492:) was a genuine fragmentation bomb that could be launched from trebuchets or lowered by chains onto besiegers, and would be used against the Mongols at the siege of Kaifeng, later being adopted by the Southern Song and by the Mongols in their invasions of Japan. Before shooting gunpowder bombs, Jin forces first assessed range and direction with solid stone balls, followed by the actual gunpowder bombs when the shot landed accurately. This practice saved valuable ammunition. A contemporaneous record of the Kaifeng siege recounts the process by which the bombs were launched. First, a soldier ignited the fuse. The rope of the trebuchet was pulled, launching the bomb into the air. The bomb produced a large explosion the moment it landed, inflicting damage that could penetrate armor. The explosion sometimes sparked a fire on the grass of the battlefield, which could burn a soldier to death, even if he survived the initial blast.
374:
104:
17:
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646:, commander of an "Extraordinary Watch", decentralised mobile groups similar in organisation, clothing and equipment to the Jurchen warbands. These warbands also upset the traditional hierarchical order of Goryeo society by granting its members immunity from the law and sharing personal space and items between the commander and his troops. The warband also shaped Goryeo society as a whole after Choe's 1170 military coup, as warbands were critical for military rulers to maintain their hold on power, but also interfered with civilian governance and succession.
602:), even though for the latter campaign the Jin had equipped a large navy of their own, using Han Chinese shipbuilders and even Han Chinese captains who had defected from the Southern Song. Prince Hailing was the first northern conquest dynasty leader to attempt to expand into naval technology, to attack the waterways leading to southern China. This Jin fleet, the first the Jin constructed, were manned by 30,000 Han Chinese sailors. Jin ships were however unable to compete with the Song's because the former were smaller and hastily constructed.
579:
547:
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cavalry, had ventured too far into this China of the south with its flooded lands, intersecting rivers, paddy fields and canals, and dense population which harassed and encircled it. We-chu, leader of the Kin troops, sought to return north but was halted by the
Yangtze, now wide as a sea and patrolled by Chinese flotillas. At last a traitor showed him how he might cross the river near Chenkiang, east of Nanking (1130).
618:
Meanwhile, the main Jin ground force attempted to cross the
Yangtze river with boats made from the wood of dismantled houses, an inadequate fleet that suffered severe defeats at the hands of Yu Yunwen's Song riverine fleet. The Jin invasion force, despite outnumbering the Song force by ten times, was hence forced to withdraw due to their inability to field capable naval forces.
566:(浚, digging), terms which focus on the ditch more than the wall. In some places subsidiary walls and ditches were added for extra strength. The construction was started in about 1123 and completed by about 1198. The two sections attributable to the Jin dynasty are known as the Old Mingchang Walls and New Great Walls, together stretching more than 2,000 kilometres in length.
499:, the "flying" fire lance, that seemed to be more effective than earlier versions, with a tube that was still usable after firing and a range of 10 feet. While they were dismissive of most Jin weapons, the Mongols feared the "flying" fire lance and the heaven-shaking thunder bomb. The tube contained, besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur, charcoal, and
638:. These "private troops" became an important feature of Goryeo frontier defenses, as the urgent need to protect the frontier from raiding required courts to grant a position of primacy to immediate and present leaders (including some Jurchen leaders) to lead local horseback forces. The rise of the Jin dynasty and its resulting threat on Goryeo provoked the
133:. It was hence responsible for supplying a large portion of the troops that fought the Song in the seven years following the dynasty's creation. The Qi were obligated to obey the orders of the Jurchen generals. With Jin support, Qi invaded the Song in November 1133. Li Cheng, a Song turncoat who had joined the Qi, led the campaign.
444:
degrees
Celsius to negative 60 degrees Celsius, making them suited to military campaigns in central China during autumn and winter, as well as on the Mongolian steppe. Each Jurchen horseman joined the campaign with two horses, one for battle and one for transport. Each horseman was accompanied by a relative who served as his
426:'s rebellion against the Liao dynasty, all Jurchen fighters were mounted. It was said that the Jurchen cavalry tactics were a carryover from their hunting skills. Jurchen horsemen were provided with heavy armor; on occasions, they would allegedly use a team of horses attached to each other with chains (
617:
In 1161, the Song navy under Li Bao, formed of just 120 ships and 3,000 sailors, attacked the Jin fleet of 600 ships and 100,000 men at their home port. Due to the poor seafaring knowledge of the Jin sailors, the Song were victorious and succeeded in destroying the entire Jin sea fleet in one battle.
