:
4157:
4146:
4140:
4100:
4094:
4075:
4072:
4055:
4049:
4030:
4007:
3952:
3950:
3822:
3820:
3683:
3681:
3525:
3523:
3493:
3491:
3354:
3352:
3330:
3328:
3315:
3313:
2824:
2823:
2814:
2813:
2772:
2764:
2758:
2741:
2726:
2710:John bar Penkaye
2707:
2698:
2692:
2685:
2678:authoritarianism
2675:
2649:
2635:
2595:
2572:
2544:
2538:
2532:
2501:Elias of Nisibis
2413:
2411:
2390:
2286:Byzantine Africa
2231:
2229:
2194:Fadala ibn Ubayd
2190:Ibn Abd al-Hakam
2171:
2168:
2011:
2009:
2000:
1998:
1912:
1906:
1892:
1849:
1847:
1831:
1829:
1815:Qinnasrin–Jazira
1800:
1792:
1784:
1776:
1770:
1765:), chancellery (
1764:
1758:
1547:
1545:amir al-mu'minin
1485:
1482:amir al-mu'minin
1453:Battle of Siffin
1450:
1427:
1411:Battle of Siffin
1274:Theodore Rshtuni
1240:
1238:
1210:, who landed at
1051:
1048:
1039:Bahdal ibn Unayf
975:
973:
964:Wilferd Madelung
857:
855:
843:
840:
812:
755:
664:Byzantine Empire
654:was a prominent
532:, who conquered
526:Battle of Siffin
510:Byzantine Empire
499:
497:
480:
478:
465:
463:
415:
412:
408:
398:
396:
321:
320:
308:
307:
212:
209:
103:
100:
88:
74:
65:
62:Amir al-Mu'minin
47:
46:
39:
38:
21:
10501:
10500:
10496:
10495:
10494:
10492:
10491:
10490:
10436:
10435:
10434:
10429:
10418:
10397:Abd al-Rahman V
10316:
10308:
10269:Abd al-Rahman I
10261:
10253:
10244:
10167:
10159:
10141:
10139:Umayyad dynasty
10136:
10102:
10093:
10088:
10086:Caliph of Islam
10081:
10065:
10059:
10058:
10055:Umayyad Dynasty
10051:
10050:Mu'awiya I
10039:
10012:
10009:
10007:Further reading
9806:
9678:
9649:Bosworth, C. E.
9623:
9594:Bosworth, C. E.
9568:
9547:
9502:
9481:
9448:Bosworth, C. E.
9392:
9370:
9289:
9208:
9187:
9163:
9139:
9115:
9091:
9067:
9041:
9017:
8976:10.2307/1596048
8970:(64): 101–113.
8968:Studia Islamica
8959:
8934:
8910:
8886:
8862:
8814:
8781:Bosworth, C. E.
8763:
8734:Bosworth, C. E.
8692:
8663:Bosworth, C. E.
8637:
8613:
8589:
8560:Bosworth, C. E.
8531:(2/3): 97–102.
8516:
8396:
8375:
8261:10.25673/112254
8239:
8218:
8202:Donner, Fred M.
8194:
8178:Donner, Fred M.
8151:Bosworth, C. E.
8124:
8103:
8087:Crone, Patricia
8047:Crone, Patricia
8039:
8019:Crone, Patricia
8011:
7982:Bosworth, C. E.
7919:
7890:Bosworth, C. E.
7846:
7841:
7833:
7829:
7821:
7817:
7809:
7805:
7797:
7790:
7782:
7778:
7770:
7766:
7758:
7754:
7746:
7742:
7734:
7725:
7717:
7713:
7705:
7701:
7693:
7689:
7681:
7677:
7669:
7665:
7657:
7650:
7642:
7633:
7625:
7618:
7610:
7606:
7598:
7579:
7575:, pp. 3–6.
7571:
7567:
7559:
7555:
7547:
7540:
7532:
7528:
7520:
7516:
7508:
7504:
7496:
7489:
7481:
7477:
7469:
7465:
7457:
7450:
7442:
7438:
7430:
7426:
7418:
7411:
7403:
7399:
7393:Wellhausen 1927
7391:
7384:
7376:
7372:
7364:
7360:
7356:, pp. 6–7.
7352:
7348:
7340:
7336:
7328:
7324:
7316:
7312:
7306:Wellhausen 1927
7304:
7300:
7292:
7288:
7280:
7276:
7268:
7264:
7258:Wellhausen 1927
7256:
7252:
7244:
7240:
7234:Wellhausen 1927
7232:
7228:
7220:
7216:
7208:
7204:
7196:
7192:
7184:
7180:
7172:
7168:
7160:
7156:
7150:Wellhausen 1927
7148:
7144:
7138:Wellhausen 1927
7136:
7132:
7124:
7120:
7114:Wellhausen 1927
7112:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7088:
7084:
7076:
7069:
7063:Wellhausen 1927
7061:
7057:
7049:
7042:
7034:
7027:
7019:
7015:
7007:
7003:
6997:Wellhausen 1927
6995:
6991:
6983:
6979:
6971:
6967:
6961:Christides 2000
6959:
6950:
6942:
6935:
6927:
6920:
6914:Christides 2000
6912:
6903:
6895:
6891:
6883:
6879:
6871:
6867:
6859:
6852:
6844:
6840:
6832:
6828:
6820:
6816:
6808:
6804:
6796:
6792:
6784:
6777:
6769:
6765:
6757:
6753:
6745:
6741:
6733:
6729:
6721:
6717:
6709:
6702:
6694:
6690:
6682:
6678:
6670:
6666:
6658:
6649:
6643:Wellhausen 1927
6641:
6637:
6629:
6625:
6617:
6613:
6605:
6601:
6593:
6589:
6581:
6577:
6569:
6565:
6557:
6550:
6544:Wellhausen 1927
6542:
6538:
6530:
6526:
6518:
6514:
6508:Wellhausen 1927
6506:
6502:
6494:
6490:
6484:Wellhausen 1927
6482:
6478:
6472:Wellhausen 1927
6470:
6466:
6458:
6454:
6446:
6442:
6434:
6430:
6422:
6413:
6405:
6401:
6395:Wellhausen 1927
6393:
6389:
6381:
6374:
6368:Wellhausen 1927
6366:
6359:
6353:Wellhausen 1927
6351:
6347:
6339:
6330:
6322:
6318:
6310:
6306:
6298:
6294:
6286:
6271:
6263:
6256:
6248:
6244:
6236:
6232:
6224:
6220:
6212:
6208:
6200:
6196:
6190:Hirschfeld 1987
6188:
6184:
6176:
6172:
6164:
6160:
6154:Wellhausen 1927
6152:
6148:
6140:
6133:
6127:Sprengling 1939
6125:
6121:
6113:
6098:
6090:
6086:
6078:
6059:
6051:
6047:
6039:
6035:
6027:
6023:
6015:
6011:
6003:
5996:
5990:Wellhausen 1927
5988:
5984:
5976:
5969:
5963:Wellhausen 1927
5961:
5952:
5944:
5940:
5932:
5928:
5920:
5916:
5908:
5904:
5896:
5892:
5884:
5880:
5872:
5868:
5860:
5856:
5850:Wellhausen 1927
5848:
5844:
5836:
5832:
5824:
5820:
5812:
5808:
5800:
5796:
5788:
5784:
5776:
5772:
5766:Wellhausen 1927
5764:
5760:
5752:
5748:
5742:Wellhausen 1927
5740:
5731:
5723:
5712:
5704:
5700:
5692:
5685:
5677:
5673:
5665:
5661:
5653:
5649:
5641:
5637:
5629:
5625:
5617:
5613:
5605:
5601:
5593:
5589:
5581:
5577:
5569:
5565:
5557:
5553:
