Mozi - Knowledge

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philosophers such as Mengzi, who held that the doctrine was akin to renouncing one's family. However, close readings of the texts by modern scholars have shown the demands of Mohist universal love to be much more mild and reasonable. Additionally, given the accretional nature of the texts, the audience of such texts may have changed depending upon the Mohists' social influence, and so the demands for universal love made on rulers, for example, is considerably higher than that made on the masses. At its most basic, however, the doctrine merely encourages a general attitude of care towards others. However, this does not require that we renounce all forms of special relationships we have with our families and friends. In fact, the Mohists introduce the problem that universal love is meant to solve by lamenting the fact that fathers and sons don't care for each other, and so must instead adopt an attitude of universal love. Conversely, the Mohists hope, when people adopt an attitude of universal love, society as a whole will benefit.

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campaigns were enormously taxing on the population, disrupting regular farming cycles by conscripting able-bodied people for these military ends. Additionally, the practices is ethically wrong for the same reason that robbery and murder are wrong. In fact, according to Mozi, the two are actually one and the same; for what is an expansionist war of aggression other than robbery and murder on a grand scale? And yet, Mozi laments, those rulers who execute robbers and murderers engage in the very same practices. With respect to universal love, indeed part of the reason why rulers believe it is acceptable to invade and conquer other states while it is not acceptable for their own subjects to rob and steal from one another is that the people in neighboring states are not part of the rulers' scope of moral concern. If rulers were to instead include these people and refrain from wars of aggression, all states, those attacking and those defending, will benefit.

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whom they referred to as "the gentlemen of the world." The Mohist idea of "universal love" embraced a broader idea of human community than that of the Confucians, arguing that the scope of individuals' moral concern should include all people. Opponents of this idea often claimed that "universal love" was akin to renouncing one's family, and indeed more strict Mohists living in Mohist communities as the school flourished may have exhibited such behavior. However, there is some scholarly debate over just how radical the provisions of universal love actually are, and, as can be seen from the example of Gongsun Hong above, the less radical components of the doctrine were eventually absorbed by mainstream thought.

833:). Though he did not hold a high official position, Mozi was sought out by various rulers as an expert on fortification. He was schooled in Confucianism in his early years, although he viewed Confucianism as being too fatalistic, with an overemphasis on elaborate celebrations and funerals, which Mozi considered to be detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of the common people. Mozi managed to attract a large following during his lifetime, rivaling that of Confucius. His followers—mostly technicians and craftspeople—were organized in a disciplined order that studied both Mozi's philosophical and technical writings. 1501: 1161:

well-being of the state itself rather than its constituents. In this way, Mozi tended to evaluate actions based on whether they provide benefit to the people, which he measured in terms of an enlarged population (states were sparsely populated in his day), a prosperous economy, and social order. Indeed these are collective goods rather than individual ones, which is a major difference between Mohist consequentialism and modern, Western versions. However, this reading emphasizes that collective goods are better considered as aggregated individual goods rather than as state goods.

1129:, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are ... order, material wealth, and increase in population". During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. Mozi opposed wars because they wasted life and resources while interfering with the fair distribution of wealth, yet he recognized the need for strong urban defenses so he could maintain the harmonious society he desired. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to 1453:", and the relation of humanity to the supernatural realm. However, Mohism is undoubtedly a product of Warring States China, a period of tremendous political violence and turmoil. The Mohists were political reformers, but they did not seek to challenge the monarchical model of government that prevailed during that time, and sought instead to reform from within by encouraging governments to hire competent people to carry out political tasks, care for their people inclusively, eliminate frivolous government spending, and halt all wars of aggression. 889:, the chief military strategist of Chu, and overturned each one of his stratagems. When Gongshu Ban threatened him with death, Mozi informed the king that his disciples had already trained the soldiers of Song in his fortification methods, so it would be useless to kill him. The Chu king was forced to call off the war. On the way back, however, the soldiers of Song, not recognizing Mozi, would not allow him to enter their city, and he had to spend a night freezing in the rain. After this episode, he also prevented the 184: 1200:

than hire friends and relatives instead. The reasoning here is that someone better qualified for the job will perform better and enable society as a whole to benefit. Identifying upward refers to the idea that people in subordinate positions in society must look to their superiors as models for their own conduct. Provided that the superiors are indeed morally competent and worthy of emulation, the rest of society will always have a reliable guide for their own actions, thereby giving rise to social benefits.

803: 1105:, according to which the morality of an action, statement, teaching, policy, judgment, and so on, is determined by the consequences that it brings about. In particular, Mozi thought that actions should be measured by the way they contribute to the benefit of all members of society. With this criterion, Mozi denounced things as diverse as offensive warfare, expensive funerals, and even music and dance, which he saw as serving no useful purpose. According to the 5489: 1529: 909: 1064:, Mozi believed that all living things lived in a realm ruled by Heaven, and Heaven possessed a will which was independent from, and higher than, the will of people. Thus Mozi wrote that "Universal love is the Way of Heaven", since "Heaven nourishes and sustains all life without regard to status." Mozi's ideal of government, which advocated a meritocracy based on talent rather than background, also followed his idea of Heaven. 979:). Mozi believed that people were capable of changing their circumstances and directing their own lives, which could be achieved by applying one's senses to observing the world, as well as judging objects and events by their causes, functions, and historical bases. This was the "three-prong method" Mozi recommended for testing the truth or falsehood of statements. His students later expanded upon this theory to form the 1002:). He argued directly against Confucians, who had philosophized that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, in contrast, argued that people in principle should care for all people equally, a notion that philosophers in other schools found absurd, as they interpreted this notion as implying no special amount of care or duty towards one's parents and family. 1111:, Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare". Consequentialist theories vary over exactly which consequences are relevant, though they all share the same basic outcome-based structure. With Mozi's overwhelming focus on "benefit" ( 1543: 1515: 1457:

irrelevant once the various Warring States were unified under the Qin and later Han dynasty, and their religious superstitions were eventually replaced with less supernatural accounts. So their most promising ideas were metabolized by the tradition, while their more radical and anachronistic ones were gradually discarded, leading to their demise during the Han dynasty.

1557: 1473:(collected writings of those in the tradition of Mozi, some of which might have been by Mozi himself) contains the following sentence: 'The cessation of motion is due to the opposing force... If there is no opposing force... the motion will never stop. This is as true as that an ox is not a horse.' which, he claims, is a precursor to Newton's first law of motion. 1056:) was that people should love one another, and that mutual love by all would bring benefit to all. Therefore, it was in everyone's interest that they would love others "as they love themselves". According to Mozi, Heaven should be respected because failing to do so would subject one to punishment. For Mozi, Heaven was not the "amoral", mystical nature of the 1121:) among other ends, and his explicit focus on making moral evaluations in light of them, Mozi's ethics indeed shares this consequentalist structure. For interpreting Mozi, however, there is some debate over how to understand the consequences Mozi seems most concerned with, and therefore over which kind of consequentialism to ascribe to him. 1363:("benevolence") in Mohist terms. Additionally, Mohist epistemology and philosophy of language had a profound influence on the development of classical Chinese philosophy in general. In fact, Mohism was so prominent during the Warring States period that philosophical opponents, including Mencius and some authors of the Daoist anthology, the 1272:

During the Han dynasty, as Confucianism came to be the official school of political thought, Mohism gradually lost both its adherents and influence while simultaneously being partly incorporated into more mainstream political thought. The text was eventually neglected, and only 58 of the text's original 71 books (

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worth noting that Mozi did not object to music in principle—"It's not that I don't like the sound of the drum" ("Against Music")—but only because of the heavy tax burden such activities placed on commoners and also due to the fact that officials tended to indulge in them at the expense of their duties.

