1029:
347:
40:
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Addiction to kratom can lead to physical and psychiatric issues that can affect one's ability to work; there have also been reports of psychotic symptoms in those who are addicted. A 2014 study which included 1118 male kratom users indicated that more than half of the regular users (67% of total subjects) experienced withdrawal when attempting to discontinue kratom with symptoms that included pain, muscle spasms, and insomnia. In a study following 239 male kratom users in
31:
703:
1012:. Owing to the heterogeneity of analysis and paucity of human experiments conducted thus far, the pharmacokinetic profile of mitragynine is not complete. However, initial pharmacokinetic studies in humans have yielded preliminary information. In a study of 10 healthy volunteers taking orally administered mitragynine from whole leaf preparations, mitragynine appeared to have a much longer
1206:
found to interact with a variety of receptors, although the nature and extent of receptor interactions has yet to be fully characterized. Additionally, the toxicity of mitragynine and associated kratom alkaloids have yet to be fully determined in humans, nor has the risk of overdose. More studies are necessary to assess safety and potential therapeutic utility.
1159:
Post-mortem toxicology screens indicate a wide range of mitragynine blood concentrations ranging from 10 μg/L to 4800 μg/L, making it difficult to calculate what constitutes a toxic dose in humans. These variations are suggested to result from differences in the toxicology assays used, and how long after death the assays were conducted.
636:
opioids. The concentration of mitragynine and other alkaloids in kratom have been found to vary between particular "strains" of the plant, thus indicating "strain-specific" effects from consumption, as well. Kratom extracts are often mixed with other easily attainable psychoactive compounds—such are found in over-the-counter
669:
symptoms such as nausea, diarrhea, and muscle spasms to psychological symptoms such as restlessness, anxiety, and anger but lasted less than 3 days for most subjects. However, the results from this study may be obfuscated by the occasional addition of other substances in the kratom preparation such as
668:
consuming between 40 and 240 mg of mitragynine per day, 89% indicated a previous attempt of discontinuing kratom consumption which resulted in withdrawal symptoms ranging from mild (65% of subjects) to moderate/severe (35% of subjects). In the same study, withdrawal symptoms ranged from physical
1184:
resisting the proposed scheduling. This opposition led the DEA to withdraw its report of intent in
October 2016, allowing for unencumbered research into the potential benefits and health risks associated with mitragynine and other alkaloids in the kratom plant. Kratom and its active constituents are
572:
properties for at least a century. In
Southeast Asia, the consumption of mitragynine from whole leaf kratom preparations is common among laborers who report utilizing kratom's mild stimulant and perceived analgesic properties to increase endurance and ease pain while working. In one laboratory study
1205:
Inconsistencies in dosing, purity, and concomitant drug use makes evaluating the effects of mitragynine in humans difficult. Conversely, animal studies control for such variability but offer limited translatable information relevant to humans. Experimental limitations aside, mitragynine has been
693:
The solubility of mitragynine from kratom in neutral-pH and alkaline water is very low (0.0187 mg/ml at pH 9). The solubility of mitragynine in acidic water is higher (3.5 mg/ml at pH 4), however, this alkaloid can become unstable, so certain products, such as low-pH beverages, have a very short
635:
are thought to underlie the effects of kratom. Consumption of dried kratom leaves yields different responses depending on the dose consumed. At low doses, the plant is reported to induce a mild stimulating effect, while larger doses are reported to produce sedation and antinociception typical of
618:
and withdrawal as primary motivations for kratom use: almost 50% of the approximately 8,000 kratom users surveyed indicated kratom use that resulted in reduced or discontinued use of opioids. Some animal models of opioid withdrawals suggest mitragynine can suppress and ameliorate withdrawal from
1158:
in kratom consumers have been reported. Due to
Cytochrome P450 enzyme inhibition, the combination of mitragynine with other drugs poses concern for adverse reactions to mitragynine. Fatalities involving mitragynine tend to include its use in combination with opioids and some cough suppressants.
512:
is a minor constituent (up to 2% of total alkaloid content). In
Malaysian kratom varieties, mitragynine is present at lower concentration (12% of total alkaloids). Such preparations are orally consumed and typically involve dried kratom leaves which are brewed into tea or ground and placed into
663:
Due at least in part to the activity on opioid receptors of mitragynine and its derivatives, kratom can result in dependence and lead to withdrawal symptoms when discontinued. Regular users report withdrawal symptoms comparable to that of other opioids following the discontinuation of kratom.