5545:
5541:
5533:
5529:
5521:
5514:
5506:
5502:
5494:
5490:
5482:
5478:
5470:
5466:
5458:
5454:
5446:
5442:
5434:
5430:
5422:
5418:
5410:
5406:
5398:
5394:
5386:
5382:
5374:
5370:
5364:Wellhausen 1927
5362:
5358:
5350:
5346:
5338:
5334:
5326:
5322:
5316:Wellhausen 1927
5314:
5310:
5302:
5298:
5290:
5283:
5275:
5271:
5263:
5259:
5251:
5244:
5236:
5215:
5207:
5203:
5195:
5186:
5178:
5174:
5166:
5159:
5151:
5140:
5132:
5128:
5120:
5113:
5105:
5101:
5093:
5089:
5081:
5074:
5066:
5055:
5047:
5038:
5030:
5026:
5018:
5011:
5003:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4979:
4975:
4967:
4963:
4955:
4948:
4940:
4931:
4923:
4904:
4896:
4887:
4879:
4875:
4867:
4860:
4854:Wellhausen 1927
4852:
4845:
4837:
4810:
4802:
4795:
4787:
4783:
4775:
4771:
4763:
4756:
4748:
4744:
4736:
4732:
4724:
4717:
4709:
4705:
4697:
4693:
4685:
4681:
4673:
4669:
4661:
4657:
4649:
4638:
4630:
4623:
4615:
4611:
4603:
4599:
4591:
4587:
4579:
4575:
4567:
4563:
4555:
4548:
4540:
4536:
4528:
4524:
4516:
4512:
4506:Wellhausen 1927
4504:
4500:
4494:Wellhausen 1927
4492:
4488:
4480:
4476:
4468:
4464:
4456:
4447:
4439:
4406:
4402:
4397:
4396:
4380:
4376:
4355:
4351:
4297:
4293:
4268:
4264:
4247:
4243:
4230:
4226:
4187:Sa'id ibn al-As
4164:
4160:
4147:
4143:
4135:, aristocratic
4101:
4097:
4073:
4069:to the Muslims
4056:
4052:
4046:Yaqut al-Hamawi
4031:
4027:
4022:
4013:
4012:
4005:
4002:
3947:
3817:
3678:
3520:
3488:
3349:
3325:
3310:
2719:
2670:of the Arabs' (
2611:
2525:
2517:Ahmad ibn Tulun
2513:Ibn Taghribirdi
2481:
2473:Muslim ibn Uqba
2420:
2408:
2254:
2226:
2169:
2095:
2044:Sa'id ibn al-As
2035:
2006:
1995:
1987:
1950:Ziyad ibn Abihi
1923:Malik al-Ashtar
1899:
1884:
1864:bath facilities
1844:
1826:
1717:
1672:Hasan abdicated
1660:
1655:
1609:to collect the
1512:
1488:Hugh N. Kennedy
1413:
1407:
1355:
1296:
1290:
1235:
1165:
1094:garrison cities
1078:Greek Christian
1049:
1027:Syrian frontier
998:Dumat al-Jandal
986:
970:
884:plague of Amwas
852:
841:
771:
766:
695:Utba ibn Rabi'a
636:
626:revelation. In
494:
487:Umayyad kinsman
475:
460:
413:
302:
278:
253:
233:
213:
210:
148:
104:
101:
77:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10499:
10489:
10488:
10483:
10478:
10473:
10468:
10463:
10458:
10453:
10448:
10431:
10430:
10423:
10420:
10419:
10417:
10416:
10411:
10404:
10399:
10394:
10387:
10380:
10373:
10366:
10361:
10356:
10351:
10346:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10326:
10320:
10318:
10310:
10309:
10307:
10306:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10286:
10281:
10276:
10271:
10265:
10263:
10255:
10254:
10247:
10245:
10243:
10242:
10237:
10232:
10227:
10222:
10217:
10212:
10207:
10202:
10197:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10171:
10169:
10161:
10160:
10158:
10157:
10152:
10146:
10143:
10142:
10135:
10134:
10127:
10120:
10112:
10104:
10103:
10098:
10095:
10090:Umayyad Caliph
10082:
10077:
10073:
10072:
10052:
10049:
10044:
10043:
10037:
10008:
10005:
10004:
10003:
9981:
9942:Kramers, J. H.
9938:Gibb, H. A. R.
9924:
9885:Kramers, J. H.
9881:Gibb, H. A. R.
9867:
9828:Kramers, J. H.
9824:Gibb, H. A. R.
9810:
9804:
9788:
9768:10.1086/370538
9751:
9706:
9696:(1): 100–111.
9682:
9676:
9653:van Donzel, E.
9641:Bearman, P. J.
9627:
9621:
9598:van Donzel, E.
9586:Bearman, P. J.
9572:
9566:
9551:
9545:
9533:, ed. (1987).
9527:
9506:
9500:
9485:
9479:
9452:van Donzel, E.
9436:
9416:10.1086/370887
9410:(4): 236–242.
9396:
9390:
9374:
9368:
9350:
9332:(3): 535–550.
9317:
9293:
9287:
9273:Lewis, Bernard
9269:
9230:Kramers, J. H.
9226:Gibb, H. A. R.
9216:Lammens, Henri
9212:
9206:
9191:
9185:
9171:Kohlberg, Etan
9167:
9161:
9143:
9137:
9119:
9113:
9095:
9089:
9071:
9065:
9045:
9039:
9021:
9015:
8997:
8988:
8963:
8957:
8938:
8932:
8914:
8908:
8890:
8884:
8866:
8860:
8842:
8818:
8812:
8785:van Donzel, E.
8767:
8761:
8738:van Donzel, E.
8720:
8696:
8690:
8667:van Donzel, E.
8655:Bearman, P. J.
8641:
8635:
8617:
8611:
8599:, ed. (1996).
8597:Hawting, G. R.
8593:
8587:
8564:van Donzel, E.
8552:Bearman, P. J.
8541:
8520:
8514:
8492:
8453:Kramers, J. H.
8449:Gibb, H. A. R.
8439:Gibb, H. A. R.
8435:
8415:(2): 259–278.
8400:
8394:
8379:
8373:
8358:
8342:Ars Orientalis
8334:
8324:Chisholm, Hugh
8310:
8265:
8243:
8237:
8222:
8216:
8198:
8192:
8174:
8139:van Donzel, E.
8128:
8122:
8107:
8101:
8083:
8043:
8037:
8015:
8009:
7986:van Donzel, E.
7974:Bearman, P. J.
7963:
7937:(2): 157–164.
7923:
7917:
7894:van Donzel, E.
7876:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7839:
7827:
7815:
7803:
7801:, p. 104.
7788:
7786:, p. 103.
7776:
7764:
7752:
7740:
7738:, p. 105.
7723:
7711:
7709:, p. 115.
7707:Humphreys 2006
7699:
7697:, p. 349.
7687:
7675:
7663:
7661:, p. 115.
7648:
7646:, p. 134.
7631:
7629:, p. 121.
7627:Humphreys 2006
7616:
7614:, p. 119.
7612:Humphreys 2006
7604:
7577:
7573:Humphreys 2006
7565:
7553:
7551:, p. 233.
7538:
7526:
7514:
7502:
7487:
7483:Humphreys 2006
7475:
7463:
7448:
7436:
7434:, p. 310.