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contain the Mohists' key essays on the ten "core" Mohist doctrines. Though they exhibit explicit thematic unity, textual evidence suggests that the Mohists revisited their core doctrines throughout their activity, responding to objections and addressing issues unresolved in earlier, often shorter and

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Alternative readings locate the main focus of Mozi's consequentialism in the welfare of the people themselves rather than that of the state as a whole. Such interpretations as Chris Fraser's argue that it is a mistake to view Mozi's focus on the collective well-being of a population as a focus on the

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Finally, the Mohists rejected the idea of fatalism, or the idea that there is fate. The Mohists reject this idea on the grounds that it encourages lazy and irresponsible behavior. When people believe that there is fate, and that the consequences of their actions lie beyond their control, people will

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Mozi is also famous for his ideas about frugality, such as those concerning moderating expenses and eliminating wasteful ceremonies including music and funerals. A common misconception is that the Mohists eschewed all forms of art, but of course the Mohists' targets are more specifically elaborate,

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used "universal love" as one of the foundations for his idea of Chinese democracy. More recently, Chinese scholars under Communism have tried to rehabilitate Mozi as a "philosopher of the people", highlighting his rational-empirical approach to the world as well as his "proletarian" background. The

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respectively, wherein the thinkers in question are portrayed as expressing emotions, chiding students, and even making mistakes. (Consider Mengzi's disastrous advice to the King of Qi to invade the state of Yan.) To contrast, Mozi has little if any personality in the text, instead serving only as a

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Each of these doctrines is justified on the grounds that it produces the best consequences for society, and that all people stand to benefit from adopting them. Promoting the worthy, for example, encourages people in positions of power to hire competent and worthy subordinates to fill posts, rather

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on the topic of universal love, Mozi argued that the best way of being filial to one's parents is to be filial to the parents of others. The foundational principle was therefore that benevolence, as well as malevolence, is requited, and that one would be treated by others as one treats others. Mozi

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Some views claim that Mozi's philosophy was at once more advanced and less so than that of Confucius. Indeed the Mohists were radical political reformers who sought primarily to benefit the masses and challenge the practices of the ruling orthodoxy, often targeting a perceived wasteful aristocracy

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are often referred to as the "dialectical books." These are often considered "later Mohist" writings, though actual chronological details about them are difficult to glean. They are written in an idiosyncratic style, and focus on a broad range of issues that go well beyond those of the Mohist core

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Mozi also held a belief in the power of ghosts and spirits, although he is often thought to have only worshipped them pragmatically. In fact, in his discussion on ghosts and spirits, he remarked that, even if they did not exist, communal gatherings for the sake of making sacrificial offering would

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In many ways the influence of Mohism was a victim of its own successes, and it is fairly easy to understand its decline. The Mohists' ideas about the importance of meritocracy and universal love were gradually absorbed by mainstream Confucian thinking. Their opposition to offensive warfare became

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Mozi's condemnation of music rests on the same economic considerations as their general ideas of frugality. In ancient China, grand musical ceremonies established by rulers would place enormous financial and human strains on populations, and so Mozi condemned such ceremonies for this reason. It's

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Mozi's ideas about ghosts and spirits follow from their religious beliefs in a morally consistent universe. Heaven, it is argued, is the ultimate moral standard, while ghosts and spirits serve as Heaven's enforcers. Both doctrines, when adopted, promote societal benefit both by enabling people to

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is also the name of the philosophical anthology written and compiled by followers of Mozi. The text was formed by an accretional process that took place over a period of hundreds of years, beginning perhaps during or shortly after Mozi's lifetime, and lasting until perhaps the early Han dynasty.

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Universal love refers to the basic normative attitude the Mohists encourage us to adopt towards others. The idea is that people ought to consider all others as being part of their scope of moral concern. Indeed this is perhaps the most infamous of Mohist doctrines, and was criticized early on by

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Some believe the best descriptor to be state consequentialism. According to this reading, Mohist ethics makes moral evaluations based on how well the action, statement, etc., in question contributes to the stability of a state. Such state-related goods include social order, material wealth, and

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to bring home this point: "When one throws to me a peach, I return to him a plum." One's parents will be treated by others as one treats the parents of others. Mozi also differentiated between "intention" and "actuality", thereby placing a central importance on the will to love, even though in

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Dovetailing with this idea is that of condemning aggression. The main targets of this doctrine are undoubtedly the rulers of the various warring states in China, who regularly embarked on expansionist military campaigns in order to increase their territory, power, and influence. However, such

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The Mohists took particular offense to the practice of extremely lavished funerals and demanding mourning rituals. Such funerals and rituals would potentially bankrupt an entire clan, at least temporarily, and disrupt its farming practices. For the dead in higher positions of authority, this

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Overlooked by those critics, however, was a passage in the chapter on "Self-Cultivation" which stated, "When people near-by are not befriended, there is no use endeavoring to attract those at a distance." This point was also precisely articulated by a Mohist in a debate with Mencius (in the

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also contains speculations in optics and mechanics that are similarly strikingly original, although their ideas were not taken up by later Chinese philosophers. The Mohist tradition is also highly unusual in Chinese thought in that it devoted time to developing principles of logic.

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In addition, Mozi argued that benevolence comes to human beings "as naturally as fire turns upward or water turns downward", provided that persons in positions of authority illustrate benevolence in their own lives. In differentiating between the ideas of "universal"

1073:). Where the Confucian philosophy held that a person's life, death, wealth, poverty, and social status were entirely dependent upon destiny and therefore could not be changed, Mozi argued that hard work and virtuous acts could change one's position in life. 1149:, writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth ... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically". In contrast to 1215:

What is the purpose of houses? It is to protect us from the wind and cold of winter, the heat and rain of summer, and to keep out robbers and thieves. Once these ends have been secured, that is all. Whatever does not contribute to these ends should be

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consist of short, miscellaneous essays containing summaries of Mohist doctrines, anecdotes about Mozi, and ideals about meritocratic government. Some appear to be relatively late texts, expressing mature Mohist political and ethical thought on some

955:, but he also criticized the Confucian belief that modern life should be patterned on the ways of the ancients. Mozi argued that what is thought of as "ancient" was actually innovative in its time, and thus should not be used to hinder present-day 1407:, 'energy') 'which is in accord with the Pre-Qin thinkers' understanding to the body. While xing refers to the flesh-bloody part of human being, the concept of xin focuses on the aspect of cognition and is closely related to the concept of shan ( 893:

from attacking the State of Lu. He taught that the defense of a city did not depend only on fortification, weaponry, and food supply, but rather that it was also important to keep talented people close by and to put trust in them.