1171:. Despite the current legal status of the plant and its constituents, the legality of kratom has been turbulent in recent years. In August 2016, the DEA issued a report of intent stating that mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine would undergo emergency scheduling and be placed under
521:
where the plant grows indigenously. Recently, mitragynine use has spread throughout Europe and the
Americas as both a recreational and medicinal drug. While research into the effects of kratom have begun to emerge, investigations on the active compound mitragynine are less common.
1984:
Takayama H, Ishikawa H, Kurihara M, Kitajima M, Aimi N, Ponglux D, et al. (April 2002). "Studies on the synthesis and opioid agonistic activities of mitragynine-related indole alkaloids: discovery of opioid agonists structurally different from other opioid ligands".
644:
include analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, and muscle relaxant properties; adverse effects include a negative impact on cognition; in animal studies the potential for misuse has been found, including through the use of the
1153:
Mitragynine toxicity in humans is largely unknown, as animal studies show significant species-specific differences in mitragynine tolerance. Mitragynine toxicity in humans is rarely reported although specific examples of seizures and
547:(EMCDDA): As of 2023, kratom had not been approved for any medical use. As of 2018, the FDA had noted, in particular, that there had been no clinical trials to study safety and efficacy of kratom in the treatment of opioid addiction.
694:
shelf life. Many vendors offer concentrated kratom products with claims of improved mitragynine solubility, however, those products are often formulated with solvents such as propylene glycol, which can make products unpleasant.
1175:
classification until further notice, making kratom strictly illegal and thus hindering research on its active constituents. Following this report, the DEA faced significant public and administrative opposition in the form of a
1337:
Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, Yusoff NH, Suhaimi FW, Vadivelu R, et al. (February 2013). "From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction".
420:
601:
Kratom is commonly used in the United States as self-treatment for pain and opioid withdrawal. A 2019 review of existing literature suggested the potential of kratom as substitution therapy for chronic pain.
2162:
Ulbricht C, Costa D, Dao J, Isaac R, LeBlanc YC, Rhoades J, et al. (June 2013). "An evidence-based systematic review of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) by the
Natural Standard Research Collaboration".
2045:
Ya K, Tangamornsuksan W, Scholfield CN, Methaneethorn J, Lohitnavy M (June 2019). "Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine, a major analgesic alkaloid in kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): A systematic review".
929:. However, recent evidence suggests that low intrinsic efficacy at the mu opioid receptor is responsible for the improved side effect profile of mitragynine, as opposed to G protein bias.
2346:
67:
2420:
1620:"Statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on the agency's scientific evidence on the presence of opioid compounds in kratom, underscoring its potential for abuse"
508:. The total alkaloid concentration in dried leaves ranges from 0.5 to 1.5%. In Thai varieties, mitragynine is the most abundant component (up to 66% of total alkaloids) while
1837:
An additional study included in the same review found that ~90% of 136 Malaysian kratom-users were substituting it for opioids, with ~84% reporting its effects helping with
472:
InChI=1S/C23H30N2O4/c1-5-14-12-25-10-9-15-21-18(7-6-8-20(21)28-3)24-22(15)19(25)11-16(14)17(13-27-2)23(26)29-4/h6-8,13-14,16,19,24H,5,9-12H2,1-4H3/b17-13+/t14-,16+,19+/m1/s1
513:
capsules. Mitragynine consumption for medicinal and recreation purposes dates back centuries, although early use was primarily limited to
Southeast Asian countries such as
1235:
543:
for kratom, and that there was no evidence that kratom was safe or effective for treating any condition. This reiterated the conclusion of an earlier report by the
1230:[Collegiate Board Resolution No. 784 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control] (in Brazilian Portuguese).
544:
1795:
Ismail I, Wahab S, Sidi H, Das S, Lin LJ, Razali R (2018-12-19). "Kratom and Future
Treatment for the Opioid Addiction and Chronic Pain: Periculo Beneficium?".
1686:
Suhaimi FW, Yusoff NH, Hassan R, Mansor SM, Navaratnam V, Müller CP, et al. (September 2016). "Neurobiology of Kratom and its main alkaloid mitragynine".
