Mi'kmaq - Knowledge

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the sovereignty of their nation when he did not possess it. They were informed that the French had claimed legal possession of their country for a century, on account of laws decreed by kings in Europe, that no land could be legally owned by any non-Christian, and that such land was therefore freely available to any Christian prince who claimed it. Miꞌkmaw historian Daniel Paul observes that, "If this warped law were ever to be accorded recognition by modern legalists they would have to take into consideration that, after Grand Chief Membertou and his family converted to Christianity in 1610, the land of the Miꞌkmaq had become exempt from being seized because the people were Christians. However, it's hard to imagine that a modern government would fall back and try to use such uncivilized garbage as justification for non-recognition of aboriginal title."

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developed the $ 160 million Marshall Response Initiative, which operated until 2007, through which the DFO offered to purchase over 1,000 commercial fishing licences, including boats and gear, to support the expansion of the Mi'kmaq lobster fishery. By mid-2000, about 1,400 commercial fishermen stated their intention to retire over 5,000 licences. On August 20, 2001, the DFO issued a temporary license to Burnt Church Mi'kmaq fishers while negotiations for a more permanent agreement were underway. The DFO license had restrictions that some Burnt Church fishers refused: the fishers could not sell their lobsters, they could only use them for food, social, and ceremonial (FSC) purposes. The "Aboriginal right to fish for food, social and ceremonial purposes (FSC)" was confirmed in the landmark 1990

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commodities such as furs, and begin an ongoing friendship with the British crown. In return, the Mi'kmaq offered friendship and tolerance of limited British settlement, although without any formal land surrender, according to Reid and Connor. To fulfill the reciprocity intended by the Miꞌkmaq, that any additional British settlement of land would have to be negotiated, and accompanied by giving presents to the Miꞌkmaq. The documents summarizing the peace agreements failed to establish specific territorial limits on the expansion of British settlements, but assured the Miꞌkmaq of access to the natural resources that had long sustained them along the regions' coasts and in the woods. Their conceptions of land use were quite different. In his 2003 book about the British

1911: 73: 2199:, began to sell the Mic-Mac hockey sticks nationally and internationally. Hockey became a popular sport in Canada in the 1890s. Throughout the first decade of the 20th century, the Mic-Mac hockey stick was the best-selling hockey stick in Canada. By 1903, apart from farming, the principal occupation of the Miꞌkmaq on reserves throughout Nova Scotia, and particularly on the Shubenacadie, Indian Brook, and Millbrook Reserves, was producing the Mic-Mac hockey stick. The department of Indian Affairs for Nova Scotia noted in 1927 that the Miꞌkmaq remained the "experts" at making hockey sticks. The Miꞌkmaq continued to make hockey sticks until the 1930s, when the product was industrialized. 1466:

the facility in Middle West Pubnico. Indigenous leaders called the raids racist hate crimes and called on the RCMP to intervene, citing their slow response on the evening and lack of arrests even a day after the police claimed they "witnessed criminal activity". Social media posts from the commercial fishers and their supporters claimed that the lobsters taken in the raids were removed as they represented "bad fishing practices" on the part of the Miꞌkmaq, but Sipekne'katik Chief Mike Sack and a worker at the Middle West Pubnico facility claimed the lobsters that were stored there were caught by the commercial fishers, not Miꞌkmaw.

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threats by commercial and non-indigenous fishers, including some that had cut the Miꞌkmaw lobster traps. On September 25, the Sipekne'katik fishery released its proposed regulations allowing the legal sale of seafood harvested under the fishery to Indigenous and non-Indigenous consumers and wholesalers. However, at the time of the announcement, Nova Scotia's Fisheries and Coastal Resources Act prohibited anyone in Nova Scotia from purchasing fish from "a person who does not hold a valid commercial fishing license issued by Fisheries and Oceans Canada," which would include the fishery.

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2019, after concerns about legitimacy had been addressed, the Qalipu First Nation was accepted by the Miꞌkmaq Grand Council as being part of the Miꞌkmaq Nation. Qalipu Chief Mitchell stated, "Our inclusion into the AFN, APC and acknowledgement by the Miꞌkmaq Grand Council are important to us; it is part of our reconciliation as Miꞌkmaq people. Friendships are being formed, and relationships are being established. It is a good time for the Qalipu First Nation." By 2021, nearly 24,000 people were recognized as founding members, in 67 Newfoundland communities and abroad.