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Some modern-day supporters for Mozi (as well as Communism) make the claim that Mohism and modern Communism share a lot in terms of ideals for community life. Others would claim that Mohism shares more with the central ideas of

840:. His passion was said to be for the good of the people, without concern for personal gain or even for his own life or death. His tireless contribution to society was praised by many, including Confucius's disciple 2291: 1280:, contain significant textual corruptions and are fragmentary in nature. The anthology can be divided into 5 main groups, which are determined on the basis of both chronological and thematic features: 877:

Mozi travelled from one crisis zone to another throughout the ravaged landscape of the Warring States, trying to dissuade rulers from their plans of conquest. According to the chapter "Gongshu" in the

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not be encouraged to improve themselves, nor will they be willing to take responsibility for disasters. As a result, society will suffer, and so the doctrine that there is fate ought to be rejected.

2538:, complete translation from classical Chinese, annotated and commented, Québec, Les Presses de l'Université Laval, 2018. Series « Histoire et cultures chinoises », edited by Shenwen Li. 768:, the will of Heaven, sharing, and honoring the worthy. Mohism was actively developed and practiced across Warring States–era China, but fell out of favor following the establishment of the 1133:

like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability.

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disruption would affect an even greater number of people. Again, the point here is to promote benefit across society, and the Mohists believe that adopting frugal practices will do so.

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are a series of polemics against the Ru (Confucians). They are often grouped with books 8-37, though they do not expound a positive doctrine, and their purpose is entirely critical.

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Mozi was born in Lu (seen toward the north, with a small coastline along the Yellow Sea) and spent some time as a government minister in Song (a landlocked state to the south of Lu)

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state-sponsored rituals that would place incredible financial burdens upon a mostly peasant population. This can be seen from Xunzi's own arguments against Mozi in book 10 of the

1583: 866:) that Mozi believed in love for all mankind, noting that, as long as something benefitted mankind, Mozi would pursue it even if it meant "hurting his head or his feet". 5282: 2300: 8795: 1235:

rely upon an objective standard to guide their actions (namely, Heaven), and by acting as a sort of cosmic authority capable of enacting rewards and punishments.

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population growth. By centering his ethical theory around the promotion of such state-related ends, Mozi shows himself to be a state consequentialist. Unlike

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Jane Geaney, "A Critique of A. C. Graham's Reconstruction of the 'Neo-Mohist Canons,'" Journal of the American Oriental Society, 119, no. 1 (1999), pp. 1–11.

1437:"Enriching the State," where Xunzi argues against Mozi that prominent displays of wealth on the part of the state is necessary to maintaining social order. 1211:

Moderation in use and moderation in burials are the main Mohist ideas about frugality. In one's own projects, utility ought to be the only consideration.

9066: 794:, which records that he was saddened when he saw the dyeing of pure white silk, which embodied his conception of austerity as simplicity and chastity. 9051: 8744: 826:, Mozi was known to have maintained a school for those who desired to become officials serving in the different ruling courts of the Warring States. 810:

Most historians believe that Mozi was a member of the lower artisan class who managed to climb his way to an official post. Mozi was a native of the

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The texts portray Mozi as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy and not much else. This picture contrasts that of Confucius and Mencius found in the

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is a rich source of insight into early Chinese dynastic history, culture, and philosophy. The text frequently cites ancient classics, such as the

2378:. Berkeley, CA: Society for the Study of Early China & Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley. pp. 336–41. 6898: 936:. He observed that people often learned about the world through adversity. By reflecting on one's own successes and failures, one attains true 1012:), where the Mohist argued, in relation to carrying out universal love, that "we begin with what is near." Also, in the first chapter in the 8836: 8826: 5258: 2821: 2597: 1890:"he advocated a form of state consequentialism, which sought to maximize three basic goods: the wealth, order, and population of the state 1081: 1060:; rather, it was a benevolent, moral force that rewarded good and punished evil. Similar in some ways to the beliefs systems found in the 836:

According to some accounts of the popular understanding of Mozi at the time, he had been hailed by many as the greatest hero to come from

9056: 5525: 7688: 7329: 2594:. In: Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D.. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1979 (übersetzt von F. W. Mote). 8846: 690: 453: 7873: 777: 1332:, and at times departs from the received version, giving scholars insight into the textual development of such classics as well. 9021: 8926: 8896: 8841: 8831: 8481: 7783: 5290: 2325: 1853: 7902: 6163: 1908: 1145: 8971: 7890: 2442: 2412: 2383: 2127:

Graham, Angus. (1978). Later Mohist Logic, Ethics, and Science. New Territories, Hong Kong SAR: The Chinese University Press.

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Tignor, Robert; Adelman, Jeremy; Brown, Peter; Elman, Benjamin; Liu, Xinru; Pittman, Holly; Shaw, Brent (October 24, 2013).

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in 221 BCE. It has traditionally been assumed that many Mohist texts were destroyed in 213 BCE as part of Emperor

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Cui, Dahua (September 1, 2009). "Rational awareness of the ultimate in human life – The Confucian concept of 'destiny'".

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are dialogues. They are probably later, and likely fictional, exhibiting Mozi in conversation with various interlocutors.

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This consequentialist structure supports Mohist ethics and politics, which survives in the form of 10 core doctrines:

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in order to forestall an attack on the State of Song. At the Chu court, Mozi engaged in nine simulated war games with

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Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese ideal of strong attachments to family and

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Defoort, Carine (2005). "The Growing Scope of 'jian': Differences between Chapters 14, 15, and 16 of the

937: 270: 36: 1036:), Mozi said that "universal" originated from righteousness while "differential" entailed human effort. 9046: 8916: 8906: 8886: 8881: 8876: 7336: 6996: 6865: 5511: 5266: 2951: 2891: 1914: 1676: 1658: 790: 729: 7653: 6128: 2453:

Cui, D (2009). "Rational awareness of the ultimate in human life—The Confucian concept of "destiny"".

7700: 7643: 7228: 6752: 6702: 5632: 5457: 3596: 3262: 2449:. (Printings were 1956, 1962, 1969) See also the 1986 edition published in Taipei by Caves Books Ltd. 1126: 929: 8921: 8871: 8541: 6742: 6692: 6501: 5791: 5473: 4960: 4617: 4373: 2563:

Hansen, Chad (1989). "Mozi: Language Utilitarianism: The Structure of Ethics in Classical China".

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Mozi opposed the Confucian idea of "Destiny", promoting instead an idea of "anti-fatalism" (

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Der Weg des Himmels: Zum Geist und zur Gestalt des politischen Denkens im klassischen China

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by A. C. Graham, (1978, reprinted 2004) The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong. 700 pages.

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are chapters on military affairs, specifically focusing on preparing for defensive warfare.

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was one of several critics of Mozi, in part because Mozi's philosophy was believed to lack

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is an anthology of writings traditionally ascribed either to Mozi or to his followers.