94:
reports that the
Mongols were always amazed at the valour of the Jurchen warriors, who held out until seven years after the death of Genghis Khan. The Jin dynasty's standing forces numbered at approximately half a million, the largest in the world at the time, circa 1195. In the view of some scholars
569:
However, there is no evidence that the wall system was manned at the time of the Mongol attack. The lack of soldiers at the walls may be related to the fact that guarding the wall was the responsibility of the
Ongguts, who defected early on to the Mongols. Moreover, even during the Jin dynasty, one
439:
Their cavalry was arranged with two ranks of armoured heavy cavalry in front and three ranks of light cavalry behind. The
Jurchen cavalry all carried composite bows which they showed great skill in using; Wanyan Aguda was famed for hitting a target at 320 paces. The armoured heavy cavalry were also
483:
against the
Mongols in 1233 is considered the first ever battle in human history in which gunpowder was used effectively, even though it failed to prevent the eventual Jin defeat. While earlier bombs were made of bamboo tubes filled with gunpowder, the Jin army in the 1221 siege of Qizhou began to
397:
were mounted and selected based on mounted archery skills, and paid three times more than the ordinary troops to encourage more enemy soldiers to defect. The imperial court also defended their ill-disciplined behaviour and high crime rate by saying that foreign defectors were rare and needed to be
2084:
The emperor Kao-tsung had taken flight to Ningpo (then known as
Mingchow) and later to the port of Wenchow, south of Chekiang. From Nanking the Kin general Wu-chu hastened in pursuit and captured Hangchow and Ningpo (end of 1129 and beginning of 1130. However, the Kin army, consisting entirely of
609:
in southern China. But heavy
Chinese resistance and the geography of the area halted the Jin advance, and they were forced to retreat and withdraw, and they had not been able to escape the Song navy when trying to return until they were directed by a Han Chinese defector who helped them escape in
531:
may have been used in 1232 by the Jin commander Qiang Shen. Qiang invented a device called the "Arresting
Trebuchet" which only needed a few men to work it, and could hurl great stones more than a hundred paces, further than even the strongest traction trebuchet. However no other details on the
443:
In its initial years, the Jin dynasty's armies contained 70 to 90% cavalry. Although the Jurchen were avid horse breeders who owned normal-sized horses, they used small horses for warfare. These small horses, like Yakutian and Mongolian horse breeds, were adapted to temperatures ranging from 40
561:
The Great Wall as constructed by the Jurchens differed from the previous dynasties. Known as the Border Fortress or the Boundary Ditch of the Jin, it was formed by digging ditches and using the excavated earth to build lengths of earthen parapet. The southern branch of the southern wall had a
324:
became private armies of hereditary imperial princes, seizing properties and challenging the throne. Jurchen military commanders were largely hereditary Jurchen nobles, and were given power over the local civilian governors where they were garrisoned. Prince Hailing abolished these autonomous
503:, ground porcelain and iron filings. The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jin soldiers in battle. Once the gunpowder was consumed, the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear, or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder.
452:
and the northern marches were at least double that of the Song's, which moreover were also too far from the war front. Hence, the Song's horse supply was only 20 to 30% of the Jin's. This disparity constituted a major factor in the Jin's military advantage over the Song.
221:, Chinese for Ten Thousand Households. This was not only a military structure but also grouped all Jurchen households for economic and administrative functions. Khitans and Han Chinese soldiers who had defected to the Jin dynasty were also assigned into their own
332:
Ethnic Bohai were an important element of not only civil but military administration in the Jin dynasty from its earliest stages. After annexing the Bohai rebel regime of Gao Yongchang, the Jin moved to attract Bohai recruits by sending out two Bohai, Liang Fu
225:. All male members of the households were required to serve in the military; the servants of the household would serve as auxiliaries to escort their masters in battle. The numbers of Han Chinese soldiers in the Jin's armies seemed to be very significant. The
233:
technically meant clan, their members were not necessarily related by blood; the word denoted a hunting or herding group, and was formed for administrative purposes. Their offices were hereditary, and their internal hierarchy or numbers was not fixed.
1467:
The Horse in Bohai and Jurchen Societies – Based on Osteological Studies from the Southern Part of the Russian Far East (2021). "The Horse in Bohai and Jurchen Societies – Based on Osteological Studies from the Southern Part of the Russian Far East".
524:. Each arrow took a form of a simple, solid-propellant rocket tube that was filled with gunpowder. One open end allowed the gas to escape and was attached to a long stick that acted as a guidance system for flight direction control.
2713:
353:
of Bohai troops, and excelled in battle against the Song army. The Bohai were admired for their martial skills: "full of cunning, surpassing other nations in courage." Bohai likely had a system of organisation similar to the
241:
system represented the emperors' attempt to stretch the concept of the nomadic "warband" to incorporate all subject peoples without losing the close intimacy of ties within the group. The Jin emperor also possessed his own
562:
secondary ditch dug along the interior, south-facing side of the wall. The History of Jin refers to the defences as “jiehao” (界壕, boundary trench), or “haoqian” (壕堑, trench chasm/moat), and the act of constructing them as
440:
equipped with lances and halberds, while the light cavalry provided archery support from behind. This arrangement was the reverse of the Khitans, who placed light horse archers in front as a screen for the heavy cavalry.