55: 1008: 562: 699: 3863: 2039: 1570:, stepped down from his position with KMKNO and the Assembly of Nova Scotia Mi'kmaq Chiefs, saying " confidence in the operations of the organization have weakened over time," citing issues of transparency, and preferring to pursue treaty rights negotiations outside of the Assembly. Membertou's withdrawal follows Sipekne'katik's own withdrawal earlier in the month on October 6, leaving the Assembly as a representative of 10 of the 13 Mi'kmaq First Nation bands ( 2155: 2235: 1181:, submitted its report on fisheries issues, which "recommended that all charges stemming from the " be dropped and that the fishers should be compensated by federal government for "their lost traps and boats." The report said that Mi'kmaq fishers have the "same season as non-native fishermen" and could not therefore, fish in the fall. It recommended that "native bands be issued licences, which they would distribute to native fishermen." 1425:

Court of Canada decision in R. v. Marshall, recognizing the Mi'kmaq right to fish and trade." By that point, vehicles and property belonging to members of the Sipekne'katik First Nation had already been damaged and stolen, including boats being burned. There were already planned protests by non-Indigenous fishers to block the Mi'kmaq fishers' access to several wharves. One such protest took place on September 15 at

1031:, each district had its own independent government and boundaries. The independent governments had a district chief and a council. The council members were band chiefs, elders, and other worthy community leaders. The district council was charged with performing all the duties of any independent and free government by enacting laws, justice, apportioning fishing and hunting grounds, making war and suing for peace. 2259: 2247: 4006:, "In 'Marshall 2,' the supreme court ruled that governments must justify restrictions or regulations on treaty rights based on previous, legally-tested criteria including "a valid legislative objective" such as conservation, "whether there has been as little infringement as possible" on rights, and "whether the aboriginal group in question has been consulted" on the government's proposed restrictions." 2142:, where he lived from 1853 until his death in 1889, he travelled widely among Miꞌkmaw communities, spreading the Christian faith, learning the language, and recording examples of the Miꞌkmaw oral tradition. Rand produced scriptural translations in Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet, compiled a Miꞌkmaq dictionary and collected numerous legends, and through his published work, was the first to introduce the stories of 1690:, archaeologist Dean Snow says that the fairly deep linguistic split between the Miꞌkmaq and the Eastern Algonquians to the southwest suggests the Miꞌkmaq developed an independent prehistoric cultural sequence in their territory. It emphasized maritime orientation, as the area had relatively few major river systems. In the chapter "Early Indian-European Contact" in the 1978 2425: 601:, pardoned Sylliboy and issued a formal apology: it was the "second posthumous pardon in Nova Scotia's history". His grandson, Andrew Denny, now the Grand Keptin of the Council, said that his grandfather had "commanded respect. Young people who were about to get married would go and ask for his blessing. At the Chapel Island Mission boats would stop if he was crossing." 1211:, early in 2020, a negotiator for the DFO had offered Nova Scotia First Nations nearly $ 87 million for boats, gear, and training, with the condition that the First Nations would not practice their treaty right to earn a moderate livelihood fishing (ie out of the DFO season) for a period of 10 years. The proposal did not define "moderate livelihood", and was rejected. 1755:. During the second half of the century, dry curing became the preferred preservation method. Brasser said that trading furs for European trade goods had changed Miꞌkmaw social perspectives. Desire for trade goods encouraged the men to devote a larger portion of the year away from the coast, trapping in the interior. Trapping non-migratory animals, such as 2488:(balsam fir) is traditionally used for a variety of purposes by the Miꞌkmaq. They use the buds, cones and inner bark for diarrhea; the gum for burns, colds, fractures, sores and wounds; the cones for colic; the buds as a laxative; and the bark for gonorrhea. They use the boughs to make beds, the bark to make a beverage, and the wood for kindling and fuel. 1199:, remains in effect—as it does in other Atlantic provinces. These regulations do not mention the Mi'kmaq or the Marshall decision. These regulations prevent Mi'kmaq lobster fishers from selling their lobster to non-Mi'kmaq. Mi'kmaq fishers say that this does not align with the Marshall decision. In 2019, the government of the Listuguj First Nation in the 4067: 1509:

details regarding the man's association to the lobster pound, other than that he was not an employee. The destruction led to further calls from Chief Sack for increased police presence, as well as an appeal from the Maritime Fisherman's Union for the federal government to appoint an independent mediator.