7424:
7409:
7397:
7382:
7378:Humphreys 2006
7370:
7358:
7346:
7334:
7322:
7320:, p. 213.
7310:
7308:, p. 139.
7298:
7286:
7284:, p. 210.
7274:
7262:
7250:
7238:
7226:
7224:, p. 177.
7214:
7202:
7190:
7178:
7166:
7164:, p. 309.
7154:
7142:
7140:, p. 142.
7130:
7128:, p. 183.
7118:
7106:
7094:
7082:
7067:
7065:, p. 137.
7055:
7053:, p. 139.
7040:
7025:
7013:
7001:
6999:, p. 146.
6989:
6977:
6975:, p. 217.
6965:
6963:, p. 790.
6948:
6946:, p. 209.
6933:
6918:
6916:, p. 789.
6901:
6889:
6877:
6865:
6850:
6848:, p. 254.
6846:Jankowiak 2013
6838:
6826:
6814:
6810:Jankowiak 2013
6802:
6800:, p. 318.
6798:Jankowiak 2013
6790:
6788:, p. 316.
6786:Jankowiak 2013
6775:
6763:
6759:Jankowiak 2013
6751:
6747:Jankowiak 2013
6739:
6737:, p. 290.
6735:Jankowiak 2013
6727:
6715:
6711:Jankowiak 2013
6700:
6696:Jankowiak 2013
6688:
6676:
6664:
6662:, p. 273.
6660:Jankowiak 2013
6647:
6645:, p. 115.
6635:
6633:, p. 247.
6623:
6619:Al-Rashid 2008
6611:
6609:, p. 270.
6607:Al-Rashid 2008
6599:
6597:, p. 237.
6587:
6585:, p. 238.
6575:
6573:, p. 170.
6563:
6561:, p. 236.
6548:
6536:
6534:, p. 346.
6524:
6512:
6510:, p. 136.
6500:
6488:
6476:
6474:, p. 135.
6464:
6452:
6450:, p. 272.
6440:
6438:, p. 269.
6428:
6426:, p. 268.
6411:
6399:
6397:, p. 124.
6387:
6385:, p. 520.
6372:
6370:, p. 121.
6357:
6355:, p. 120.
6345:
6328:
6316:
6304:
6292:
6269:
6254:
6242:
6230:
6218:
6216:, p. 159.
6206:
6194:
6192:, p. 107.
6182:
6170:
6168:, p. 842.
6158:
6156:, p. 134.
6146:
6142:Humphreys 2006
6131:
6129:, p. 182.
6119:
6096:
6084:
6082:, p. 266.
6057:
6045:
6043:, p. 223.
6033:
6021:
6009:
5994:
5982:
5967:
5965:, p. 131.
5950:
5938:
5926:
5914:
5902:
5890:
5878:
5876:, p. 317.
5866:
5864:, p. 166.
5854:
5842:
5840:, p. 307.
5830:
5818:
5806:
5794:
5782:
5780:, p. 289.
5770:
5768:, p. 100.
5758:
5746:
5729:
5710:
5708:, p. 258.
5698:
5696:, p. 257.
5683:
5681:, p. 165.
5671:
5659:
5647:
5635:
5633:, p. 101.
5623:
5621:, p. 162.
5611:
5609:, p. 245.
5599:
5587:
5585:, p. 100.
5575:
5563:
5561:, p. 238.
5551:
5539:
5527:
5525:, p. 383.
5512:
5510:, p. 235.
5500:
5488:
5476:
5464:
5452:
5440:
5438:, p. 203.
5428:
5426:, p. 224.
5416:
5404:
5392:
5380:
5368:
5356:
5344:
5340:Humphreys 2006
5332:
5320:
5308:
5306:, p. 930.
5296:
5281:
5279:, p. 184.
5269:
5265:Humphreys 2006
5257:
5242:
5240:, p. 265.
5213:
5201:
5184:
5172:
5157:
5155:, p. 185.
5138:
5126:
5111:
5109:, p. 158.
5099:
5087:
5085:, p. 540.
5072:
5070:, p. 539.
5053:
5051:, p. 157.
5036:
5034:, p. 248.
5024:
5009:
4997:
4985:
4983:, p. 403.
4973:
4971:, p. 191.
4961:
4959:, p. 112.
4946:
4944:, p. 245.
4929:
4927:, p. 111.
4902:
4885:
4883:, p. 215.
4873:
4869:Humphreys 2006
4858:
4843:
4841:, p. 267.
4808:
4793:
4781:
4779:, p. 263.
4769:
4767:, p. 104.
4754:
4752:, p. 106.
4742:
4740:, p. 920.
4730:
4728:, p. 493.
4715:
4713:, p. 152.
4703:
4701:, p. 245.
4691:
4679:
4677:, p. 911.
4667:
4665:, p. 153.
4655:
4636:
4621:
4619:, p. 154.
4609:
4597:
4585:
4583:, p. 259.
4573:
4561:
4546:
4534:
4522:
4510:
4498:
4486:
4484:, p. 868.
4474:
4462:
4460:, p. 151.
4445:
4443:, p. 264.
4403:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4394:
4382:Hind bint Utba
4374:
4362:Yehuda D. Nevo
4358:Fred M. Donner
4356:These include
4349:
4291:
4262:
4241:
4224:
4171:Banu Abd Shams
4158:
4141:
4095:
4050:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4004:
4003:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3983:
3981:
3976:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3951: 743–744
3941:
3939:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3840:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3821: 720–724
3811:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3694:
3692:
3687:
3685:
3682: 683–684
3672:
3670:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3545:
3540:
3538:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3524: 680–683
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3492: 685–705
3482:
3480:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353: 661–680
3346:
3344:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329: 684–685
3319:
3317:
3314: 644–656
3303:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3077:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2724:khalifa rashid
2718:
2715:
2705:protosymboulos
2610:
2607:
2602:Robert Hoyland
2557:Patricia Crone
2530:khalifat Allah
2524:
2521:
2480:
2477:
2453:Husayn ibn Ali
2431:(752–843) and
2419:
2416:
2412: 685–705
2350:Luwata Berbers
2316:oasis and the
2253:
2250:
2230: 668–685
2223:Constantine IV
2202:Sea of Marmara
2170: 674–678
2094:
2091:
2034:
2031:
2010: 665–667
1999: 664–665
1986:
1983:
1898:
1895:
1883:
1880:
1856:Sea of Galilee
1848: 610–641
1830: 680–683
1716:
1713:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1588:Sufyan ibn Awf
1511:
1508:
1443:The standard (
1409:Main article:
1406:
1403:
1391:Natil ibn Qays
1354:
1351:
1289:
1286:
1282:Theodosiopolis
1239: 641–668
1164:
1161:
985:
982:
974: 644–656
904:Iyad ibn Ghanm
856: 634–644
770:
767:
765:
762:
730:captured Mecca
707:Battle of Uhud
691:Battle of Badr
683:Hind bint Utba
668:Banu Abd Shams
635:
632:
498: 644–656
479: 634–644
474:'s caliphate (
464: 632–634
449:captured Mecca
382:
381:
376:
372:
371:
369:Hind bint Utba
366:
362:
361:
356:
352:
351:
346:
340:
339:
334:
328:
327:
324:
323:
313:
312:
304:
303:
301:
300:
297:
294:
288:
286:
280:
279:
277:
276:
273:
268:
265:
261:
259:
255:
254:
248:
246:
242:
241:
230:
226:
225:
211: 597–605
205:
201:
200:
197:
196:
193:
189:
188:
183:
179:
178:
175:
171:
170:
160:
159:
154:
150:
149:
147:
146:
136:
132:
130:
126:
125:
122:
118:
117:
106:
105:
91:Sasanian-style
89:
81:
80:
76:
75:
71:Khalifat Allah
66:
54:
49:
48:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10498:
10487:
10484:
10482:
10479:
10477:
10474:
10472:
10469:
10467:
10464:
10462:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10447:
10444:
10443:
10441:
10427:
10421:
10415:
10412:
10410:
10409:
10405:
10403:
10400:
10398:
10395:
10393:
10392:
10388:
10386:
10385:
10381:
10379:
10378:
10374:
10372:
10371:
10367:
10365:
10362:
10360:
10357:
10355:
10352:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10321:
10319:
10315:
10311:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10295:
10292:
10290:
10287:
10285:
10282:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10266:
10264:
10260:
10256:
10251:
10241:
10238:
10236:
10233:
10231:
10228:
10226:
10223:
10221:
10218:
10216:
10213:
10211:
10208:
10206:
10203:
10201:
10198:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10172:
10170:
10166:
10162:
10156:
10153:
10151:
10148:
10147:
10144:
10140:
10133:
10128:
10126:
10121:
10119:
10114:
10113:
10110:
10101:
10092:
10091:
10087:
10080:
10079:Hasan ibn Ali
10074:
10069:
10062:
10057:
10056:
10047:
10040:
10034:
10030:
10026:
10022:
10021:
10016:
10015:Cobb, Paul M.