119:, they had faced fierce resistance from the Han Chinese population, yet when the Jin invaded that area, local Han Chinese did not oppose them at all. The Jin easily took Yanjing, where the Song general Guo Yaoshi (
663:
who defected from the Jin to the Mongols, Guo Baoyu, played a prominent role in advising the Great Khan's early campaigns and policies, and leading gunpowder troops in Mongol campaigns to the west. For instance,
149:(r. 1135–1150) and his generals were disappointed with Liu Yu's military failures and believed that Liu was secretly conspiring with Yue Fei's counteroffensive. In late 1137, the Jin abolished the state of Qi.
297:, which was the name of both the military unit and the title of its commander. The leadership of the dynasty was directed by the Council of Great Chieftains (Bojilie) until 1134 when Wuqimai dismantled it.
471:, the army of the new Jin dynasty absorbed many soldiers who formerly fought for the Liao or Song dynasties. The new Jin empire adopted many of the Song military's weapons, including various machines for
627:
393:
also included Uyghur, Tuyuhun, Qiang and Naiman troops, who were defectors and captives enlisting with the Jin forces. There were even Qipchaqs from the European steppe who joined this force. The
2662:
634:
The Jurchen use of the warband, a group of loyal, semi-nomadic or nomadic warriors who follow their leader in building his empire, came to influence the military organisation of neighbouring
406:
units, while other less elite units under the Bureau of Military Affairs, the "Red Jackets" (the same name previously used to refer to rebels in the Shandong region), supported the vanguard.
655:
With the collapse of the Jin dynasty in the 13th century, numerous Jin forces were incorporated into the Mongol Empire and the subsequent Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China, who created a
659:("Han Army") out of the these defectors. Some of these forces, the former Jin cavalry, were highly regarded and served as cavalrymen equal to the Mongols. One prominent Han Chinese
2373:
Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "The Reigns of Hui-tsung (1100–1126) and Ch'in-tsung (1126–1127) and the Fall of the Northern Sung". In Paul Jakov Smith; Denis C. Twitchett (eds.).
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included not only a mixture of households, but also their slaves and livestock, operating as a self-sufficient economic-military body, similar to a warband. Although
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system, and in 1163 the Khitans were discharged due to rebellion, although the Khitans who remained loyal were declared exempted from removal a few months later.
2733:
2718:
448:(armour-bearer), who also brought two horses, one for riding and one to carry baggage. The Jin's Southern Song enemy Hua Yue commented that the Jin pastures in
2648:
432:), however this may have been a mistranslation of the Jurchen cavalry fighting in a dense formation. The armoured cavalry of the Jin dynasty were known as
1466:
541:
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Contemporary Chinese writers ascribed Jurchen success in overwhelming the Liao and Northern Song dynasties mainly to their cavalry. Already during
2050:. "Nanking and Hangchow were taken by assault in 1129 and in 1130 the Jürchen ventured as far as Ning-po, in the north-eastern tip of Chekiang."
1109:
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remarked that the "Cathayans" (Chinese) "have various kinds of weapons and devices which other nations do not have." Mongol commanders such as
554:
In order to prevent incursion from the Mongols, a large construction program was launched. The records show that two important sections of the
402:
came directly under the Bureau of Military Affairs. Elite units called the "Red Coats" formed the vanguard of any assault much like the Mongol
586:
On the other hand, the Jin military was not particularly good at naval warfare. Both in 1129–30 and in 1161 Jin forces were defeated by the
329:
system helped to maintain walled compounds of horse herds to ensure a steady supply of horses for the cavalrymen and their armour-bearers.
467:
Jin troops regularly used gunpowder throughout the 13th century. As the Liao dynasty fell apart and the Song dynasty retreated beyond the
2440:
1042:
1619:
Christopher P. Atwood (2015). "Pu'a's Boast and Doqolqu's Death: Historiography of a Hidden Scandal in the Mongol Conquest of the Jin".
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minister complained that the walls were a waste of money because they were not solid enough to withstand the desert sandstorms.
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Breuker, R.E. (2019). "Warband Cohesion in Thirteenth Century Korea: Northeast Asian Influences on Sinitic Military Models".
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in large Jurchen script written in blocks in the style of small Jurchen script; the inscription reads "Trust of the Country".
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2728:
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Tao, Jing-Shen (2009). "The Move to the South and the Reign of Kao-tsung". In Paul Jakov Smith; Denis C. Twitchett (eds.).
389:(filial and loyal troops) were raised to fight the Mongols. They were known for their courage but also ill-discipline. The
341:) to encourage their compatriots to join the Jin, using the slogan "Jurchen and Bohai are originally of the same family" (
2723:
2600:
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949:
125:), who was formerly a Liao governor, now switched his allegiance to the Jin. As Jin forces pushed further south, former
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positions, brutally suppressing potential threats, and thus established a more centralized Chinese-style model. The
1978:
Dotno Dashdorj Pount (2019). "Who built the "Wall in the North" and what does Chinggis Khan have to do with it?".