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on the spot at low water. There is a tradition that in 1786, soon after the American Revolutionary War, when there were threats of American invasion of Canada, agents of the US were trying to recruit supporters in Halifax. As people were celebrating St. Aspinquid with wine, they suddenly hauled down the

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In 2017, only 18,044 people were eligible for Band membership. In 2018, the Qalipu First Nation announced that the updated Founding Members List for the Band had been adopted by way of an Order in Council which came into effect on June 25, 2018. The 2018 Band list included 18,575 members. In November

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to document the ethnography of the Miꞌkmaw people in the early 20th century. Lonecloud wrote the first Miꞌkmaw memoir, which his biographer entitled "Tracking Dr. Lonecloud: Showman to Legend Keeper". Historian Ruth Holmes Whitehead writes, "Ethnographer of the Mi'kmaq nation could rightly have been

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that were being used by Miꞌkmaw fishers to store lobsters. During the raids, a van was set aflame, another vehicle was defaced and damaged, lobsters being stored in the facilities were destroyed, and the New Edinburgh facility was damaged, while a Miꞌkmaw fisher was forced to barricade himself inside

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using a hieroglyphic system created in 1677 by French Catholic missionary Chrestien Le Clerq. Le Clerq noted that the Mi'kmaq children were memorizing prayers utilizing the counting of marks, but did not claim to have incorporated any of this system into the hieroglyphs he created. It is likely that

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A short statement of facts relating to the history, manners, customs, language, and literature of the Micmac tribe of Indians, in Nova-Scotia and P.E. Island: being the substance of two lectures delivered in Halifax, in November, 1819, at public meetings held for the purpose of instituting a mission

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appeared in the Nova Scotia almanacks from 1774 to 1786. The festival was celebrated on or immediately after the last quarter of the moon in the month of May, when the tide was low. The townspeople assembled on the shore of the North West Arm and shared a dish of clam soup, the clams being collected

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The Miꞌkmaw people had very little in the way of physical recording and storytelling; petroglyphs, while used, are believed to have been rare. In addition, it is not believed that pre-contact Miꞌkmaq had any form of written language. As such, almost all of Miꞌkmaw traditions were passed down orally,

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and supported the Miꞌkmaq over the thirteen years he lived in Halifax (1813–1825). Bromley devoted himself to the service of the Miꞌkmaw people. The Miꞌkmaq were among the poor of Halifax and in the rural communities. According to historian Judith Finguard, his contribution to give public exposure

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As their military power waned in the beginning of the 19th century, the Miꞌkmaw people made explicit appeals to the British to honor the treaties and reminded them of their duty to give "presents" to the Miꞌkmaq in order to occupy Miꞌkmaꞌki. In response, the British offered charity or, the word most

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But the Miꞌkmaq were not included in the treaty, and never conceded any land to the British. In 1715, the Miꞌkmaq were told that the British now claimed their ancient territory by the Treaty of Utrecht. They formally complained to the French commander at Louisbourg about the French king transferring

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Masters thesis, Mi'kmaq elder Roger Lewis investigated how pre-contact Mi'kmaq populations had a reciprocal relationship with the environment that was reflected in subsistence fishing, hunting and gathering, as well as in settlement locations. Lewis, who has held the position of ethnology curator at

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to the Atlantic ocean. Research published in 1871 showed that some Mi’kmaq believed they had emigrated from the west, and then lived alongside the Kwēdĕchk. According to Mi’kmaw traditions recorded by S. T. Rand, the Kwēdĕchk were the original inhabitants of the land. The two tribes engaged in a war

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Intimidation over the fishery dispute has continued into 2021. In mid-January, lobster harvester and Sipekne'katik citizen Jolene Marr, whose brother was surrounded in the West Pubnico lobster pound on October 13, was sent a seven second-long close-up video of a man's face that included what "sounds