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passage, a camera obscura is described as a "collecting-point" or "treasure house" (

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Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology

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rather than mere conformity to ritual. Mozi exhorted people to lead a life of

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play a role in strengthening social bonds. Furthermore, for Mozi the will of

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Worlds Together Worlds Apart Volume One: Beginnings Through the 15th Century

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Mohism, like other schools of thought at the time, was suppressed under the

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Individual and State in Ancient China: Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers

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Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part One

2078: 2033: 959:. Though Mozi did not believe that history necessarily progresses, as did 802: 8340: 8335: 8270: 8265: 8115: 7987: 7942: 7932: 7725: 7720: 7658: 7595: 7378: 7353: 7278: 7238: 7208: 7183: 7163: 7142: 7122: 7102: 7092: 7061: 6926: 6807: 6602: 6576: 6571: 6371: 6356: 6223: 6203: 6183: 6035: 6010: 5969: 5830: 5739: 5729: 5691: 5649: 5612: 5578: 5126: 4930: 4707: 4368: 4244: 4005: 3965: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3885: 3830: 3795: 3785: 3769: 3754: 3684: 3679: 3669: 3601: 3401: 3370: 3337: 3277: 3153: 3148: 3120: 2157:. Graham (1978) was the first to notice this among contemporary scholars. 1671: 1450: 1371: 1356: 1352: 1252: 948: 944:

and self-restraint, renouncing both material and spiritual extravagance.

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practice it might very well be impossible to bring benefit to everyone.

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Mozi was a carpenter and was extremely skilled in creating devices (see

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doctrines, including logic, epistemology, optics, geometry, and ethics.

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structures with the concept of "impartial caring" or "universal love" (

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Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers

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templates on this page, but the references will not show without a

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He is the first to describe the physical principle behind the

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Disputers of the TAO: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China

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https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&id=13330#s10030758

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An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation

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https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&id=2771#s10027275

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List of people on stamps of the People's Republic of China

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In modern times, Mohism has been given a fresh analysis.

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The Mohists were experts at building fortifications and

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said that, in terms of moral virtue, even Confucius and

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The Philosophy of the Mòzi: The First Consequentialists

2326:"Camera Obscura History - Who Invented Camera Obscura?" 2138:"Mengzi : Gong Sun Chou II - Chinese Text Project" 1997:

The Philosophy of the Mozi: The First Consequentialists

1937: 1397: 1257: 2117:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2020. 16:

Chinese philosopher and logician (c. 470 – c. 391 BCE)

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The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction

574: 560: 544: 530: 516: 319: 305: 289: 275: 261: 247: 1496: 1999:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 17. 1276:) survive, some of which, notably the later Mohist 2155:https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&id=66344 1174:Universal Love (sometimes called "Inclusive Care") 2403:. In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping (eds.). 1870:Ivanhoe, P.J.; Van Norden, Bryan William (2005). 1869: 1157:outweigh the consequences of individual actions. 8803: 2649:Mo Ti: Von der Liebe des Himmels zu den Menschen 1906: 764:, with a philosophy emphasizing universal love, 2664:Mo Ti: Solidarität und allgemeine Menschenliebe 1907:Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2011). 2506:. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1969, 2266: 1622:) suggested this was a misprint for "screen" ( 6892: 5519: 4312: 2815: 2791: 2376:Early Chinese Texts – A Bibliographical Guide 2267:FENRONG, LIU; JIALONG, ZHANG (January 2010). 1942:(Fourth ed.). W.W. Norton. p. 167. 1575: – a historical film based around Mohism 1420: 1414: 1408: 1402: 1390: 1380: 1112: 1068: 1045: 991: 968: 481: 207: 49: 28:"Micius" redirects here. For other uses, see 7398: 5761: 5715: 5701: 5259:Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel 2721:, New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. 2696:. Columbia University Press, New York 1976, 2528:, New York, Columbia University Press, 2016. 2210:National Taiwan University Philosophy Review 1968:Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy 1902: 1900: 1898: 7334: 2712:Journal of the American Academy of Religion 2587:. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) 2421: 2212:] (in Chinese (Taiwan)) (56): 139–175. 1865: 1863: 1720: 1708: 1591:, an influential concept elaborated by Mozi 788:. Mozi is referenced in the 6th-century CE 6899: 6885: 5526: 5512: 4319: 4305: 2822: 2808: 1965: 182: 9067:Writers who illustrated their own writing 2392: 1961: 1959: 1895: 9052:Writers about activism and social change 6906: 2751:) is being considered for deletion. See 2608:Mo-tse, the Neglected Rival of Confucius 2283: 1872:Readings in classical Chinese philosophy 1860: 1256: 1080: 907: 801: 778:burning of books and burying of scholars 8482:Reflections on the Revolution in France 5291:Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals 2115:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2054: 1854:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1696:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 8804: 8780:<ref group=lower-alpha> 2829: 2592:A History of Chinese Political Thought 2562: 2557:Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science 2366: 2019: 1994: 1956: 1910:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 1689: 1246: 1146:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 628: 576: 394: 321: 6880: 5533: 5507: 4300: 2803: 2790: 1618:); the 18th-century scholar Bi Yuan ( 1460: 963:, he shared the latter's critique of 881:, he once walked for ten days to the 743: – 221 BCE). The 2681:. Diederichs, Düsseldorf/Köln 1975, 2666:. Diederichs, Düsseldorf/Köln 1975, 2250:"No. 2080 The Survival of Invention" 2170:. New York: Oxford University Press. 8837:4th-century BC Chinese philosophers 8827:5th-century BC Chinese philosophers 8777: 8592:The End of History and the Last Man 8502:Elements of the Philosophy of Right 5307:Elements of the Philosophy of Right 2781:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2619:Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften 2504:A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy 2452: 2361:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2289: 2194: 2020:Robins, Dan (2012). "Mohist Care". 1804: 1375:body in the Mozi is constructed by 1108:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 947:Like Confucius, Mozi idealized the 13: 9057:Writers about religion and science 2610:. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1934. 2585:A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought 2577:10.1111/j.1540-6253.1989.tb00443.x 2483: 2407:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 677–81. 2269:"NEW PERSPECTIVES ON MOHIST LOGIC" 2168:A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought 1355:and died out completely under the 1348:mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy. 1017:quoted a popular passage from the 920:Mozi's moral teachings emphasized 14: 9078: 2755:to help reach a consensus. › 2725: 2565:The Journal of Chinese Philosophy 2431:Science and Civilization in China 2232:"Chinese Text Project Dictionary" 1759:, "Against Confucianism, Part 3". 8847:Ancient Chinese military writers 8792:{{notelist}} 8562:The Open Society and Its Enemies 6723:The Closing of the American Mind 6643:Civilization and Its Discontents 6623:A Vindication of Natural Society 5488: 5487: 2719:The Mozi: A Complete Translation 2647:Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer, (ed.), 2455:Frontiers of Philosophy in China 1807:Frontiers of Philosophy in China 1555: 1541: 1527: 1513: 1499: 7369:Family as a model for the state 4045: 2330:www.photographyhistoryfacts.com 2318: 2260: 2242: 2224: 2188: 2173: 2160: 2148: 2130: 2121: 2103: 2089: 2071: 2048: 2013: 1988: 1931: 1841: 1798: 1786: 1774: 1762: 1750: 1602: 724:, logician, and founder of the 696: 675: 654: 627: 613: 599: 459: 438: 417: 393: 379: 365: 344: 9022:Philosophers of social science 8927:Literacy and society theorists 8897:Chinese political philosophers 8842:4th-century BC Chinese writers 8832:5th-century BC Chinese writers 8719:Separation of church and state 8617:Collectivism and individualism 8572:The Origins of Totalitarianism 5275:The Theory of Moral Sentiments 4645:Value monism – Value pluralism 2615:Die Philosophie im alten China 2437:. Cambridge University Press. 2218:10.6276/NTUPR.201810_(56).0004 1738: 1726: 1714: 1702: 1683: 1665: 1647: 862: 732:that existed during the early 728:school of thought, one of the 575: 561: 545: 531: 517: 482: 320: 306: 290: 276: 262: 248: 208: 1: 8759:Category:Political philosophy 8632:Critique of political economy 6613:Oration on the Dignity of Man 2740: 2435:History of Scientific Thought 2273:Journal of Chinese Philosophy 1966:Van Norden, Bryan W. (2011). 1635: 897: 737: 90: 63: 8972:Philosophers from Lu (state) 8657:Institutional discrimination 8652:History of political thought 7384:Negative and positive rights 6683:The Society of the Spectacle 5339:On the Genealogy of Morality 5299:Critique of Practical Reason 2651:. Diederichs, München 1992, 1640: 7: 8892:Chinese non-fiction writers 8784:{{efn}} 8667:Justification for the state 8452:Two Treatises of Government 2496:. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt 1971. 2374:. In Loewe, Michael (ed.). 1492: 932:, rather than obedience to 874:could not compare to Mozi. 37:Emperor Mo (disambiguation) 10: 9083: 9027:Philosophers of technology 9012:Philosophers of psychology 8902:Chinese technology writers 8852:Chinese military engineers 7337:Bellum omnium contra omnes 5267:A Treatise of Human Nature 4326: 2952:Hundred Schools of Thought 2347: 1915:Cambridge University Press 1677:Collins English Dictionary 1659:Collins English Dictionary 1250: 901: 791:Thousand Character Classic 730:Hundred Schools of Thought 34: 27: 20: 8982:Philosophers of education 8857:Zhou dynasty philosophers 8754: 8604: 8373: 8021: 7754: 7634: 7553: 7465: 7456: 7322: 7156: 7085: 6914: 6861: 6765: 6753:Intellectuals and Society 6703:The Culture of Narcissism 6594: 6262: 6054: 6003: 5932: 5846: 5839: 5779: 5541: 5483: 5390: 5235: 5001: 4726: 4655: 4517: 4392: 4334: 4212: 4018: 3778: 3640: 3531: 3435: 3366: 3253: 3144: 2971: 2962: 2837: 2797: 2792:Links to related articles 2494:Me-ti. Buch der Wendungen 2467:10.1007/s11466-009-0020-7 1819:10.1007/s11466-009-0020-7 1771:, "Against Fate, Part 3". 