10011:
10010:
10000:
9996:
9992:
9991:
9986:
9982:
9978:
9974:
9970:
9966:
9964:
9959:
9955:
9951:
9947:
9943:
9939:
9934:
9929:
9925:
9921:
9917:
9913:
9909:
9907:
9902:
9898:
9894:
9890:
9886:
9882:
9877:
9872:
9868:
9864:
9860:
9856:
9852:
9850:
9845:
9841:
9837:
9833:
9829:
9825:
9820:
9815:
9811:
9807:
9801:
9797:
9793:
9789:
9785:
9781:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9761:
9757:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9740:
9736:
9734:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9716:
9711:
9707:
9703:
9699:
9695:
9691:
9687:
9686:Sharon, Moshe
9683:
9679:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9663:
9658:
9654:
9650:
9646:
9645:Bianquis, Th.
9642:
9637:
9632:
9631:Shahid, Irfan
9628:
9624:
9618:
9614:
9610:
9608:
9603:
9599:
9595:
9591:
9590:Bianquis, Th.
9587:
9582:
9577:
9576:Shahid, Irfan
9573:
9569:
9563:
9559:
9558:
9552:
9548:
9542:
9538:
9537:
9532:
9528:
9524:
9520:
9516:
9512:
9507:
9503:
9497:
9493:
9492:
9486:
9482:
9476:
9472:
9468:
9466:
9461:
9457:
9453:
9449:
9445:
9441:
9437:
9433:
9429:
9425:
9421:
9417:
9413:
9409:
9405:
9401:
9397:
9393:
9387:
9383:
9382:
9375:
9371:
9369:0-521-56181-7
9365:
9361:
9360:
9355:
9351:
9347:
9343:
9339:
9335:
9331:
9327:
9323:
9318:
9314:
9310:
9306:
9302:
9298:
9294:
9290:
9284:
9280:
9279:
9274:
9270:
9266:
9262:
9258:
9254:
9252:
9247:
9243:
9239:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9222:
9217:
9213:
9209:
9207:90-04-09736-8
9203:
9199:
9198:
9192:
9188:
9182:
9178:
9177:
9172:
9168:
9164:
9158:
9154:
9153:
9148:
9147:Kennedy, Hugh
9144:
9140:
9134:
9130:
9129:
9124:
9123:Kennedy, Hugh
9120:
9116:
9110:
9106:
9105:
9100:
9099:Kennedy, Hugh
9096:
9092:
9090:0-415-25093-5
9086:
9082:
9081:
9076:
9075:Kennedy, Hugh
9072:
9068:
9066:0-521-47137-0
9062:
9058:
9054:
9050:
9049:Kennedy, Hugh
9046:
9042:
9036:
9032:
9031:
9026:
9022:
9018:
9016:0-521-41172-6
9012:
9008:
9007:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8989:
8985:
8981:
8977:
8973:
8969:
8964:
8960:
8954:
8950:
8946:
8945:
8939:
8935:
8933:1-85168-402-6
8929:
8925:
8924:
8919:
8915:
8911:
8905:
8901:
8900:
8895:
8891:
8887:
8885:90-429-0735-5
8881:
8877:
8876:
8871:
8867:
8863:
8857:
8853:
8852:
8847:
8843:
8839:
8835:
8831:
8827:
8823:
8819:
8815:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8799:
8794:
8790:
8786:
8782:
8777:
8772:
8771:Hinds, Martin
8768:
8764:
8758:
8754:
8750:
8748:
8743:
8739:
8735:
8730:
8725:
8724:Hinds, Martin
8721:
8717:
8713:
8710:(1): 93–129.
8709:
8705:
8701:
8700:Hinds, Martin
8697:
8693:
8687:
8683:
8679:
8677:
8672:
8668:
8664:
8660:
8659:Bianquis, Th.
8656:
8651:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8636:0-415-24072-7
8632:
8628:
8627:
8622:
8618:
8614:
8608:
8604:
8603:
8598:
8594:
8590:
8584:
8580:
8576:
8574:
8569:
8565:
8561:
8557:
8556:Bianquis, Th.
8553:
8548:
8542:
8538:
8534:
8530:
8527:(in French).
8526:
8521:
8517:
8515:3-406-48654-1
8511:
8507:
8503:
8502:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8485:
8481:
8477:
8475:
8470:
8466:
8462:
8458:
8454:
8450:
8445:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8423:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8406:
8401:
8397:
8391:
8387:
8386:
8380:
8376:
8374:0-520-23665-3
8370:
8366:
8365:
8359:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8311:
8307:
8303:
8299:
8295:
8293:
8288:
8284:
8280:
8275:
8270:
8269:Gardet, Louis
8266:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8253:
8248:
8244:
8240:
8238:90-04-10010-5
8234:
8230:
8229:
8223:
8219:
8213:
8209:
8208:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8189:
8185:
8184:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8157:
8152:
8148:
8144:
8140:
8135:
8129:
8125:
8119:
8115:
8114:
8108:
8104:
8102:0-521-52940-9
8098:
8094:
8093:
8088:
8084:
8080:
8076:
8072:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8056:
8052:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8038:0-521-32185-9
8034:
8030:
8029:
8024:
8023:Hinds, Martin
8020:
8016:
8012:
8006:
8002:
7998:
7996:
7991:
7987:
7983:
7979:
7978:Bianquis, Th.
7975:
7970:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7936:
7932:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7904:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7877:
7873:
7869:
7865:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7848:
7847:
7836:
7831:
7824:
7819:
7813:, p. 82.
7812:
7807:
7800:
7799:Kohlberg 2020
7795:
7793:
7785:
7784:Kohlberg 2020
7780:
7773:
7768:
7761:
7760:Kohlberg 2020
7756:
7749:
7748:Kohlberg 2020
7744:
7737:
7736:Kohlberg 2020
7732:
7730:
7728:
7721:, p. 14.
7720:
7715:
7708:
7703:
7696:
7691:
7685:, p. 65.
7684:
7679:
7672:
7667:
7660:
7655:
7653:
7645:
7640:
7638:
7636:
7628:
7623:
7621:
7613:
7608:
7602:, p. 42.