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The inshore fishery is the last small-scale fishery in Nova Scotia. St. Marys Bay is part of Lobster Fishing Area (LFA) 34, making it the "largest lobster fishing area in Canada with more than 900 licensed commercial fishermen harvesting from the southern tip of Nova Scotia up to Digby in the Bay of

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One myth explains that the Miꞌkmaq once believed that evil and wickedness among men is what causes them to kill each other. This causes great sorrow to the creator-sun-god, who weeps tears that become rains sufficient to trigger a deluge. The people attempt to survive the flood by traveling in bark

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Bromley's attitudes towards the Indians were singularly enlightened for his day. ... Bromley totally dismissed the idea that native people were naturally inferior and set out to encourage their material improvement through settlement and agriculture, their talents through education, and their pride

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By 1997, all Miꞌkmaq on reserves were given the responsibility for their own education. By 2014, there were 11 band-run schools in Nova Scotia, and the province has the highest rate of retention of aboriginal students in schools in Canada. More than half the teachers are Miꞌkmaq. From 2011 to 2012

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was established. On August 31, 2010, the governments of Canada and Nova Scotia signed a historic agreement with the Miꞌkmaw Nation, establishing a process whereby the federal government must consult with the Miꞌkmaw Grand Council before engaging in any activities or projects that affect the Miꞌkmaq

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and other endemic European infectious diseases, to which the Miꞌkmaq had no immunity, wars and alcoholism led to a further decline of the native population. It reached its lowest point in the middle of the 17th century. Then the numbers grew slightly again, before becoming apparently stable during

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developed a fishing plan based on their right to fish in pursuit of a moderate livelihood. They issued seven lobster licenses to band members; each license has 50 tags, representing a combined total of 350 tags. One commercial lobster license represents 350 tags. The lobster fishery they initiated

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announced their $ 1 billion purchase of Clearwater Seafoods, which was finalised on January 25, 2021. The group of First Nations includes Sipekne'katik, We'koqma'q, Potlotek, Pictou Landing, and Paqtnkek First Nations, and is led by Membertou and Miapukek First Nations. The purchase represents the

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were affected in the provinces of New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and the Gaspé region of Quebec. The West Nova Fishermen's Coalition submitted an appeal asking for the Marshall decision to be set aside. In November 17, 1999, released a new ruling (Marshall 2) to clarify that the

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Between 1725 and 1779, the Mi'kmaq, Wolastoqey (Maliseet), and Peskotomuhkati (Passamaquoddy) signed numerous treaties, commonly referred to as the Covenant Chain of Peace and Friendship Treaties, through which they entered into a "peaceful relationship with the British Crown." The Mi'kmaq assert

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maintained his position that this issue must be solved federally when asked about it at a press conference. Several months later, in January 2021, the manager of the Middle West Pubnico facility, James Muise, made a public post in a Facebook group for commercial fishers, claiming that he gave the

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launched their own moderate livelihood fishery in a celebration at Battery Provincial Park that coincided with Mi'kmaq Treaty Day. The management plan behind this fishery had been in development for three months, prompted by the seizure of lobster traps by DFO officials. Community licenses issued

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On September 17, Sipekne'katik launched a "moderate livelihood fishery" with a ceremony at the Saulnierville wharf, the first lobster fishery regulated by Miꞌkmaq in Nova Scotia. On September 18, the Assembly of Nova Scotia Miꞌkmaw Chiefs declared a province-wide state of emergency in response to

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Chief Michael Sack sent a letter to Premier Stephen McNeil, DFO Minister Bernadette Jordan and Nova Scotia RCMP Commanding Officer Lee Bergerman, calling for them "to uphold the rule of law amid ongoing violence, threats, human rights discrimination and ongoing failure to uphold the 1999 Supreme

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were widely covered by the media from 1999 and 2002. On October 3, 1999, non-Indigenous commercial fishers in 150 boats destroyed hundreds of Mi'kmaq lobster traps, then returned to shore and vandalized fishing equipment, as well as three fish plants. This was captured and documented in the 2002

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David L. Schmidt and Murdena Marshall published some of the prayers, narratives, and liturgies represented in hieroglyphs—pictographic symbols in a 1995 book. As noted, the pre-contact Mi'kmaq utilized some form of writing, but Le Clerq indicated that the hieroglyphs were "formed" by him. French