1623: 1613: 1421: 1415: 1409: 1403: 1391: 1381: 1127:hedonistic utilitarianism 1113: 1076: 1069: 1046: 992: 969: 853: 707: 689: 682: 668: 661: 644: 637: 620: 606: 592: 585: 568: 554: 538: 524: 510: 503: 498: 494: 475: 470: 452: 445: 431: 424: 410: 403: 386: 372: 358: 351: 337: 330: 313: 299: 283: 269: 255: 241: 234: 229: 225: 217: 201: 181: 177: 172: 164: 136: 124: 114: 104: 100: 86: 59: 50: 44: 8542:The Revolt of the Masses 6743:The Malaise of Modernity 6693:The History of Sexuality 5792:Catholic social teaching 4618:Universal prescriptivism 2753:templates for discussion 2692:Aronovich Rubin Vitaly, 2399: 2371: 2205: 2197: 2022:Philosophy East and West 1595: 1101:is considered a form of 9037:Simple living advocates 9017:Philosophers of science 8987:Philosophers of history 8977:Philosophers of culture 8912:Critics of Confucianism 8522:The Communist Manifesto 7448:Tyranny of the majority 7359:Consent of the governed 6823:Philosophy of education 4407:Artificial intelligence 2947:Nine Schools of Thought 2195:王介成 (October 1, 2018). 1735:, "Embracing Scholars". 1721:Needham & Wang 1956 1709:Needham & Wang 1956 797: 30:Micius (disambiguation) 8778:Cite error: There are 7399: 7349:Clash of civilizations 7335: 5762: 5716: 5702: 4250:State consequentialism 2679:Mo Ti: Gegen den Krieg 2636:. Fink, München 1999, 1995:Fraser, Chris (2016). 1690:Fraser, Chris (2002). 1265: 1228: 1225:(5th century BC) Ch 20 1141:David Shepherd Nivison 1094: 1085:Confucian philosopher 1032:) and "differential" ( 917: 807: 9062:Writers of lost works 8997:Philosophers of logic 8962:Nonviolence advocates 7364:Divine right of kings 6828:Philosophy of history 6818:Philosophy of culture 6713:A Conflict of Visions 5331:The Methods of Ethics 4569:Divine command theory 4564:Ideal observer theory 3267:Northern and Southern 2166:Chad Hansen. (1992). 2034:10.1353/pew.2012.0005 1795:, "Laws and Customs". 1783:, "Self-Cultivation". 1260: 1213: 1183:Moderation in Burials 1177:Condemning Aggression 1084: 911: 805: 734:Warring States period 23:Mozi (disambiguation) 9007:Philosophers of mind 9002:Philosophers of love 8957:Natural philosophers 8512:Democracy in America 7891:political philosophy 7874:political philosophy 7689:political philosophy 7518:political philosophy 7428:Separation of powers 7389:Night-watchman state 7374:Monopoly on violence 6908:Political philosophy 6833:Political philosophy 6633:Democracy in America 5448:Political philosophy 1485:, also known as the 1425:, 'will') and xing. 1295:simpler expositions. 1189:Understanding Ghosts 1168:Promoting the Worthy 951:and the ancients of 752:Born in what is now 691:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 454:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 151:political philosophy 21:For other uses, see 9042:Social philosophers 9032:Philosophers of war 8992:Philosophers of law 8947:Moral psychologists 8942:Metaphysics writers 8702:Right-wing politics 8582:A Theory of Justice 8552:The Road to Serfdom 8472:The Social Contract 7179:Christian democracy 6673:One-Dimensional Man 5418:Evolutionary ethics 5379:Reasons and Persons 5355:A Theory of Justice 4509:Uncertain sentience 2897:School of Diplomacy 2545:(Open Court 1993). 2394:Knechtges, David R. 1579:History of geometry 1413:, 'goodness'), ai ( 1247:Works and influence 1195:Condemning Fatalism 1062:Abrahamic religions 844:. Mencius wrote in 722:Chinese philosopher 196:(bottom) characters 94: 391 BCE 67: 470 BCE 8794:template (see the 8714:Political violence 8709:Political theology 8692:Left-wing politics 8687:Political spectrum 6793:Cultural pessimism 6788:Cultural criticism 5687:National character 5413:Ethics in religion 5408:Descriptive ethics 5243:Nicomachean Ethics 2831:Chinese philosophy 2736:Utilitarianism.net 2590:Kung-chuan Hsiao. 2198:《墨子》身體觀探研－以「修身」為核心 1972:Hackett Publishing 1876:Hackett Publishing 1857:, Edward N. Zalta. 1747:, "Refining Self". 1461:Mohism and science 1266: 1171:Identifying Upward 1095: 918: 808: 119:Chinese philosophy 109:Ancient philosophy 9047:Technical writers 8917:Critics of Taoism 8907:Consequentialists 8887:Chinese logicians 8882:Chinese ethicists 8877:Chinese essayists 8790:template or 8773: 8772: 8767: 8766: 8677:Philosophy of law 8622:Conflict theories 8462:The Spirit of Law 8369: 8368: 7418:Original position 6874: 6873: 6590: 6589: 5735:Spontaneous order 5725:Social alienation 5574:Cultural heritage 5535:Social philosophy 5501: 5500: 5468:Social philosophy 5453:Population ethics 5443:Philosophy of law 5423:History of ethics 4906:Political freedom 4583:Euthyphro dilemma 4374:Suffering-focused 4294: 4293: 4142:Mandate of Heaven 4014: 4013: 2767:Full text of the 2708:Robin D. S. Yates 2541:Angus C. Graham, 2521:. Cambridge 1990. 2444:978-0-521-05800-1 2414:978-90-04-19127-3 2385:978-1-55729-043-4 2370:(1993). "Mo tzu" 2290:Needham, Joseph. 1981:978-1-60384-468-0 1924:978-0-521-47030-8 1885:978-0-87220-780-6 1521:Philosophy portal 1180:Moderation in Use 953:Chinese mythology 711: 710: 703: 702: 697:*C.mˤak Lˤewk 594:Yale Romanization 505:Standard Mandarin 466: 465: 360:Yale Romanization 236:Standard Mandarin 168: 167: 9074: 8799: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8682:Political ethics 8672:Machiavellianism 8612:Authoritarianism 8597: 8587: 8577: 8567: 8557: 8547: 8537: 8527: 8517: 8507: 8497: 8487: 8477: 8467: 8457: 8447: 8437: 8427: 8417: 8407: 8397: 8387: 7463: 7462: 7404: 7340: 7330:Balance of power 7304:Social democracy 7299:Social Darwinism 7274:Multiculturalism 7219:Environmentalism 7194:Communitarianism 6901: 6894: 6887: 6878: 6877: 6838:Social criticism 6758: 6748: 6738: 6728: 6718: 6708: 6698: 6688: 6678: 6668: 6658: 6648: 6638: 6628: 6618: 6608: 5844: 5843: 5826:Frankfurt School 5804:Communitarianism 5767: 5721: 5707: 5528: 5521: 5514: 5505: 5504: 5491: 5490: 5438:Moral psychology 5383: 5375: 5367: 5363:Practical Ethics 5359: 5351: 5347:Principia Ethica 5343: 5335: 5327: 5319: 5311: 5303: 5295: 5287: 5279: 5271: 5263: 5255: 5251:Ethics (Spinoza) 5247: 4886:Moral imperative 4344:Consequentialism 4321: 4314: 4307: 4298: 4297: 4171:Self-cultivation 4076:Neo-Confucianism 3811:Chung-ying Cheng 2969: 2968: 2870:New Confucianism 2865:Neo-Confucianism 2824: 2817: 2810: 2801: 2800: 2788: 2787: 2632:Peter J. Opitz, 2606: 2580: 2571:(3–4): 355–380. 2534:Anna Ghiglione, 2478: 2448: 2418: 2389: 2354:Fraser, Chris. 2341: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2305: 2299:. Archived from 2298: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2264: 2258: 2257: 2246: 2240: 2239: 2228: 2222: 2221: 2192: 2186: 2177: 2171: 2164: 2158: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2134: 2128: 2125: 2119: 2118: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2093: 2087: 2086: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2052: 2046: 2045: 2017: 2011: 2010: 1992: 1986: 1985: 1963: 1954: 1953: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1904: 1893: 1892: 1867: 1858: 1847:Fraser, Chris, " 1845: 1839: 1838: 1802: 1796: 1790: 1784: 1778: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1748: 1742: 1736: 1730: 1724: 1718: 1712: 1706: 1700: 1699: 1687: 1681: 1669: 1663: 1651: 1629: 1627: 1617: 1606: 1572:A Battle of Wits 1565: 1563:Biography portal 1560: 1559: 1558: 1551: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1537: 1532: 1531: 1523: 1518: 1517: 1516: 1509: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1424: 1423: 1419:, 'love'), zhi ( 1418: 1417: 1412: 1411: 1406: 1405: 1394: 1393: 1384: 1383: 1261:A page from the 1226: 1192:Condemning Music 1116: 1115: 1103:consequentialism 1072: 1071: 1051: 1050: 997: 996: 974: 973: 864: 855: 742: 739: 716:, personal name 699: 698: 678: 677: 657: 656: 633: 632: 631: 616: 615: 602: 601: 581: 580: 579: 564: 563: 550: 549: 548: 534: 533: 520: 519: 496: 495: 490: 489: 462: 461: 460:*C.mˤak tseʔ 441: 440: 420: 419: 399: 398: 397: 382: 381: 368: 367: 347: 346: 326: 325: 324: 309: 308: 295: 294: 293: 279: 278: 265: 264: 251: 250: 227: 226: 213: 212: 186: 170: 169: 95: 92: 81: 68: 65: 54: 53: 52: 42: 41: 9082: 9081: 9077: 9076: 9075: 9073: 9072: 9071: 8922:Epistemologists 8872:Asian pacifists 8802: 8801: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8769: 8768: 8763: 8750: 8739:Totalitarianism 8600: 8595: 8585: 8575: 8565: 8555: 8545: 8535: 8525: 8515: 8505: 8495: 8485: 8475: 8465: 8455: 8445: 8435: 8425: 8415: 8412:Treatise on Law 8405: 8395: 8385: 8365: 8023: 8017: 7756: 7750: 7636: 7630: 7549: 7452: 7438:State of nature 7433:Social contract 7413:Ordered liberty 7401:Noblesse oblige 7318: 7152: 7081: 6910: 6905: 6875: 6870: 6857: 6783:Critical theory 6761: 6756: 6746: 6736: 6726: 6716: 6706: 6696: 6686: 6676: 6666: 6656: 6646: 6636: 6626: 6616: 6606: 6586: 6264: 6258: 6056: 6050: 5999: 5928: 5835: 5787:Budapest School 5775: 5564:Cosmopolitanism 5537: 5532: 5502: 5497: 5479: 5386: 5381: 5373: 5365: 5357: 5349: 5341: 5333: 5325: 5317: 5309: 5301: 5293: 5285: 5277: 5269: 5261: 5253: 5245: 5231: 5004: 4997: 4921:Self-discipline 4881:Moral hierarchy 4829:Problem of evil 4774:Double standard 4764:Culture of life 4722: 4651: 4598:Non-cognitivism 4513: 4388: 4330: 4325: 4295: 4290: 4208: 4109:Three teachings 4010: 3961:Tsang Lap Chuen 3774: 3636: 3545: 3527: 3443: 3439: 3431: 3380: 3362: 3271: 3265: 3249: 3158: 3140: 2958: 2956: 2902:School of Names 2845:Agriculturalism 2833: 2828: 2793: 2756: 2728: 2621:, Berlin 1990, 2600: 2486: 2484:Further reading 2481: 2445: 2433:. Vol. 2. 