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gave the Jurchens a passage into the central valley of the Yangtze River, but were defeated by the Song forces of
249:
Before declaring the formation of the Jin and claiming the title of emperor, the Jurchen ruler used the title of
3011:
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1487:
Jesse D. Sloane (2014). "Mapping a Stateless Nation: "Bohai" Identity in the Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries".
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machine are given. Qiang died the following year and no further references to the Arresting Trebuchet appear.
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689:
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territory was placed under the control of the Jin's puppet State of Qi government, which instituted military
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103:
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as early as 926, when they fled the destruction of their state in groups of 100, 300 and 500 households.
44:
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2395:
Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity – An Illustrated History
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The Headless State Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia
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349:), a descendant of Bohai royalty, was a major military commander in the Jin, commanding eight
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146:
479:. In fact, the Jin military's use of cannons, grenades, and even rockets to defend besieged
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709:
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when he was still a tributary of the Jin, and the system inspired his own military system.
293:). When the population was mobilized for war, the Bojilie took on military command of the
8:
555:
112:
1811:
The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 5, The Sung dynasty and Its Precursors, 907–1279
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2012:
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
1980:
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1496:
1080:
599:
550:"Great Golden Central State O-Giao Jeo-Shio" (1196), found in what is now Mongolia.
320:
were initially the economic source of the Jurchen aristocracy's power; some of the
48:
361:
In 1140, sedentary populations such as the Han and Bohai were discharged from the
91:
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1016:
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forces as the "only" troops suited for mountainous, water, or fortified battles.
630:
Jin and Mongol horsemen battling, in the "History of the World" by Rashid al-Din.
578:
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use a bomb with a metal casing of cast iron that could pierce iron armour. This
2960:
2935:
2821:
2628:
2615:
2583:
1007:
80:
1740:
Jos Gommans (2007). "Warhorse and post-nomadic empire in Asia, c. 1000–1800".
3000:
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1027:
940:
857:
847:
787:
762:
752:
506:
Illustrations and descriptions in the 14th century Chinese military treatise
472:
178:
1694:. Hong Kong Museum of History/the University of Michigan. 2008. p. 13.
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1717:
The Mongol Conquests: The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sübe'etei
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920:
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306:
130:
126:
116:
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such as H. D. Martin, they were also the most powerful force at the time.
36:
1500:
2913:
2588:
2227:
Stephen Haw (2013). "The Mongol Empire — The First "gunpowder empire"?".
2208:
Stephen Haw (2013). "The Mongol Empire — The First "gunpowder empire"?".
1778:
Stephen Haw (2013). "The Mongol Empire — The First "gunpowder empire"?".
1759:
Stephen Haw (2013). "The Mongol Empire — The First "gunpowder empire"?".
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777:
767:
517:
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and nearby prefectures fell to his army. The capture of Xiangyang on the
20:
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The Cambridge History of China: Alien Regimes and Border States 907–1368
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1992:
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History of the Great Wall of China § The two walls of Jin dynasty
111:
In the early years of the Jin, when the Song had tried to reclaim the
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832:
639:
611:
528:
476:
428:
265:, the title of ordinary tribal chiefs. The ruler's assistant was the
134:
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rebellion in 1135, as well as the rise of northern frontier general
2919:
2595:
2068:(reprint, illustrated ed.). Rutgers University Press. p.
925:
807:
742:
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forces declined in effectiveness, ad hoc Chinese irregulars called
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1906:
Blast Off!: Rocketry for Elementary and Middle School Students P
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origin, that ruled over northern China between 1115 and 1234.
817:
802:
500:
495:
The Jin also saw the introduction of a new, improved form of
449:
281:, Jurchen for state), and the title of an army commander was
2096:
1856:
1854:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1206:
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navies when trying to cross the Yangtze River into the core
1851:
1827:
1552:
The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare
1291:
669:
614:. Southern China was then cleared of the Jurchen forces.
197:
means clan or tribe. Groups of fifty households known as
273:, Jurchen for minister), while the chief minister was a
2272:
Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King, eds. (1994),
1878:
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or "Iron Pagodas," reflecting their extensive armour.
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2251:
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2025:
1871:
1869:
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2309:
2300:
2271:
2157:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China
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1521:
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2357:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–643.
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246:, which functioned as his own imperial guards.
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1212:
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1441:. Harvard University Press. pp. 231–235.
512:confirm that the Jin in 1232 used a primitive
257:, the head of a tribal alliance, from Jurchen
2656:
2448:
2338:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–42.