1534:
Prozialeck WC, Jivan JK, Andurkar SV (December 2012). "Pharmacology of kratom: an emerging botanical agent with stimulant, analgesic and opioid-like effects".
913:
receptors, though the significance of these interactions is not fully understood. Additionally, several reports of mitragynine pharmacology indicate potential
2421:"FDA issues warnings to companies selling illegal, unapproved kratom drug products marketed for opioid cessation, pain treatment and other medical uses"
677:, which could contribute to the withdrawal symptoms. In an animal study, mitragynine withdrawal symptoms were observed following 14 days of mitragynine
1730:
80:
444:
1125:
of mitragynine which reportedly has an inhibitory effect on multiple P450 enzymes, raising the possibility of adverse drug interactions.
1414:
Warner ML, Kaufman NC, Grundmann O (January 2016). "The pharmacology and toxicology of kratom: from traditional herb to drug of abuse".
1930:"Understanding the physicochemical properties of mitragynine, a principal alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa, for preclinical evaluation"
1256:
2526:
886:
opioid receptors as well, but these interactions remain ambiguous with some reports indicating mitragynine as a delta and kappa
706:
Potential role of mitragynine as a biased agonist of the mu-opioid receptor (MOR), favoring beta arrestin independent signaling
1181:
870:. The nature of mitragynine's interaction with opioid receptors has yet to be fully classified with some reports suggesting
2521:
2136:"EMCDDA | Kratom profile (chemistry, effects, other names, origin, mode of use, other names, medical use, control status)"
1227:
640:—to potentiate the effects of the concentrated levels of mitragynine. Effects of mitragynine-containing preparations from
685:, all of which are characteristic signs of opioid withdrawal in mice and are comparable to morphine withdrawal symptoms.
1223:
2090:"Low intrinsic efficacy for G protein activation can explain the improved side effect profiles of new opioid agonists"
2347:"Cracking Down on Kratom: FDA Investigation, Enforcement, Seizure, and Recall of Products Reported to Contain Kratom"
1859:
464:
1608:
in the United States, though it had been studied in cell culture and in animals. See Hassan et al. (2013), op. cit.
121:
1584:"Kratom profile (chemistry, effects, other names, origin, mode of use, other names, medical use, control status)"
1287:"Kratom profile (chemistry, effects, other names, origin, mode of use, other names, medical use, control status)"
1168:
160:
52:
2395:
2506:
1228:"RDC Nº 784 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial"
1619:
1231:
1190:
646:
536:
246:
2371:
1032:
Locations of hydrolysis and o-demethylation of mitragynine during the initial steps of phase I metabolism
2501:
910:
326:
315:
1583:
100:
2511:
890:
and others as a full agonist of these receptors. In either case, mitragynine is reported to have lower
658:
615:
1180:
petition signed by 140,000 citizens and a letter to the DEA administrator backed by 51 members of the
1561:
1017:
824:
678:
342:
1028:
993:
894:
to delta and kappa receptors compared to mu receptors. Mitragynine is also known to interact with
979:
2135:
1286:
614:
addiction and withdrawal. As of 2018, a review of mental health aspects of kratom use mentioned
2516:
965:
926:
925:
recruitment, which was originally thought to be a primary component in reducing opioid induced
887:
852:
2089:
1604:
Similarly, but earlier, the conclusion was reported that kratom had yet to be the subject of
1106:
295:
235:
1197:, while advocating for more research for a better understanding of kratom's safety profile.
895:
803:
632:
509:
255:
1648:
Swogger MT, Walsh Z (February 2018). "Kratom use and mental health: A systematic review".
883:
879:
864:
860:
769:
759:
749:
190:
8:
1134:
573:
in a rat model in 2016, alkaloid-containing extracts of kratom gave evidence of inducing
181:
2088:
Gillis A, Gondin AB, Kliewer A, Sanchez J, Lim HD, Alamein C, et al. (March 2020).
1928:
Ramanathan S, Parthasarathy S, Murugaiyah V, Magosso E, Tan SC, Mansor SM (March 2015).
1145:
to form multiple glucuronide and sulfate conjugates, which are then excreted via urine.
346:
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1994:
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1347:
1005:
871:
722:
670:
363:
2315:
2302:
Griffin OH, Webb ME (2018). "The
Scheduling of Kratom and Selective Use of Data".