7601:
7596:
7594:
7592:
7590:
7588:
7586:
7584:
7582:
7574:
7569:
7562:
7557:
7550:
7545:
7543:
7535:
7530:
7523:
7518:
7512:, p. 98.
7511:
7506:
7499:
7498:Madelung 1997
7494:
7492:
7484:
7479:
7473:, p. 82.
7472:
7467:
7461:, p. 34.
7460:
7455:
7453:
7446:, p. 98.
7445:
7440:
7433:
7428:
7422:, p. 33.
7421:
7416:
7414:
7407:, p. 30.
7406:
7401:
7394:
7389:
7387:
7380:, p. 93.
7379:
7374:
7367:
7362:
7355:
7350:
7344:, p. 18.
7343:
7338:
7331:
7326:
7319:
7314:
7307:
7302:
7295:
7290:
7283:
7278:
7271:
7266:
7259:
7254:
7248:, p. 43.
7247:
7242:
7235:
7230:
7223:
7218:
7211:
7210:Madelung 1997
7206:
7200:, p. 45.
7199:
7194:
7188:, p. 91.
7187:
7182:
7175:
7170:
7163:
7158:
7151:
7146:
7139:
7134:
7127:
7122:
7115:
7110:
7104:, p. 90.
7103:
7098:
7092:, p. 85.
7091:
7086:
7080:, p. 28.
7079:
7078:de Goeje 1911
7074:
7072:
7064:
7059:
7052:
7047:
7045:
7037:
7036:Madelung 1997
7032:
7030:
7022:
7021:Madelung 1997
7017:
7010:
7005:
6998:
6993:
6987:, p. 67.
6986:
6981:
6974:
6969:
6962:
6957:
6955:
6953:
6945:
6940:
6938:
6931:, p. 13.
6930:
6925:
6923:
6915:
6910:
6908:
6906:
6899:, p. 12.
6898:
6893:
6886:
6881:
6874:
6869:
6863:, p. 88.
6862:
6857:
6855:
6847:
6842:
6835:
6830:
6824:, p. 46.
6823:
6818:
6811:
6806:
6799:
6794:
6787:
6782:
6780:
6772:
6771:Bosworth 1996
6767:
6760:
6755:
6748:
6743:
6736:
6731:
6724:
6719:
6712:
6707:
6705:
6697:
6692:
6685:
6680:
6673:
6668:
6661:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6644:
6639:
6632:
6627:
6620:
6615:
6608:
6603:
6596:
6591:
6584:
6579:
6572:
6567:
6560:
6555:
6553:
6545:
6540:
6533:
6532:Madelung 1997
6528:
6521:
6520:Madelung 1997
6516:
6509:
6504:
6497:
6496:Bosworth 1991
6492:
6485:
6480:
6473:
6468:
6461:
6456:
6449:
6444:
6437:
6432:
6425:
6420:
6418:
6416:
6409:, p. 41.
6408:
6403:
6396:
6391:
6384:
6379:
6377:
6369:
6364:
6362:
6354:
6349:
6343:, p. 85.
6342:
6337:
6335:
6333:
6325:
6320:
6314:, p. 84.
6313:
6308:
6301:
6296:
6290:, p. 83.
6289:
6284:
6282:
6280:
6278:
6276:
6274:
6266:
6261:
6259:
6251:
6246:
6240:, p. 33.
6239:
6234:
6228:, p. 23.
6227:
6222:
6215:
6210:
6204:, p. 99.
6203:
6198:
6191:
6186:
6180:, p. 83.
6179:
6174:
6167:
6162:
6155:
6150:
6143:
6138:
6136:
6128:
6123:
6117:, p. 87.
6116:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6093:
6088:
6081:
6076:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6062:
6055:, p. 13.
6054:
6049:
6042:
6037:
6030:
6025:
6019:, p. 44.
6018:
6013:
6007:, p. 20.
6006:
6001:
5999:
5991:
5986:
5980:, p. 86.
5979:
5974:
5972:
5964:
5959:
5957:
5955:
5947:
5942:
5935:
5930:
5923:
5918:
5912:, p. 96.
5911:
5906:
5900:, p. 93.
5899:
5894:
5887:
5886:Madelung 1997
5882:
5875:
5874:Madelung 1997
5870:
5863:
5858:
5851:
5846:
5839:
5838:Madelung 1997
5834:
5827:
5826:Madelung 1997
5822:
5815:
5814:Madelung 1997
5810:
5803:
5802:Madelung 1997
5798:
5791:
5790:Madelung 1997
5786:
5779:
5778:Madelung 1997
5774:
5767:
5762:
5755:
5754:Madelung 1997
5750:
5744:, p. 99.
5743:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5727:, p. 69.
5726:
5721:
5719:
5717:
5715:
5707:
5706:Madelung 1997
5702:
5695:
5694:Madelung 1997
5690:
5688:
5680:
5675:
5668:
5663:
5657:, p. 99.
5656:
5651:
5644:
5643:Madelung 1997
5639:
5632:
5627:
5620:
5615:
5608:
5607:Madelung 1997
5603:
5597:, p. 79.
5596:
5591:
5584:
5579:
5573:, p. 98.
5572:
5567:
5560:
5559:Madelung 1997
5555:
5548:
5543:
5536:
5531:
5524:
5523:Vaglieri 1960
5519:
5517:
5509:
5508:Madelung 1997
5504:
5497:
5496:Madelung 1997
5492:
5486:, p. 63.
5485:
5480:
5473:
5472:Madelung 1997
5468:
5461:
5460:Madelung 1997
5456:
5449:
5448:Madelung 1997
5444:
5437:
5436:Madelung 1997
5432:
5425:
5424:Madelung 1997
5420:
5413:
5412:Madelung 1997
5408:
5401:
5400:Madelung 1997
5396:
5389:
5388:Madelung 1997
5384:
5378:, p. 74.
5377:
5372:
5366:, p. 76.
5365:
5360:
5354:, p. 28.
5353:
5348:
5342:, p. 77.
5341:
5336:
5330:, p. 76.
5329:
5324:
5317:
5312:
5305:
5300:
5294:, p. 27.
5293:
5288:
5286:
5278:
5277:Madelung 1997
5273:
5267:, p. 74.
5266:
5261:
5255:, p. 62.
5254:
5249:
5247:
5239:
5234:
5232:
5230:
5228:
5226:
5224:
5222:
5220:
5218:
5210:
5209:Madelung 1997
5205:
5198:
5193:
5191:
5189:
5182:, p. 70.
5181:
5176:
5170:, p. 84.
5169:
5168:Madelung 1997
5164:
5162:
5154:
5149:
5147:
5145:
5143:
5135:
5130:
5123:
5122:Bosworth 1996
5118:
5116:
5108:
5107:Bosworth 1996
5103:
5096:
5091:
5084:
5079:
5077:
5069:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5050:
5049:Bosworth 1996
5045:
5043:
5041:
5033:
5028:
5022:, p. 12.
5021:
5016:
5014:
5006:
5001:
4995:, p. 82.
4994:
4993:Madelung 1997
4989:
4982:
4977:
4970:
4965:
4958:
4953:
4951:
4943:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4926:
4921:
4919:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4907:
4899:
4894:
4892:
4890:
4882:
4877:
4871:, p. 61.
4870:
4865:
4863:
4855:
4850:
4848:
4840:
4835:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4815:
4813:
4806:, p. 95.