2135:
2059:
1808:
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1103:
120:
2258:(2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press,
2121:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2017:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1574:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1343:
2278:, vol. 6, Cambridge University Press,
2226:
2207:
1777:
1758:
1739:
1665:
1187:
605:In 1130, the Jin army reached Hangzhou and
169:The Jin military was organised through the
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2649:
2455:
2441:
2299:Franke, Herbert (1994a). Introduction. In
1383:
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1348:. Columbia University Press. p. 99.
1244:sfn error: no target: CITEREFFranke1994 (
1183:
1181:
1179:
1162:. Rutgers University Press. p. 516.
301:was also the title of the commander of a
177:) system, seemingly similar to the later
98:
2410:
2159:. Stanford University Press. p. 66.
1875:
1860:
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1651:harvp error: no target: CITEREFTao1976 (
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1043:Korean People's Association in Manchuria
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1190:Genghis Khan and the Mongol War Machine
520:" to drive back the Mongols during the
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1955:The Great Wall of China 221 BC–AD 1644
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185:is from the Mongol word for thousand,
65:), officially known as the Great Jin (
2644:
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2392:
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1957:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 45.
1928:
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161:Jin silver plaque of authority for a
2229:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
2210:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
1780:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
1761:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
1455:
2352:
2031:
1646:
1607:
1368:
1303:
1285:
1273:
1261:
1192:. Pen & Sword. pp. 92–93.
13:
2536:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
1427:
23:with Jin dynasty (Jurchen) flags.
14:
3028:
2734:Five Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms
2254:A History of Chinese Civilization
1386:Loanwords in the Chinese Language
535:
121:
33:Illustrations of Auspicious Omens
708:
558:were completed by the Jurchens.
75:), was the military force of an
2601:Jin dynasty coinage (1115–1234)
2310:Twitchett & Fairbank (1994)
2301:Twitchett & Fairbank (1994)
2243:
2220:
2201:
2163:
2148:
2129:
2090:
2053:
2037:
1986:
1971:
1946:
1802:
1771:
1752:
1733:
1708:
1684:
1659:
1582:
1515:
1480:
1402:
1377:
1362:
1337:
1134:Korean–Jurchen border conflicts
875:Medieval to Early Modern period
1715:Carl Fredrik Sverdrup (2017).
1589:Wai Yip Ho, Yijiu JIN (2017).
1151:
71:
61:
1:
1144:
1139:Timeline of the Jin–Song Wars
961:Sino-Russian border conflicts
398:"treated magnanimously". The
2406:, Cambridge University Press
1621:Journal of Song-Yuan Studies
1489:Journal of Song-Yuan Studies
1124:Mongol conquest of Jin China
651:Military of the Yuan dynasty
309:) was also given this title
191:Military of the Yuan dynasty
7:
2982:Self Strengthening Movement
2326:(1994). "Introduction". In
2155:Hucker, Charles O. (1985).
2099:A Military History of China
1876:Greatrix, David R. (2012).
1323:. BRILL. pp. 328–329.
1213:Franke & Twitchett 1994
737:Ancient to Classical period
679:
201:were grouped together as a
10:
3033:
2714:Jin & Sixteen Kingdoms
2185:Cambridge University Press
1997:. Routledge. p. 222.
1554:. Routledge. p. 356.
1522:Frederick W. Mote (1999).
1437:Frederick W. Mote (1999).
1409:Frederick W. Mote (1999).
648:
539:
460:
409:
2870:
2809:
2802:
2772:
2679:
2576:
2479:Alliance Conducted at Sea
2471:
2187:. pp. 363, 649–651.
1953:Stephen Turnbull (2012).
1742:Journal of Global History
1388:. Routledge. p. 51.
1033:Kwantung Leased Territory
621:
369:"Filial and Loyal Troops"
346:
342:
338:
334:
286:
254:
77:imperial dynasty of China
66:
52:
28:
2673:Chinese military history
2402:Needham, Joseph (1994),
2250:Gernet, Jacques (1996),
2138:Journal of Asian History
1668:Battles of Ancient China
1524:Imperial China, 900–1800
1439:Imperial China, 900-1800
1411:Imperial China, 900–1800
881:Eastern Turkic Khaganate
527:A form of counterweight
3017:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
2719:Northern & Southern
2622:Zhaocheng Jin Tripitaka
2531:1194 Yellow River flood
2464:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
2393:Liang, Jieming (2006).
1904:Nielsen, Leona (1997).
1880:. Springer. p. 1.
1719:. Casemate Publishers.
1470:Central Asiatic Journal
573:
522:Mongol siege of Kaifeng
514:solid-propellant rocket
79:, founded by rulers of
2942:Ming gunpowder weapons
2897:Song gunpowder weapons
2144:(2): 242–249, 260–261.
2060:René Grousset (1970).
1809:Tonio Andrade (2016).
1593:. BRILL. p. 106.
1373:. 广东人民出版社. p. 59.
1321:Prince, Pen, and Sword
1158:Rene Grousset (1970).