2176:
1605:
1138:
1118:
1114:
922:
867:
586:
578:
565:
1167:
In the United States, kratom and its active ingredients are not scheduled under
2282:
2265:
1172:
1155:
914:
674:
649:(CPP) test, which indicated a distinct reward-effect for 7-hydroxymitragynine.
637:
582:
2105:
2058:
1946:
1427:
1008:
analysis have largely taken place in live rodents as well as rodent and human
702:
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540:
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39:
22:
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2006:
1965:
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1547:
1511:
1435:
1359:
681:
injections in mice and included displays of anxiety, teeth chattering, and
2208:"Biochemical Benefits, Diagnosis, and Clinical Risks Evaluation of Kratom"
1882:
White CM (March 2018). "Pharmacologic and clinical assessment of kratom".
1854:(5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. 2013. pp. 547–549.
1772:
1755:
1731:"Recreational Drug Kratom Hits the Same Brain Receptors as Strong Opioids"
1586:. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 8 January 2015
1177:
1094:
682:
619:
other opioid agonists, e.g., after chronic administration of morphine in
560:
Mitragynine-containing kratom extracts, with their accompanying array of
2462:
2044:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1927:
1492:
2266:"Kratom from Head to Toe—Case Reviews of Adverse Events and Toxicities"
1895:
1090:
1078:
396:
226:
144:
In general legal for medical and research uses as a research chemical.
30:
1998:
1972:
1142:
1102:
1013:
1009:
943:
918:
856:
620:
610:
As early as the 19th century, kratom was in use for the treatment of
590:
569:
514:
201:
1110:
665:
574:
561:
518:
495:
275:
1077:
Mitragynine is primarily metabolized in the liver, producing many
419:
875:
1983:
1291:
European
Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
1194:
505:
491:
306:
878:
activity. Additionally, mitragynine is known to interact with
874:
activity at the mu opioid receptor and others suggesting full
1336:
611:
410:
286:
2263:
1852:
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5
331:
1053:
266:
172:)-9,17-dimethoxy-16,17-didehydro-20β-corynan-16-carboxylate
2418:
2087:
1189:
except for a small number of states. As of June 2019, the
1685:
1185:
unscheduled and legally sold in stores and online in the
452:
COC1=CC=CC2=C1C3=C((C(/C(C(OC)=O)=C\OC)(CC)C4)()N4CC3)N2
1756:"Update on the Pharmacology and Legal Status of Kratom"
1533:
545:
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
1413:
1016:
than typical opioid agonists (7–39 hours) and reached
2161:
2264:Alsarraf E, Myers J, Culbreth S, Fanikos J (2019).
1760:
The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association
1536:
The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association
1101:groups on positions 9 and 17. Following this step,
2446:"Current perspectives on the impact of Kratom use"
1794:
1476:"Current perspectives on the impact of Kratom use"
1265:障害福祉のお仕事の世界 (The world of disability welfare work)
1073:Inhibitory effects of mitragynine on P450 enzymes.
851:Mitragynine acts on a variety of receptors in the
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1089:During phase I metabolism, mitragynine undergoes
2493:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2157:
2155:
1097:group on C16 as well as o-demethylation of both
214:
2443:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2270:Current Emergency and Hospital Medicine Reports
2205:
1681:
1679:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1564:. US Food and Drug Administration. 3 April 2019
1473:
189:
1518:
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1401:
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2250:
2152:
1877:
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1379:
1377:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
494:-based alkaloid and the most abundant active
2290:
1676:
1647:
1634:
688:
652:
2301:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
1884:American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy
1868:
1753:
1450:
1374:
1297:
938:Pharmacokinetics parameters (N=10, human)
727:
345:
234:
38:
29:
2471:
2461:
2419:Office of the Commissioner (2020-03-24).
2281:
2233:
2223:
1955:
1945:
1841:. See Swogger and Walsh (2018), op. cit.
1771:
1501:
1491:
770:
760:
750:
659:Mitragyna speciosa § Adverse effects
254:
1617:
1554:
1027:
701:
2344:
2013:
1923:
1921:
1611:
1416:International Journal of Legal Medicine
1200:
1193:continues to warn consumers not to use
341:
2494:
1340:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
1222:
136:
115:
2369:
1881:
1576:
568:, have been used for their perceived
314:
294:
127:
2444:Veltri C, Grundmann O (2019-07-01).