4805:
4800:
4798:
4790:
4789:Athamina 1994
4785:
4778:
4777:Athamina 1994
4773:
4766:
4761:
4759:
4751:
4746:
4739:
4734:
4727:
4722:
4720:
4712:
4707:
4700:
4695:
4688:
4683:
4676:
4671:
4664:
4659:
4653:, p. 61.
4652:
4651:Madelung 1997
4647:
4645:
4643:
4641:
4633:
4632:Madelung 1997
4628:
4626:
4618:
4613:
4606:
4601:
4594:
4589:
4582:
4581:Athamina 1994
4577:
4570:
4565:
4559:, p. 45.
4558:
4557:Madelung 1997
4553:
4551:
4544:, p. 54.
4543:
4538:
4532:, p. 52.
4531:
4526:
4520:, p. 49.
4519:
4514:
4507:
4502:
4495:
4490:
4483:
4478:
4471:
4466:
4459:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4442:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4409:
4404:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4378:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4353:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4332:Henri Lammens
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4295:
4288:
4283:
4282:
4276:
4272:
4266:
4260:court poetry.
4259:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4237:
4236:
4228:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4189:, Basra with
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4155:
4151:
4145:
4138:
4134:
4133:South Arabian
4130:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4092:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4054:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4032:According to
4029:
4025:
4011:
3998:
3995:
3980:
3945:
3933:
3931:
3865:
3863:
3855:
3815:
3803:
3800:
3792:
3791:
3784:
3776:
3723:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3698:
3691:
3676:
3669:
3656:
3654:
3643:
3640:
3632:
3630:
3622:
3620:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3602:
3594:
3592:
3576:
3574:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3537:
3518:
3486:
3474:
3471:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3429:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3417:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3367:
3343:
3323:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3293:
3291:
3283:
3281:
3273:
3271:
3263:
3261:
3253:
3251:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3229:
3205:
3203:
3195:
3193:
3177:
3175:
3152:
3145:
3143:
3138:
3135:
3111:
3096:
3081:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3015:
3011:
3009:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2960:
2952:
2949:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2903:
2885:
2883:
2865:
2863:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:Isma'ili Shia
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2786:Buyid dynasty
2784:emirs of the
2783:
2779:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2763:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2740:
2739:katib al-wahi
2735:
2730:
2725:
2714:
2711:
2706:
2700:
2697:
2691:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2673:Kisra al-Arab
2669:
2663:
2658:
2656:
2651:
2648:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2606:
2603:
2597:
2594:
2588:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2571:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2520:
2518:
2515:asserts that
2514:
2509:
2506:
2505:Bab al-Saghir
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2415:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2382:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2342:
2338:
2337:Uqba ibn Nafi
2333:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2306:Uqba ibn Nafi
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2249:
2246:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2175:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2141:(d. 923) and
2140:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2090:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2060:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2030:
2028:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2004:
2003:Uqba ibn Amir
1993:
1982:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1905:
1894:
1891:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1824:
1820:
1819:Sayf ibn Umar
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1798:
1791:
1790:
1783:
1782:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1483:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1449:
1448:
1441:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1418:
1417:met at Siffin
1412:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1361:
1360:Qays ibn Sa'd
1350:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1308:Khadra Palace
1305:
1301:
1295:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1245:coast at the
1244:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1100:, Aleppo and
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1053:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1025:to guard the
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
994:Syrian steppe
991:
981:
979:
967:
965:
961:
957:
956:Leone Caetani
953:
947:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
849:
847:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
811:
810:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
780:
775:
761:
759:
754:
753:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
686:
684:
680:
676:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
645:
640:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
592:
590:
586:
582:
581:Uqba ibn Nafi
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
530:Amr ibn al-As
527:
523:
520:. During the
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
492:
488:
484:
473:
469:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
407:
401:
392:
388:
380:
377:
373:
370:
367:
363:
360:
357:
353:
350:
347:
345:
341:
338:
335:
333:
329:
314:
309:
305:
298:
295:
293:
290:
289:
287:
285:
281:
274:
272:
269:
266:
263:
262:
260:
256:
251:
250:Bab al-Saghir
247:
243:
240:
236:
231:
227:
224:
220:
216:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
187:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
165:
161:
158:
155:
151:
144:
140:
139:Hasan ibn Ali
137:
134:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
116:
112:
107:
96:
92:
87:
82:
79:
73:
72:
67:
64:
63:
58:
57:
56:
53:
50:
40:
37:
33:
19:
18:Mu'awiya
10406:
10402:Muhammad III
10389:
10382:
10375:
10368:
10195:Abd al-Malik
10174:
10084:
10070:26 April 680
10067:
10060:
10053:
10019:
9989:
9968:
9961:
9911:
9904:
9876:"Abū Sufyān"
9854:
9847:
9795:
9759:
9755:
9738:
9731:
9693:
9689:
9667:
9660:
9612:
9605:
9556:
9535:
9514:
9510:
9490:
9470:
9463:
9407:
9403:
9380:
9358:
9329:
9325:
9304:
9300:
9277:
9256:
9249:
9196:
9175:
9151:
9127:
9103:
9079:
9056:
9029:
9005:
8992:
8967:
8943:
8926:. Oneworld.
8922:
8898:
8874:
8850:
8829:
8825:
8803:
8796:
8752:
8745:
8707:
8703:
8681:
8674:
8625:
8601:
8578:
8571:
8528:
8524:
8505:
8500:
8479:
8472:
8412:
8408:
8384:
8363:
8345:
8341:
8338:Grabar, Oleg
8327:
8297:
8290:
8251:
8247:Ende, Werner
8227:
8206:
8182:
8161:
8154:
8112:
8091:
8054:
8050:
8027:
8000:
7993:
7934:
7930:
7908:
7901:
7855:
7851:
7844:Bibliography
7830:
7823:Kraemer 1992
7818:
7806:
7779:
7767:
7755:
7743:
7714:
7702:
7695:Kennedy 2007
7690:
7678:
7666:
7644:Hoyland 2015
7607:
7600:Hawting 2000
7568:
7561:Hawting 2000
7556:
7549:Hoyland 2015
7534:Hoyland 2015
7529:
7522:Hoyland 2015
7517:
7510:Hoyland 2015
7505:
7478:
7471:Kennedy 2004
7466:
7459:Kennedy 2016
7444:Kennedy 2004
7439:
7432:Hawting 2002
7427:
7400:
7373:
7368:, p. 6.