2423:Needham, Joseph 2415: 2401: 2386: 2373: 2358:article in the 2350: 2345: 2344: 2334: 2332: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2309: 2307: 2306:on July 3, 2017 2303: 2296: 2288: 2284: 2265: 2261: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2230: 2229: 2225: 2207: 2199: 2193: 2189: 2178: 2174: 2165: 2161: 2153: 2149: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2095: 2094: 2090: 2077: 2076: 2072: 2061:Oriens Extremus 2053: 2049: 2018: 2014: 2007: 1993: 1989: 1982: 1964: 1957: 1950: 1936: 1932: 1925: 1917:. p. 761. 1905: 1896: 1886: 1868: 1861: 1846: 1842: 1803: 1799: 1791: 1787: 1779: 1775: 1767: 1763: 1755: 1751: 1743: 1739: 1731: 1727: 1719: 1715: 1707: 1703: 1688: 1684: 1670: 1666: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1535:Religion portal 1533: 1526: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1505: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1463: 1255: 1249: 1227: 1220: 1186:Heaven's Intent 1079: 981:School of Names 926:self-reflection 906: 900: 800: 740: 556:Tongyong Pinyin 546: 301:Tongyong Pinyin 291: 271:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 218:Literal meaning 197: 139: 93: 82: 75: 74:, Zhou dynasty 69: 66: 55: 48: 47: 40: 33: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9080: 9070: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8952:Moral realists 8949: 8944: 8939: 8937:Metaphysicians 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8822:390s BC deaths 8819: 8817:470s BC births 8814: 8771: 8770: 8765: 8764: 8762: 8761: 8755: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8748: 8741: 8736: 8731: 8729:Social justice 8726: 8721: 8716: 8711: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8669: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8637:Egalitarianism 8634: 8629: 8627:Contractualism 8624: 8619: 8614: 8608: 8606: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8598: 8588: 8578: 8568: 8558: 8548: 8538: 8528: 8518: 8508: 8498: 8488: 8478: 8468: 8458: 8448: 8438: 8428: 8418: 8408: 8398: 8388: 8377: 8375: 8371: 8370: 8367: 8366: 8364: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8027: 8025: 8019: 8018: 8016: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7894: 7893: 7883: 7878: 7877: 7876: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7760: 7758: 7752: 7751: 7749: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7692: 7691: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7640: 7638: 7632: 7631: 7629: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 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6868: 6862: 6859: 6858: 6856: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6843:Social science 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6769: 6767: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6759: 6749: 6739: 6733:Gender Trouble 6729: 6719: 6709: 6699: 6689: 6679: 6669: 6663:The Second Sex 6659: 6649: 6639: 6629: 6619: 6609: 6598: 6596: 6592: 6591: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6268: 6266: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6060: 6058: 6052: 6051: 6049: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6007: 6005: 6001: 6000: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5936: 5934: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5850: 5848: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5822: 5821: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5789: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5773: 5768: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5713: 5708: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5655:Invisible hand 5652: 5647: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5545: 5543: 5539: 5538: 5531: 5530: 5523: 5516: 5508: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5470: 5465: 5463:Secular ethics 5460: 5458:Rehabilitation 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5394: 5392: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5384: 5376: 5368: 5360: 5352: 5344: 5336: 5328: 5323:Utilitarianism 5320: 5312: 5304: 5296: 5288: 5280: 5272: 5264: 5256: 5248: 5239: 5237: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5008: 5006: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4730: 4728: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4683:Existentialist 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4578:Constructivism 4575: 4574: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4556: 4555: 4554: 4552:Non-naturalism 4549: 4534: 4529: 4523: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4445: 4444: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4398: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4386: 4381: 4379:Utilitarianism 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4340: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4324: 4323: 4316: 4309: 4301: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4288: 4287: 4286: 4279:Metaphilosophy 4276: 4271: 4266: 4259: 4254: 4253: 4252: 4247: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4185: 4180: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4156: 4151: 4144: 4139: 4132: 4125: 4118: 4111: 4106: 4099: 4092: 4087: 4080: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4063: 4056: 4049: 4042: 4035: 4028: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4015: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3891:Lee Shui-chuen 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3760:Zhang Xuecheng 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3646: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3532: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3498:Wang Chongyang 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3449: 3447: 3437:Five Dynasties 3433: 3432: 3430: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3367: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3269: 3260: 3258:Three Kingdoms 3254: 3251: 3250: 3248: 3247: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 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2147: 2129: 2120: 2102: 2088: 2070: 2047: 2012: 2005: 1987: 1980: 1974:. p. 52. 1955: 1948: 1930: 1923: 1894: 1884: 1878:. p. 60. 1859: 1840: 1813:(3): 309–321. 1797: 1785: 1773: 1761: 1749: 1737: 1725: 1713: 1701: 1682: 1664: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1600: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1567: 1566: 1552: 1549:History portal 1538: 1524: 1510: 1494: 1491: 1487:camera obscura 1467:Joseph Needham 1462: 1459: 1322: 1321: 1315: 1309: 1302: 1296: 1289: 1251:Main article: 1248: 1245: 1218: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1151:Jeremy Bentham 1078: 1075: 938:self-knowledge 899: 896: 799: 796: 709: 708: 705: 704: 701: 700: 693: 687: 686: 680: 679: 672: 670:Middle Chinese 666: 665: 663:Middle Chinese 659: 658: 651: 642: 641: 635: 634: 624: 618: 617: 610: 604: 603: 596: 590: 589: 587:Yue: Cantonese 583: 582: 572: 566: 565: 558: 552: 551: 542: 536: 535: 528: 522: 521: 514: 508: 507: 501: 500: 499:Transcriptions 492: 491: 479: 473: 472: 468: 467: 464: 463: 456: 450: 449: 443: 442: 435: 433:Middle Chinese 429: 428: 426:Middle Chinese 422: 421: 414: 408: 407: 401: 400: 390: 384: 383: 376: 370: 369: 362: 356: 355: 353:Yue: Cantonese 349: 348: 341: 335: 334: 328: 327: 317: 311: 310: 303: 297: 296: 287: 281: 280: 273: 267: 266: 259: 253: 252: 245: 239: 238: 232: 231: 230:Transcriptions 223: 222: 219: 215: 214: 205: 199: 198: 194:regular script 187: 179: 178: 175: 174: 166: 165: 162: 161: 140: 138:Main interests 137: 134: 133: 128: 122: 121: 116: 112: 111: 106: 102: 101: 98: 97: 88: 84: 83: 70: 61: 57: 56: 45: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9079: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8809: 