2396:"Kratom - an emerging drug of abuse"
2372:"The DEA Changes Its Mind on Kratom"
1918:
1844:
605:
550:
539:(FDA) had stated that there were no
535:As of April 2019, the United States
103:(Industrial and scientific use only)
1259:[List of designated drugs]
932:
846:
274:
205:
107:
13:
2450:Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation
2351:Food and Drug Law Institute (FDLI)
2081:
1700:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.015
1480:Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation
1081:during both phase I and phase II.
921:signaling pathways independent of
14:
2538:
1809:10.2174/1389450118666170425154120
1728:
1622:. US Food and Drug Administration
1020:within 1 hour of administration.
61:
1743:– via Scientific American.
1662:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.012
1113:intermediates into alcohols and
380:
374:
2437:
2412:
2388:
2363:
2338:
2199:
2128:
1831:
1788:
1754:Prozialeck WC (December 2016).
1747:
1722:
1598:
1352:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012
1238:from the original on 2023-08-03
697:
631:Mitragynine and its metabolite
626:
596:
589:tests to a level comparable to
477:Key:LELBFTMXCIIKKX-QVRQZEMUSA-N
95:
2527:Delta-opioid receptor agonists
2206:Fluyau D, Revadigar N (2017).
2165:Journal of Dietary Supplements
1987:Journal of Medicinal Chemistry
1735:Chemical & Engineerin News
1618:Gottlieb S (6 February 2018).
1474:Veltri C, Grundmann O (2019).
1279:
1249:
1216:
1137:, phase I metabolites undergo
714:alkaloids at opioid receptors
386:
368:
87:
74:
1:
2316:10.1080/02791072.2017.1371363
2304:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
1209:
1148:
1023:
498:in the Southeast Asian plant
2177:10.3109/19390211.2013.793541
1121:are known to facilitate the
647:conditioned place preference
555:
537:Food and Drug Administration
7:
2522:Mu-opioid receptor agonists
2047:Asian Journal of Psychiatry
1650:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
1162:
1128:
122:Psychoactive Substances Act
10:
2543:
2283:10.1007/s40138-019-00194-1
1084:
736:Tooltip Inhibitor constant
656:
530:
358:Chemical and physical data
2345:Commons KM (2018-08-10).
2106:10.1126/scisignal.aaz3140
2059:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.05.016
1947:10.3390/molecules20034915
1428:10.1007/s00414-015-1279-y
1018:peak plasma concentration
825:Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
775:Tooltip κ-Opioid receptor
765:Tooltip δ-Opioid receptor
755:Tooltip μ-Opioid receptor
743:
721:
718:
689:Solubility of mitragynine
653:Dependence and withdrawal
460:
440:
430:
408:
395:
362:
357:
325:
305:
285:
265:
245:
225:
200:
180:
156:
151:
51:
46:
37:
28:
16:Opioid analgesic compound
2225:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00062
1234:(published 2023-04-04).
1182:House of Representatives
974:38.04 ± 24.32
960:23.24 ± 16.07
2212:Frontiers in Psychiatry
1688:Brain Research Bulletin
1232:Diário Oficial da União
525:
2400:www.mangaloretoday.com
1119:P450 metabolic enzymes
1074:
988:0.83 ± 0.35
927:respiratory depression
888:competitive antagonist
707:
541:approved clinical uses
1773:10.7556/jaoa.2016.156
1031:
999:1.4 ± 0.73
705:
2507:Tryptamine alkaloids
2376:www.uspharmacist.com
2140:www.emcdda.europa.eu
1797:Current Drug Targets
1201:Research limitations
804:7-Hydroxymitragynine
633:7-hydroxymitragynine
510:7-hydroxymitragynine
504:, commonly known as
83:(Psychoactive drugs)
2463:10.2147/SAR.S164261
1493:10.2147/SAR.S164261
1135:phase II metabolism
1035:
939:
855:, most notably the
715:
25:
2502:Indoloquinolizines
1896:10.2146/ajhp161035
1123:phase I metabolism
1109:reactions convert
1075:
1034:
937:
917:activity favoring
911:alpha-2 adrenergic
712:Mitragyna speciosa
710:
708:
616:opioid replacement
501:Mitragyna speciosa
111:: Unscheduled
91:: Unscheduled
21:
2512:Methoxy compounds
2094:Science Signaling
1999:10.1021/jm010576e
1839:opioid withdrawal
1072:
1071:
1003:
1002:
844:
843:
606:Opioid withdrawal
551:Ethnopharmacology
485:
484:
421:Interactive image
327:CompTox Dashboard
141: Unscheduled
140:
132: Unscheduled
131:
119:
110:
98:
90:
78:
70:(Controlled drug)
65:
2534:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2465:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2299:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2261:
2248:
2247:
2237:
2227:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2159:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2042:
2011:
2010:
1993:(9): 1949–1956.