1038:Nationalist government
631:
583:
551:
490:heaven-shaking thunder
419:
378:
166:
108:
99:Organisation structure
40:
3012:13th century in China
3007:12th century in China
2782:Ming treasure voyages
2671:Ancient and dynastic
2418:. Osprey Publishing.
1501:10.1353/sys.2014.0003
1344:David Sneath (2007).
1160:Empire of the Steppes
629:
581:
549:
417:
376:
316:The headships of the
261:meaning “head”), and
205:, while seven to ten
181:of the Qing dynasty.
160:
106:
88:Empire of The Steppes
19:
2961:Breechloading musket
1666:Chris Peers (2013).
1188:Chris Peers (2015).
1023:Far Eastern Republic
793:Yan (Three Kingdoms)
768:Yan (Warring States)
463:History of gunpowder
217:were grouped into a
153:Meng'an Mouke system
43:The military of the
1841:, pp. 263–264.
1670:. Pen & Sword.
1384:Shi Youwei (2020).
1300:, pp. 273–277.
931:Jurchen Jin dynasty
890:Andong Protectorate
457:Military technology
113:Sixteen Prefectures
2902:Thunder crash bomb
2847:Repeating crossbow
2606:Huining Prefecture
2524:Treaty of Shaoxing
2330:; Herbert Franke;
2328:Denis C. Twitchett
1276:, p. 674-675.
1013:Beiyang government
719:Prehistoric period
632:
584:
552:
420:
379:
167:
109:
41:
2994:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2638:
2637:
2499:Jingkang incident
2425:978-1-84176-523-5
2412:Turnbull, Stephen
2384:978-0-521-81248-1
2364:978-0-521-81248-1
2345:978-0-521-24331-5
2285:978-0-521-24331-5
2265:978-0-521-49781-7
2194:978-0-521-24331-5
2171:Twitchett, Dennis
2079:978-0-8135-1304-1
1863:, pp. 33–35.
1561:978-1-135-93674-7
1533:978-0-674-01212-7
1448:978-0-674-01212-7
1420:978-0-674-01212-7
1395:978-1-000-29351-7
1120:
1119:
1062:Chinese Civil War
1058:Liaoshen Campaign
1048:Japanese invasion
1003:Russian invasions
863:Göktürk Khaganate
725:Liao civilization
666:Hayton of Armenia
596:Battle of Tangdao
3024:
2807:
2806:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2642:
2641:
2457:
2450:
2443:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2407:
2398:
2388:
2368:
2349:
2332:John K. Fairbank
2324:Twitchett, Denis
2313:
2304:
2303:, pp. 1–42.
2295:
2294:
2292:
2268:
2257:
2237:
2236:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2120:
2112:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2067:
2057:
2051:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2016:
2008:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1901:
1892:
1891:
1873:
1864:
1858:
1849:
1848:
1836:
1825:
1824:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1644:
1629:
1628:
1616:
1605:
1604:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1573:
1565:
1547:
1538:
1537:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1464:
1453:
1452:
1434:
1425:
1424:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1316:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1237:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1185:
1174:
1173:
1155:
1112:
1105:
1098:
1081:Russian Far East
813:Sima Jin dynasty
712:
702:
684:
683:
644:Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn
600:Battle of Caishi
348:
344:
340:
336:
288:
256:
124:
123:
73:
68:
63:
54:
30:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3021:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2986:
2866:
2852:Siege equipment
2798:
2768:
2675:
2669:
2639:
2634:
2572:
2467:
2461:
2426:
2385:
2365:
2346:
2320:Franke, Herbert
2290:
2288:
2286:
2266:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2225:
2221:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2177:, eds. (1994).
2175:Franke, Herbert
2168:
2164:
2153:
2149:
2134:
2130:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2095:
2091:
2080:
2058:
2054:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1991:
1987:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1951:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1902:
1895:
1888:
1874:
1867:
1859:
1852:
1842:
1837:
1828:
1821:
1807:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1776:
1772:
1757:
1753:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1678:
1664:
1660:
1650:
1645:
1632:
1617:
1608:
1601:
1587:
1583:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1548:
1541:
1534:
1520:
1516:
1485:
1481:
1476:(1–2): 160–161.