8807: 8800: 8797: 8782:tags or 8760: 8757: 8756: 8753: 8747: 8746: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8689: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8662:Jurisprudence 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8609: 8607: 8603: 8594: 8593: 8589: 8584: 8583: 8579: 8574: 8573: 8569: 8564: 8563: 8559: 8554: 8553: 8549: 8544: 8543: 8539: 8534: 8533: 8529: 8524: 8523: 8519: 8514: 8513: 8509: 8504: 8503: 8499: 8494: 8493: 8492:Rights of Man 8489: 8484: 8483: 8479: 8474: 8473: 8469: 8464: 8463: 8459: 8454: 8453: 8449: 8444: 8443: 8439: 8434: 8433: 8429: 8424: 8423: 8419: 8414: 8413: 8409: 8404: 8403: 8402:De re publica 8399: 8394: 8393: 8389: 8384: 8383: 8379: 8378: 8376: 8372: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8028: 8026: 8022:20th and 21st 8020: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7892: 7889: 7888: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7755:18th and 19th 7753: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7690: 7687: 7686: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7639: 7633: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7611:Nizam al-Mulk 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7558: 7556: 7552: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7519: 7516: 7515: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7455: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7339: 7338: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7325: 7321: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7294:Republicanism 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7155: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7090: 7088: 7084: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6902: 6897: 6895: 6890: 6888: 6883: 6882: 6879: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6860: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6848:Social theory 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6764: 6755: 6754: 6750: 6745: 6744: 6740: 6735: 6734: 6730: 6725: 6724: 6720: 6715: 6714: 6710: 6705: 6704: 6700: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6685: 6684: 6680: 6675: 6674: 6670: 6665: 6664: 6660: 6655: 6654: 6650: 6645: 6644: 6640: 6635: 6634: 6630: 6625: 6624: 6620: 6615: 6614: 6610: 6605: 6604: 6600: 6599: 6597: 6593: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6502:Radhakrishnan 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6263:20th and 21st 6261: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6055:18th and 19th 6053: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6002: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5931: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5845: 5842: 5838: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5769: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5706: 5705: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5607: 5604: 5603: 5602: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5529: 5524: 5522: 5517: 5515: 5510: 5509: 5506: 5494: 5486: 5485: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5380: 5377: 5372: 5369: 5364: 5361: 5356: 5353: 5348: 5345: 5340: 5337: 5332: 5329: 5324: 5321: 5316: 5313: 5308: 5305: 5300: 5297: 5292: 5289: 5284: 5281: 5276: 5273: 5268: 5265: 5260: 5257: 5252: 5249: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5234: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4876:Moral courage 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4814:Good and evil 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4799:Family values 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4731: 4729: 4725: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4613:Quasi-realism 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4438: 4437:Environmental 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4359:Particularism 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4322: 4317: 4315: 4310: 4308: 4303: 4302: 4299: 4285: 4282: 4281: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4264: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4200: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4178: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4131: 4130: 4126: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4068: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4061: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4050: 4048: 4047: 4043: 4041: 4040: 4036: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3991:Zhang Dongsun 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3911:Liang Shuming 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3639: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3617:Wang Yangming 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3533: 3530: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3255: 3252: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3221: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3175:Dongfang Shuo 3173: 3171: 3170:Dong Zhongshu 3168: 3166: 3163: 3162: 3160: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3143: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2922: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2871: 2868: 2866: 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8246:Nussbaum 8146:Habermas 8121:Fukuyama 8111:Foucault 8036:Ambedkar 8013:Voltaire 7983:de Staël 7958:Rousseau 7839:Franklin 7814:Constant 7774:Beccaria 7606:Muhammad 7586:Gelasius 7571:Averroes 7545:Xenophon 7525:Polybius 7478:Chanakya 7323:Concepts 7289:Populism 7259:Localism 7244:Islamism 7229:Feminism 7128:Monarchy 7032:Property 7022:Progress 6987:Monopoly 6957:Hegemony 6866:Category 6778:Axiology 6766:See also 6557:Voegelin 6547:Spengler 6522:Shariati 6477:Nussbaum 6462:Maritain 6422:Irigaray 6402:Habermas 6367:Foucault 6352:Durkheim 6254:Voltaire 6219:de Staël 6194:Rousseau 6119:Franklin 5980:Muhammad 5965:Gelasius 5950:Avempace 5933:Medieval 5909:Polybius 5904:Plutarch 5670:Morality 5645:Ideology 5633:Identity 5542:Concepts 5493:Category 5433:Ideology 5398:Axiology 5227:Nussbaum 5177:Frankena 5172:Anscombe 5162:Williams 5117:Sidgwick 5037:Valluvar 5032:Diogenes 5017:Socrates 4941:Theodicy 4936:Sympathy 4901:Pacifism 4891:Morality 4804:Fidelity 4784:Equality 4739:Autonomy 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8131:Gentile 8101:Dworkin 8091:Du Bois 8086:Dmowski 8081:Chomsky 8076:Burnham 8061:Benoist 8031:Agamben 7998:Thoreau 7988:Stirner 7978:Spencer 7923:Mazzini 7913:Maistre 7908:Madison 7903:Le Play 7834:Fourier 7799:Carlyle 7779:Bentham 7769:Bastiat 7764:Bakunin 7741:Spinoza 7731:Müntzer 7701:Leibniz 7674:Grotius 7654:Bossuet 7621:Plethon 7566:Aquinas 7535:Sun Tzu 7503:Mencius 7493:Han Fei 7264:Marxism 7224:Fascism 7057:Society 6982:Liberty 6967:Justice 6947:Freedom 6607:(44 BC) 6537:Sombart 6532:Skinner 6517:Scruton 6497:Polanyi 6472:Niebuhr 6457:Marcuse 6392:Gramsci 6387:Gentile 6347:Du Bois 6337:Deleuze 6307:Benoist 6277:Agamben 6234:Thoreau 6224:Stirner 6214:Spencer 6164:Le Play 6114:Fourier 6099:Emerson 6084:Carlyle 6069:Bentham 6046:Müntzer 6016:Erasmus 5990:Plethon 5985:Photios 5945:Aquinas 5879:Mencius 5847:Ancient 5780:Schools 5660:Loyalty 5618:History 5606:Counter 5601:Culture 5569:Customs 5391:Related 5137:Tillich 5102:Bentham 5077:Spinoza 5072:Aquinas 5057:Mencius 4971:Western 4946:Torture 4911:Precept 4866:Loyalty 4861:Liberty 4856:Justice 4769:Dignity 4759:Consent 4703:Kantian 4693:Islamic 4656:Schools 4542:Realism 4474:Nursing 4469:Medical 4454:Machine 4394:Applied 4269:Society 4046:Jian'ai 3861:Hu Shih 3846:Gu Zhun 3705:Ma Qixi 3607:Wang Ji 3572:Jiao Yu 3488:Su Song 3468:Hu Hong 3358:Zhi Dun 3348:Xun Can 3333:Wang Bi 3328:Wang Su 3318:Ji Kang 3313:Huiyuan 3303:Fu Xuan 3293:Ge Hong 3240:Xun Yue 3235:Wang Fu 3225:Ma Rong 3195:Jia Kui 3136:Zou Yan 3096:Xu Xing 3081:Sun Tzu 3051:Mencius 3026:Hui Shi 3021:Han Fei 2996:Deng Xi 2933:Yangism 2925:Xuanxue 2892:Marxism 2838:Schools 2778:in the 2745:below ( 2398:"Mozi" 2348:Sources 2335:July 3, 1654:"Mo-Zi" 1608:In the 1288:topics. 1097:Mohist 1087:Mencius 1058:Daoists 1000:jiān ài 934:rituals 850:Chinese 842:Mencius 676:Mok Dek 646:Hokkien 532:ㄇㄛˋ ㄉㄧˊ 477:Chinese 439:Mok-tsí 366:Mahk-jí 345:Meʔ-tzy 203:Chinese 8812:Mohism 8596:(1992) 8586:(1971) 8576:(1951) 8566:(1945) 8556:(1944) 8546:(1929) 8536:(1859) 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