1981:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1949:
1940:(3): 4915–4927.
1925:
1916:
1915:
1879:
1866:
1865:
1848:
1842:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1775:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1683:
1674:
1673:
1645:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1615:
1609:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1562:"FDA and kratom"
1558:
1552:
1551:
1531:
1516:
1515:
1505:
1495:
1471:
1448:
1447:
1411:
1372:
1371:
1334:
1295:
1294:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1262:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1244:
1243:
1220:
1115:carboxylic acids
1036:
1033:
954:
953:
949:
940:
936:
933:Pharmacokinetics
868:opioid receptors
847:Pharmacodynamics
776:
772:
766:
762:
756:
752:
737:
733:
716:
709:
671:dextromethorphan
566:natural products
423:
403:
388:
382:
376:
370:
350:
349:
335:
333:
318:
298:
278:
258:
238:
218:
208:
207:
193:
138:
135:
129:
126:
117:
114:
109:
106:
97:
94:
89:
86:
76:
73:
63:
60:
42:
33:
26:
24:
20:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2489:
2442:
2438:
2429:
2427:
2417:
2413:
2404:
2402:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2380:
2378:
2368:
2364:
2355:
2353:
2343:
2339:
2300:
2291:
2262:
2251:
2204:
2200:
2160:
2153:
2144:
2142:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2086:
2082:
2043:
2014:
1982:
1973:
1926:
1919:
1880:
1869:
1862:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1836:
1832:
1793:
1789:
1766:(12): 802–809.
1752:
1748:
1739:
1737:
1727:
1723:
1694:(Pt 1): 29–40.
1684:
1677:
1646:
1635:
1625:
1623:
1616:
1612:
1606:clinical trials
1603:
1599:
1589:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1567:
1565:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1542:(12): 792–799.
1532:
1519:
1472:
1451:
1412:
1375:
1335:
1298:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1270:
1268:
1260:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1241:
1239:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1203:
1165:
1151:
1139:glucuronidation
1131:
1087:
1057:
1026:
1006:Pharmacokinetic
983:
969:
955:
951:
947:
946:
935:
899:
872:partial agonist
849:
774:
764:
754:
735:
731:
700:
691:
675:benzodiazepines
661:
655:
638:cough medicines
629:
608:
599:
579:antinociceptive
570:pain-mitigation
558:
553:
533:
528:
481:
478:
473:
468:
467:
456:
453:
448:
447:
436:102–106 °C
426:
401:
391:
385:
379:
373:
353:
343:DTXSID701032140
329:
321:
301:
281:
261:
241:
221:
204:
196:
176:
173:
164:
163:
147:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2540:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2488:
2487:
2436:
2411:
2387:
2370:Gianutsos FG.
2362:
2337:
2310:(2): 114–120.
2289:
2276:(4): 141–168.
2249:
2198:
2171:(2): 152–170.
2151:
2127:
2080:
2012:
1971:
1917:
1890:(5): 261–267.
1867:
1860:
1843:
1830:
1803:(2): 166–172.
1787:
1746:
1721:
1675:
1633:
1610:
1597:
1575:
1553:
1517:
1449:
1422:(1): 127–138.
1373:
1346:(2): 138–151.
1296:
1278:
1248:
1226:(2023-03-31).