7361:
7349:
7337:
7325:
7313:
7301:
7289:
7277:
7265:
7253:
7246:Hawting 2000
7241:
7229:
7217:
7205:
7193:
7186:Marsham 2013
7181:
7174:Marsham 2013
7169:
7162:Hawting 2002
7157:
7145:
7133:
7121:
7109:
7102:Marsham 2013
7097:
7085:
7058:
7016:
7004:
6992:
6980:
6973:Kennedy 2007
6968:
6944:Kennedy 2007
6892:
6885:Kennedy 2007
6880:
6868:
6861:Kennedy 2004
6841:
6829:
6822:Stratos 1978
6817:
6805:
6793:
6766:
6754:
6742:
6730:
6718:
6691:
6679:
6667:
6638:
6626:
6614:
6602:
6590:
6578:
6566:
6539:
6527:
6515:
6503:
6491:
6479:
6467:
6455:
6443:
6431:
6407:Hawting 2000
6402:
6390:
6348:
6341:Kennedy 2004
6324:Kennedy 2004
6319:
6312:Kennedy 2004
6307:
6300:Kennedy 2004
6295:
6288:Kennedy 2004
6245:
6233:
6221:
6214:Hoyland 1999
6209:
6197:
6185:
6173:
6166:Hawting 2000
6161:
6149:
6122:
6115:Kennedy 2004
6087:
6053:Kennedy 2001
6048:
6041:Hawting 1996
6036:
6029:Kennedy 2004
6024:
6012:
6005:Kennedy 2001
5985:
5978:Kennedy 2004
5946:Marsham 2013
5941:
5934:Marsham 2013
5929:
5922:Marsham 2013
5917:
5910:Marsham 2013
5905:
5898:Marsham 2013
5893:
5881:
5869:
5857:
5845:
5833:
5821:
5809:
5797:
5785:
5773:
5761:
5749:
5725:Kennedy 1998
5701:
5674:
5662:
5650:
5638:
5626:
5614:
5602:
5595:Kennedy 2004
5590:
5578:
5566:
5554:
5542:
5530:
5503:
5491:
5479:
5467:
5455:
5443:
5431:
5419:
5407:
5395:
5383:
5371:
5359:
5352:Hawting 2000
5347:
5335:
5328:Kennedy 2004
5323:
5311:
5299:
5292:Hawting 2000
5272:
5260:
5204:
5180:Kennedy 2004
5175:
5129:
5102:
5090:
5027:
5020:Kennedy 2001
5000:
4988:
4981:Shahid 2000b
4976:
4969:Shahid 2000a
4964:
4957:Jandora 1986
4925:Jandora 1986
4876:
4804:Kennedy 2007
4784:
4772:
4765:Marsham 2013
4745:
4738:Lammens 1960
4733:
4706:
4694:
4682:
4675:Sourdel 1965
4670:
4658:
4612:
4600:
4588:
4576:
4564:
4542:Kennedy 2004
4537:
4530:Kennedy 2004
4525:
4513:
4501:
4489:
4477:
4470:Hawting 2000
4465:
4377:
4370:Gerd R. Puin
4352:
4341:Banu Makhzum
4320:Martin Hinds
4294:
4265:
4244:
4227:
4222:Qurayshites.
4161:
4144:
4098:
4084:, two other
4063:Moshe Sharon
4059:Temple Mount
4053:
4034:al-Baladhuri
4028:
4009:
3485:Abd al-Malik
3348:Mu'awiya I (
2782:Twelver Shia
2776:Amid rising
2775:
2744:
2736:revelation (
2720:
2701:
2665:
2660:
2652:
2643:
2639:
2629:
2612:
2598:
2584:
2565:
2561:Martin Hinds
2554:
2547:
2526:
2510:
2482:
2449:
2445:
2433:Ibn al-Athir
2425:
2421:
2378:
2346:
2271:
2266:North Africa
2242:
2211:
2185:actual siege
2178:
2136:
2112:
2083:
2061:
2056:
2036:
2023:
1988:
1962:
1956:fortress in
1935:
1915:Hujr ibn Adi
1900:
1885:
1859:
1834:
1750:
1734:
1689:Jami Al-Aqsa
1685:Temple Mount
1677:
1661:
1619:
1600:
1555:
1541:
1496:
1477:
1457:
1414:
1364:
1356:
1324:
1319:Wadi al-Qura
1312:
1297:
1267:
1217:
1193:
1166:
1071:
1054:
1023:client kings
987:
968:
948:
906:governor of
850:
827:Banu Makhzum
784:
738:al-Baladhuri
719:
687:
672:polytheistic
670:clan of the
649:
620:Sunni Muslim
596:Umayyad clan
593:
557:postal route
550:
508:against the
438:
386:
385:
78:
55:
52:
36:
10446:600s births
10339:Muhammad II
10329:Al-Hakam II
10225:Al-Walid II
10185:Mu'awiya II
10150:Family tree
9958:Pellat, Ch.
9950:Schacht, J.
9901:Pellat, Ch.
9893:Schacht, J.
9844:Pellat, Ch.
9836:Schacht, J.
9728:Schacht, J.
9724:Pellat, Ch.
9710:Sourdel, D.
9460:Pellat, Ch.
9246:Pellat, Ch.
9238:Schacht, J.
8832:: 101–116.
8802:Volume VII:
8793:Pellat, Ch.
8742:Pellat, Ch.
8496:Halm, Heinz
8469:Pellat, Ch.
8461:Schacht, J.
8287:Schacht, J.
8283:Pellat, Ch.
8147:Pellat, Ch.
7898:Pellat, Ch.
7772:Pierce 2016
7671:Morony 1986
7342:Grabar 1966
7330:Morony 1987
7318:Morony 1987
7294:Morony 1987
7282:Morony 1987
7270:Morony 1987
7222:Donner 2012
7126:Morony 1987
6383:Hasson 2002
6202:Hasson 1982
5862:Donner 2012
5679:Donner 2012
5667:Donner 2012
5619:Donner 2012
5376:Shaban 1976
5304:Gardet 1965
5197:Donner 2012
5032:Donner 2014
5005:Donner 2014
4942:Donner 2014
4898:Morony 1987
4881:Morony 1987
4750:Donner 2014
4711:Donner 2012
4663:Donner 2014
4617:Donner 2014
4605:Sharon 2018
4593:Donner 2014
4569:Fowden 2004
4304:al-Mada'ini
4167:Banu Umayya
3944:Al-Walid II
3675:Mu'awiya II
2717:Muslim view
2624:al-Mu'tadid
2576:Mu'awiya II
2499:chronicler
2493:Abu Mikhnaf
2429:al-Mada'ini
2320:capital of
2130:with 5,000
2089:(d. 1533).
2078:Banu Hanifa
2052:Banu Hashim
2019:Roda Island
1974:Ubayd Allah
1970:Transoxiana
1852:Hamat Gader
1725:Hamat Gader
1584:Ayn al-Tamr
1520:First Fitna
1518:Map of the
1430:Ubayd Allah
1339:First Fitna
1294:First Fitna
1288:First Fitna
1263:Abu'l-A'war
1232:Constans II
1200:Banu Nawfal
1019:Monophysite
916:Mesopotamia
182:Predecessor
129:Predecessor
10451:680 deaths
10440:Categories
10424:indicates
10414:Hisham III
10317:(929–1031)
10294:al-Mundhir
10289:Muhammad I
10279:Al-Hakam I
10200:Al-Walid I
10175:Mu'awiya I
9737:Volume II:
9440:Morony, M.
8947:. Oxford:
8751:Volume VI:
8680:Volume XI:
8577:Volume XI:
8296:Volume II:
8160:Volume IV:
7907:Volume VI:
7811:Hyder 2006
7683:Lewis 2002
7420:Crone 2003
7405:Crone 2003
7198:Crone 1994
7051:Hinds 1991
7009:Hinds 1991
6985:Lewis 2002
6929:Kaegi 2010
6897:Kaegi 2010
6873:Kaegi 1995
6834:Lilie 1976
6684:Kaegi 1995
6672:Kaegi 1995
6631:Kaegi 1995
6595:Miles 1948
6583:Miles 1948
6571:Dixon 1971
6559:Miles 1948
6265:Hinds 1993
6092:Crone 1994
6080:Hinds 1993
6017:Crone 1994
5655:Hinds 1972
5631:Hinds 1972
5583:Hinds 1972
5571:Hinds 1972
5547:Hinds 1972
5535:Crone 2003
5484:Lewis 2002
5253:Lewis 2002
5238:Hinds 1993
5153:Kaegi 1995
5134:Kaegi 1995
5095:Lynch 2016
5083:Lynch 2016
5068:Lynch 2016
4839:Hinds 1993
4726:Dixon 1978
4699:Kaegi 1995
4687:Kaegi 1995
4518:Lewis 2002
4482:Watt 1960b
4458:Watt 1960a
4441:Hinds 1993
4400:References
4137:Himyarites
4074: 637
3110:Abu Sufyan
2657:(d. 898):
2655:al-Ya'qubi
2441:Al-Mas'udi
2318:Garamantes
2176:(d. 818).