1465:
1456:
1449:
1435:
1428:
1421:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1382:
1378:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1317:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1260:
1253:
1243:
1238:
1231:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1186:
1177:
1170:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1116:
1087:
1086:
1077:Outer Manchuria
1072:Northeast China
1017:Fengtian Clique
994:Chuang Guandong
989:Amur Annexation
984:
976:
975:
906:Dongdan Kingdom
901:Little Goguryeo
876:
868:
867:
738:
730:
729:
720:
700:
693:
682:
653:
624:
594:territory (see
576:
544:
538:
516:then known as "
465:
459:
412:
371:
305:unit. Temujin (
289:, from Jurchen
171:meng-an mou-k'o
155:
101:
12:
11:
5:
3030:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
2992:
2991:
2988:
2987:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2958:
2951:
2939:
2936:Huolongchushui
2932:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2813:
2811:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2794:Late Qing Navy
2791:
2790:
2789:
2787:treasure ships
2778:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2709:Three Kingdoms
2706:
2701:
2698:Warring States
2691:
2685:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2668:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2645:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2629:History of Jin
2625:
2618:
2616:Yanqing Temple
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2584:Jurchen people
2580:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2533:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2486:
2481:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2431:
2430:
2424:
2408:
2399:
2390:
2383:
2370:
2363:
2350:
2344:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2305:
2284:
2269:
2264:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2238:
2219:
2200:
2193:
2162:
2147:
2128:
2107:
2089:
2078:
2052:
2036:
2034:, p. 707.
2024:
2003:
1985:
1970:
1963:
1945:
1943:, p. 218.
1933:
1921:
1915:978-1563084386
1914:
1893:
1887:978-1447124849
1886:
1865:
1850:
1826:
1819:
1801:
1789:
1770:
1751:
1732:
1725:
1707:
1700:
1692:天馬神駿 中國馬的藝術和文化
1683:
1676:
1658:
1630:
1606:
1599:
1581:
1560:
1539:
1532:
1514:
1479:
1454:
1447:
1426:
1419:
1401:
1394:
1376:
1361:
1354:
1336:
1329:
1302:
1290:
1288:, p. 677.
1278:
1266:
1264:, p. 658.
1251:
1242:, p. 232.
1229:
1227:, p. 636.
1217:
1205:
1198:
1175:
1168:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1074:
1065:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1010:
1008:Russian Dalian
1005:
996:
991:
985:
982:
981:
978:
977:
974:
973:
968:
958:
953:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
883:
877:
874:
873:
870:
869:
866:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
739:
736:
735:
732:
731:
728:
727:
721:
718:
717:
714:
713:
705:
704:
695:
694:
687:
681:
678:
672:praised these
649:Main article:
623:
620:
575:
572:
537:
536:Jin Great Wall
534:
458:
455:
418:Jin arrowheads
411:
408:
370:
367:
337:) and Wodala (
213:, and several
154:
151:
147:Emperor Xizong
100:
97:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3029:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3002:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2967:Xun Lei Chong
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2955:San yan chong
2952:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2654:
2652:
2647:
2646:
2643:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2504:Huangtiandang
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2489:Jin–Song Wars
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2465:
2458:
2453:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2296:
2287:
2281:
2277:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2261:
2256:
2255:
2248:
2247:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2216:(3): 458-459.
2215:
2211:
2204:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2183:. Cambridge:
2182:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2158:
2151:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2124:
2118:
2110:
2108:9780813136387
2104:
2100:
2093:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2065:
2056:
2049:
2045:
2044:Gernet (1996)
2040:
2033:
2028:
2020:
2014:
2006:
2004:9781138847286
2000:
1996:
1989:
1981:
1974:
1966:
1964:9781849080569
1960:
1956:
1949:
1942:
1937:
1930:
1925:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1898:
1889:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1870:
1862:
1861:Turnbull 2003
1857:
1855:
1846:
1840:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1822:
1820:9780691135977
1816:
1812:
1805:
1799:, p. 33.
1798:
1797:Turnbull 2003
1793:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1728:
1726:9781913118228
1722:
1718:
1711:
1703:
1701:9789627039631
1697:
1693:
1687:
1679:
1677:9781473830110
1673:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1602:
1600:9789047428008
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1215:, p. 39.
1214:
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1199:9781783400560
1195:
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1169:9780813513041
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1129:Jin–Song Wars
1127:
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983:Modern period
980:
979:
972:
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966:
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947:
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941:Northern Yuan
939:
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788:Xianbei state
786:
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763:Takri Kingdom
761:
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473:siege warfare
470:
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454:
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400:Zhongxiao Jun
396:
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392:
391:Zhongxiao Jun
388:
387:Zhongxiao Jun
384:
375:
366:
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356:meng'an mouke
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92:René Grousset
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2748:
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2289:, retrieved
2274:
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1994:
1988:
1979:
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1954:
1948:
1941:Needham 1994
1936:
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1379:
1371:求是集 Volume 1
1370:
1369:陈乐素 (1984).
1364:
1345:
1339:
1320:
1298:Franke 1994b
1293:
1281:
1269:
1220:
1208:
1189:
1159:
1153:
921:Liao dynasty
911:Later Balhae
886:Tang dynasty
838:Northern Yan
673:
660:
656:
654:
633:
616:
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307:Genghis Khan
302:
298:
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291:gurun begile
290:
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267:Anbanbojilie
266:
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186:
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162:
131:conscription
117:Liao dynasty
110:
87:
85:
70:
60:
42:
37:Song dynasty
32:
24:
2914:Hand cannon
2810:Traditional
2749:Jurchen Jin
2589:Wanyan clan
2556:Sanfengshan
2546:Dachangyuan
2389:(hardcover)
2369:(hardcover)
1839:Franke 1994
1495:: 365–403.