1214:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1169:DEA guidelines
1164:
1161:
1156:liver toxicity
1150:
1147:
1130:
1127:
1086:
1083:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1025:
1022:
1001:
1000:
997:
990:
989:
986:
981:
976:
975:
972:
967:
962:
961:
958:
945:
934:
931:
915:biased agonism
897:
848:
845:
842:
841:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
821:
820:
818:
815:
812:
809:
806:
800:
799:
797:
794:
791:
788:
785:
781:
780:
777:
767:
757:
746:
745:
742:
739:
729:
720:
699:
696:
690:
687:
654:
651:
628:
625:
607:
604:
598:
595:
557:
554:
552:
549:
532:
529:
527:
524:
483:
482:
480:
479:
476:
474:
471:
463:
462:
461:
458:
457:
455:
454:
451:
443:
442:
441:
438:
437:
434:
428:
427:
425:
424:
416:
414:
406:
405:
399:
393:
392:
389:
383:
377:
371:
366:
360:
359:
355:
354:
352:
351:
338:
336:
323:
322:
320:
319:
311:
309:
303:
302:
300:
299:
291:
289:
283:
282:
280:
279:
271:
269:
263:
262:
260:
259:
251:
249:
243:
242:
240:
239:
231:
229:
223:
222:
220:
219:
211:
209:
198:
197:
195:
194:
186:
184:
178:
177:
175:
174:
167:
159:
158:
157:
154:
153:
149:
148:
146:
145:
142:
133:
124:
112:
104:
92:
84:
71:
57:
55:
49:
48:
44:
43:
35:
34:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2539:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2517:Methyl esters
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2440:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2158:
2156:
2141:
2137:
2131:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1922:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1863:
1861:9780890425541
1857:
1853:
1847:
1840:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1682:
1680:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1621:
1614:
1607:
1601:
1585:
1579:
1563:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1267:(in Japanese)
1266:
1258:
1252:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1215:
1207:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:United States
1183:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1160:
1157:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1082:
1080:
1068:3.6 , 0.636
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1030:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
998:
995:
992:
991:
987:
984:
978:
977:
973:
970:
964:
963:
959:
956:
942:
941:
930:
928:
924:
923:beta arrestin
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
866:
862:
858:
854:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
826:
823:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
807:
805:
802:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
786:
783:
782:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
747:
740:
734:
724:
717:
713:
704:
695:
686:
684:
680:
676:
672:
667:
660:
650:
648:
643:
639:
634:
624:
622:
617:
613:
603:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
567:
563:
548:
546:
542:
538:
523:
520:
516:
511:
507:
503:
502:
497:
493:
489:
475:
470:
469:
466:
459:
450:
449:
446:
439:
435:
433:
432:Melting point
429:
422:
418:
417:
415:
412:
407:
400:
398:
394:
367:
365:
361:
356:
348:
344:
340:
339:
337:
328:
324:
317:
313:
312:
310:
308:
304:
297:
293:
292:
290:
288:
284:
277:
273:
272:
270:
268:
264:
257:
253:
252:
250:
248:
244:
237:
233:
232:
230:
228:
224:
217:
213:
212:
210:
203:
199:
192:
188:
187:
185:
183:
179:
171:
166:
165:
162:
155:
150:
143:
134:
125:
123:
113:
105:
102:
93:
85:
82:
72:
69:
59:
58:
56:
54:
50:
45:
41:
36:
32:
27:
19:
2453:
2449:
2439:
2428:. Retrieved
2424:
2414:
2403:. Retrieved
2399:
2390:
2379:. Retrieved
2375:
2365:
2354:. Retrieved
2350:
2340:
2307:
2303:
2273:
2269:
2215:
2211:
2201:
2168:
2164:
2143:. Retrieved
2139:
2130:
2097:
2093:
2083:
2050:
2046:
1990:
1986:
1937:
1933:
1887:
1883:
1851:
1846:
1833:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1763:
1759:
1749:
1738:. Retrieved
1734:
1724:
1691:
1687:
1653:
1649:
1624:. Retrieved
1613:
1600:
1590:12 September
1588:. Retrieved
1578:
1566:. Retrieved
1556:
1539:
1535:
1483:
1479:
1419:
1415:
1343:
1339:
1290:
1281:
1269:. Retrieved
1264:
1251:
1240:. Retrieved
1218:
1204:
1166:
1152:
1132:
1088:
1076:
1004:
850:
779:MOR:DOR:KOR
711:
698:Pharmacology
692:
683:piloerection
662:
641:
630:
627:Recreational
609:
600:
597:Chronic pain
577:-reversible
559:
534:
499:
487:
486:
316:ChEMBL299031
169:
120: Under
53:Legal status
47:Legal status
18:
1656:: 134–140.