2147:patricians
2109:(661–680).
2087:al-Samhudi
1738:Ibn Bahdal
1709:Gethsemane
1681:al-Maqdisi
1643:Hadhramawt
1494:movement.
1471:(d. 723),
1292:See also:
1241:) off the
1228:Alexandria
1050: 650
1011:Ghassanids
842: 634
831:Ridda wars
726:Umm Habiba
628:Shia Islam
569:al-Mughira
546:suzerainty
506:war effort
445:Qurayshite
441:Abu Sufyan
387:Mu'awiya I
252:, Damascus
102: 674
42:Mu'awiya I
10349:Hisham II
10334:Hisham II
10262:(756–929)
10240:Marwan II
10230:Yazid III
10168:(661–750)
9999:752790641
9977:495469456
9967:Volume I:
9954:Lewis, B.
9920:495469456
9910:Volume I:
9897:Lewis, B.
9863:495469456
9853:Volume I:
9840:Lewis, B.
9784:170486943
9747:495469475
9720:Lewis, B.
9666:Volume X:
9611:Volume X:
9469:Volume V:
9456:Lewis, B.
9432:162403885
9313:797598069
9265:495469456
9255:Volume I:
9242:Lewis, B.
9003:(1995) .
8729:"Makhzūm"
8488:495469456
8478:Volume I:
8465:Lewis, B.
8306:495469475
8279:Lewis, B.
8249:(1977) .
8204:(2014) .
8180:(2012) .
8170:758278456
8143:Lewis, B.
8089:(2003) .
8079:154370527
8071:0021-1818
8051:Der Islam
8025:(2003) .
7999:Volume X:
7959:163550092
7835:Halm 2003
7719:Ende 1977
7090:Gibb 1960
6460:Foss 2009
6448:Foss 2009
6436:Foss 2009
6424:Foss 2009
6250:Elad 1999
6238:Elad 1999
6226:Elad 1999
6178:Foss 2016
4308:al-Tabari
4275:Jerusalem
4120:Banu Kalb
4112:Byzantine
3848:Abd Allah
3511:Abd Allah
2959:Abu al-As
2662:kingship.
2620:al-Ma'mun
2616:al-Saffah
2497:Nestorian
2274:Cyrenaica
2264:(central
2245:Mardaites
2206:Chalcedon
2139:al-Tabari
2107:caliphate
2103:Byzantine
1854:near the
1841:Heraclius
1658:Accession
1653:Caliphate
1492:Kharijite
1469:al-Sha'bi
1327:al-Zubayr
1280:captured
1153:Euphrates
1102:Qinnasrin
1066:Banu Tayy
1062:Tanukhids
990:Banu Kalb
952:Muhajirun
900:Palestine
742:Ibn Hajar
502:Banu Kalb
489:, Caliph
400:romanized
296:Abd Allah
192:Successor
174:In Office
153:Successor
10428:usurpers
10426:Hammudid
10354:Sulayman
10344:Sulayman
10299:Abdullah
10274:Hisham I
10215:Yazid II
10205:Sulayman
10190:Marwan I
10094:661–680
9987:(1927).
9960:(eds.).
9930:(1960).
9903:(eds.).
9873:(1960).
9846:(eds.).
9816:(1960).
9794:(1978).
9730:(eds.).
9712:(1965).
9702:26740639
9659:(eds.).
9636:"Ṭayyīʾ"
9633:(2000).
9604:(eds.).
9581:"Tanūkh"
9578:(2000).
9523:41223953
9471:Khe–Mahi
9462:(eds.).
9442:(1986).
9356:(1997).
9299:(1976).
9275:(2002).
9248:(eds.).
9221:"Baḥdal"
9218:(1960).
9173:(2020).
9149:(2016).
9125:(2007).
9101:(2004).
9077:(2001).
9051:(1998).
9027:(2010).
8920:(2006).
8896:(2015).
8848:(2010).
8838:27931308
8795:(eds.).
8773:(1993).
8753:Mahk–Mid
8744:(eds.).
8726:(1991).
8673:(eds.).
8647:(2002).
8623:(2000).
8570:(eds.).
8537:27925830
8498:(2003).
8471:(eds.).
8441:(1960).
8431:40379004
8348:: 7–46.
8316:(1911).
8289:(eds.).
8271:(1965).
8162:Iran–Kha
8153:(eds.).
7992:(eds.).
7951:25183178
7909:Mahk–Mid
7900:(eds.).
7882:(1991).
4273:visited
3814:Yazid II
3536:Al-Walid
3372:Muhammad
3322:Marwan I
3134:Muhammad
3132:Prophet
3080:Al-Hakam
2734:Qur'anic
2729:Uthmanid
2381:Ifriqiya
2370:Carthage
2366:Kairouan
2360:and the
2354:Ghadamis
2341:Kairouan
2282:Byzacena
2262:Ifriqiya
2198:Saborios
2151:Koloneia
1966:Khurasan
1872:Sinnabra
1703:and the
1701:Golgotha
1611:alms tax
1559:Muhammad
1528:Caucasus
1465:al-Zuhri
1118:Maraclea
1098:Tiberias
1035:Lakhmids
1017:and the
960:Umayyads
940:Anatolia
936:Euchaita
920:Caesarea
910:and the
892:Damascus
846:Damascus
809:Rashidun
787:Abu Bakr
699:Abu Jahl
624:Qur'anic
589:Sijistan
585:Khurasan
577:Ifriqiya
457:Abu Bakr
430:Rashidun
426:Muhammad
375:Religion
337:Sufyanid
235:Damascus
164:Governor
10235:Ibrahim
10180:Yazid I
10100:Yazid I
10017:(ed.).
9444:"Kisrā"
8984:1596048
8804:Mif–Naz
8354:4629220
8326:(ed.).
8274:"Fitna"
7872:4057449
7852:Arabica
4281:midrash
4258:Umayyad
4191:Bahrayn
4124:Quraysh
3517:Yazid I
3336:Hanzala
2809:Fatimid
2802:Isfahan
2790:Baghdad
2769:tabarra
2696:khalifa
2668:Khosrow
2508:died".
2397:Tlemcen
2294:Bizerte
2238:Sillyon
2124:Asawira
2070:Abbasid
1954:Istakhr
1919:Ibrahim
1823:Yazid I
1797:maqsura
1762:rasa'il
1345:at the
1270:Armenia
1212:Salamis
1133:Persian
1130:Baalbek
1122:Baniyas
1106:Antioch
1090:Tripoli
1086:Latakia
1074:Aramaic
1002:Palmyra
944:Amorium
932:Cilicia
928:Ascalon
914:(Upper
815:Umayyad
789:became
713:at the
705:at the
703:Muslims
675:Quraysh
646:(green)
604:Yazid I
453:scribes
420:of the
402::
349:Umayyad
344:Dynasty
177:639–661
157:Yazid I
113:of the
93:silver
10220:Hisham
10066:
10035:
9997:
9975:
9956:&
9933:"Badr"
9918:
9899:&
9861:
9842:&
9802:
9782:
9776:528934
9774:
9745:
9726:&
9700:
9674:
9655:&
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