1240:Franke 1994
1225:Levine 2009
778:Han dynasty
699:History of
518:fire arrows
509:Huolongjing
377:Jin cavalry
345:). Da Gao (
283:Hulubojilie
107:Jin cavalry
45:Jin dynasty
21:Cataphracts
3001:Categories
2929:Hu dun pao
2907:Fire lance
2880:Fire arrow
2046:, p.
1929:Liang 2006
1647:Tao (1976)
1627:: 262–263.
1145:References
828:Former Qin
823:Former Yan
556:Great Wall
540:See also:
497:fire lance
461:See also:
381:After the
199:p'u-li-yen
2974:Hongyipao
2890:Petroleum
2872:Gunpowder
2803:Equipment
2235:(3): 460.
2117:cite book
2013:cite book
1786:(3): 449.
1767:(3): 456.
1570:cite book
1509:164130734
1068:Manchuria
1053:Manchukuo
971:Qing rule
956:Later Jin
946:Ming rule
936:Yuan rule
833:Later Yan
701:Manchuria
640:Myoch'ong
612:Zhenjiang
529:trebuchet
501:saltpeter
477:artillery
429:Guaizi Ma
251:Dubojilie
209:formed a
139:Han River
135:Xiangyang
115:from the
39:painting.
25:Ruiyingtu
2920:Huochong
2862:War cart
2842:Crossbow
2837:Elephant
2832:Polearms
2596:Jiaochao
2577:See also
2551:Daohuigu
2541:Yehuling
2509:Yancheng
2494:Timeline
2484:Military
2414:(2003).
2334:(eds.).
2291:10 March
2032:Tao 2009
1286:Tao 2009
1274:Tao 2009
1262:Tao 2009
926:Xingliao
808:Goguryeo
743:Gojoseon
690:a series
688:Part of
680:See also
582:Jin flag
343:女真渤海本同一家
193:) while
187:mingghan
62:Jīn cháo
2948:Huo Che
2857:Stirrup
2817:Chariot
2611:Zhongdu
2566:Caizhou
2561:Kaifeng
2514:Tangdao
2472:History
1748:: 1–21.
916:Jeongan
843:Kumo Xi
798:Cao Wei
773:Xiongnu
674:Han Jun
661:meng'an
657:Han Jun
481:Kaifeng
469:Yangtze
434:tiefutu
410:Cavalry
404:Ba'atur
383:meng-an
363:meng-an
351:meng-an
322:meng-an
318:meng-an
295:meng-an
263:Bojilie
223:meng-an
215:meng-an
211:meng-an
207:mou-k'o
203:mou-k'o
195:mou-k'o
183:Meng-an
143:Yue Fei
81:Jurchen
49:Chinese
2827:Swords
2822:Armour
2681:Armies
2519:Caishi
2466:topics
2422:
2381:
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2001:
1961:
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1352:
1327:
1196:
1166:
999:Korean
950:Nurgan
896:Balhae
858:Shiwei
848:Khitan
783:Wuhuan
758:Yemaek
753:Donghu
748:Sushen
692:on the
636:Goryeo
622:Legacy
607:Ningbo
277:(from
72:Dà Jīn
59::
57:pinyin
51::
2689:Shang
1591:Islam
1505:S2CID
818:Yuwen
803:Buyeo
450:Henan
446:ališi
424:Aguda
327:mouke
311:mouke
303:mouke
299:Mouke
287:忽魯勃極列
279:gurun
271:amban
244:mouke
239:mouke
231:mouke
227:mouke
219:wanhu
189:(see
163:mouke
2774:Navy
2764:Qing
2759:Ming
2754:Yuan
2744:Song
2739:Liao
2729:Tang
2694:Zhou
2420:ISBN
2379:ISBN
2359:ISBN
2340:ISBN
2293:2014
2280:ISBN
2260:ISBN
2189:ISBN
2123:link
2103:ISBN
2074:ISBN
2019:link
1999:ISBN
1982:: 4.
1959:ISBN
1910:ISBN
1882:ISBN
1845:help
1815:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1696:ISBN
1672:ISBN
1653:help
1595:ISBN
1576:link
1556:ISBN
1528:ISBN
1443:ISBN
1415:ISBN
1390:ISBN
1350:ISBN
1325:ISBN
1246:help
1194:ISBN
1164:ISBN
1079:(in
1001:and
965:Jaxa
853:Mohe
598:and
574:Navy
475:and
255:都勃极列
237:The
127:Song
2724:Sui
2704:Han
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2048:357
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670:Aju
564:jun
339:斡荅剌
122:郭藥師
86:In
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