1178:White House
1095:methylester
1079:metabolites
784:Mitragynine
642:M. speciosa
581:effects in
488:Mitragynine
404: g·mol
152:Identifiers
23:Mitragynine
2496:Categories
2430:2020-08-05
2405:2020-05-15
2381:2020-05-15
2356:2020-05-15
2145:2019-11-18
1740:2020-05-15
1626:6 February
1271:5 December
1242:2023-08-15
1210:References
1173:schedule 1
1149:Toxicology
1091:hydrolysis
1024:Metabolism
1010:microsomes
896:dopamine D
723:Affinities
657:See also:
621:zebra fish
587:tail-flick
564:and other
409:3D model (
397:Molar mass
296:CHEBI:6956
256:EP479K822J
227:ChemSpider
182:CAS Number
168:methyl (16
161:IUPAC name
2456:: 23–31.
2332:205537323
2122:214771721
2075:157067698
2053:: 73–82.
1934:Molecules
1912:207294013
1729:Kroll D.
1486:: 23–31.
1143:sulfation
1107:reduction
1103:oxidation
1014:half-life
919:G protein
907:serotonin
903:adenosine
591:oxycodone
562:alkaloids
556:Analgesia
515:Indonesia
191:4098-40-2
2482:31308789
2324:28937941
2244:28484399
2193:29310420
2185:23725528
2114:32234959
2067:31100603
2007:11960505
1966:25793541
1904:29255059
1825:30013009
1817:28443503
1782:27893147
1708:27018165
1670:29248691
1568:8 August
1548:23212430
1512:31308789
1436:26511390
1360:23206666
1257:"指定薬物一覧"
1236:Archived
1163:Legality
1129:Phase II
1111:aldehyde
1059:(μg/mL)
892:affinity
838:1:35:913
719:Compound
666:Malaysia
583:hotplate
575:naloxone
519:Thailand
496:alkaloid
81:Class B1
2473:6612999
2235:5402527
2100:(625).
1957:6272646
1716:3952200
1503:6612999
1444:2009878
1368:8463133
1133:During
1099:methoxy
1093:of the
1085:Phase I
971:(L/kg)
950:⁄
876:agonist
796:1:8:152
531:Medical
402:398.503
364:Formula
236:2298865
216:3034396
202:PubChem
99::
2480:
2470:
2330:
2322:
2242:
2232:
2218:: 62.
2191:
2183:
2120:
2112:
2073:
2065:
2005:
1964:
1954:
1910:
1902:
1858:
1823:
1815:
1780:
1714:
1706:
1668:
1546:
1510:
1500:
1442:
1434:
1366:
1358:
1224:Anvisa
1195:kratom
1065:0.78
996:(L/h)
909:, and
863:, and
817:1:11:9
506:kratom
492:indole
490:is an
445:SMILES
307:ChEMBL
276:C09226
79:
66:
2328:S2CID
2189:S2CID
2118:S2CID
2071:S2CID
1908:S2CID
1821:S2CID
1712:S2CID
1440:S2CID
1364:S2CID
1261:(PDF)
884:kappa
880:delta
865:kappa
861:delta
829:0.087
793:1,100
741:Ratio
612:opium
465:InChI
411:JSmol
287:ChEBI
2478:PMID
2320:PMID
2240:PMID
2181:PMID
2110:PMID
2063:PMID
2003:PMID
1962:PMID
1900:PMID
1856:ISBN
1813:PMID
1778:PMID
1704:PMID
1666:PMID
1628:2018
1592:2016
1570:2019
1544:PMID
1508:PMID
1432:PMID
1356:PMID
1273:2023
1141:and
1105:and
1062:39
1048:2D6
1045:3A4
1042:1A2
1039:CYP
985:(h)
957:(h)
882:and
835:79.4
832:3.02
808:13.5
790:60.3
787:7.24
744:Ref
732:(nM)
679:i.p.
673:and
585:and
526:Uses
517:and
267:KEGG
247:UNII
101:NpSG
2468:PMC
2458:doi
2425:FDA
2312:doi
2278:doi
2230:PMC
2220:doi
2173:doi
2102:doi
2055:doi
1995:doi
1952:PMC
1942:doi
1892:doi
1805:doi
1768:doi
1764:116
1696:doi
1692:126
1658:doi
1654:183
1540:112
1498:PMC
1488:doi
1424:doi
1420:130
1348:doi
1191:FDA
982:max
853:CNS
814:123
811:155
771:KOR
761:DOR
751:MOR
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