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of "life-ways of the Mi'kmaq", include written hieroglyphics, human figures, Mi'kmaq houses and lodges, decorations including crosses, sailing vessels, and animals, etched into slate rocks. These are attributed to the Mi'kmaq, who have continuously inhabited the area since prehistoric times. The

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peoples of Newfoundland and Labrador. After the Labrador Innu and Inuit left the Association in 1975, the organization was renamed as the Federation of Newfoundland Indians. The FNI included six Mi'kmaq bands (Elmastogoeg First Nations, Corner Brook Indian Band, Flat Bay Indian Band, Gander Bay

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Fisheries Minister Bernadette Jordan sent a letter to Chief Mike Sack on March 3, 2021, outlining the terms under which a moderate livelihood fishery could be negotiated, and what the federal government would be "prepared" to allow; the letter proposed balancing "additional First Nations access

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Three days after the initial raids on the storage facilities, on the evening of October 16, the Middle West Pubnico facility was destroyed in a large fire, deemed "suspicious" by the RCMP. One man was taken to hospital with life-threatening injuries after the fire, but the RCMP did not provide

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of Peace and Friendship Treaties with the British Crown throughout the eighteenth century; the first was signed in 1725, and the last in 1779. The Miꞌkmaq maintain that they did not cede or give up their land title or other rights through these Peace and Friendship Treaties. The landmark 1999

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developed their own self-regulated lobster fisheries management plan and opened their own lobster fishery in the fall of 2020. Under the existing Fish Buyers' Licensing Regulations the self-regulated Listuguj fisheries can harvest, but can only use the lobster for "food, social and ceremonial

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with "helicopters, patrol boats, guns, with observation by airplanes and dozens of RCMP officers". The documentary asks why the fishers were being harassed for "exercising rights that had been affirmed by the highest court in the land." Following lengthy negotiations with the Mi'kmaq, the DFO

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and Brenda Conroy. In the early 1760s, there were approximately 300 Miꞌkmaw fighters in the region and thousands of British soldiers. The goals of the Miꞌkmaw treaty negotiators engaged in the 1760 Halifax treaty negotiations, were to make peace, establish secure and well-regulated trade in

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On March 26, 2021, 43 Mi'kmaq lobster fishers from the Sipekne'katik First Nation filed a statement of claim against the attorney general of Canada, the RCMP, the DFO, and 29 non-Indigenous fishers including the Bay of Fundy Inshore Fishermen's Association (BFIFA). The claim alleges that the

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to a group in Newfoundland and Labrador called the Qalipu First Nation. The new band, which is landless, had accepted 25,000 applications to become part of the band by October 2012. In total over 100,000 applications were sent in to join the Qalipu, equivalent of one-fifth of the province's

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said that the commercial fishing industry had not suffered because of this. Others disagreed, saying that Canada had never fully implemented the Marshall Decision, and that, over the decades, various levels of government and authorities mishandled and neglected local concerns related to the

1703:, anthropologist Philip Bock described the annual cycle of seasonal movement of precontact Miꞌkmaq. Bock wrote that the Mi'kmaq had lived in dispersed interior winter camps and larger coastal communities during the summer. The spawning runs of March began their movement to converge on 1557:

non-Indigenous fishers named as defendants took the law into their own hands and engaged in violence against the moderate livelihood fishery, that they were encouraged to do so by BFIFA, and that the DFO and RCMP contributed to the harm by not intervening in the foreseeable violence.

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through already available licences" and stated that "these fisheries will operate within established seasons." These terms were rejected by Chief Sack, who stated that "we have a management plan that is better for conservation than theirs is, so we're going to follow our own plan."

2210: 1747:. The most important animal hunted by the Miꞌkmaq was the moose, which was used in every part: the meat for food, the skin for clothing, tendons and sinew for cordage, and bones for carving and tools. Other animals hunted/trapped included deer, bear, rabbit, beaver and porcupine. 1986:

history professor, Geoffrey Plank, described the relationship between the Mi'kmaq and Acadians as strong. The Miꞌkmaq believed they could share their traditional lands with both the British and the Acadians—with the Mi'kmaq hunting as usual, and getting to the coast for seafood.

6309:. The tribes ranged from present-day northern and eastern New England in the United States to the Maritime Provinces of Canada. At the time of contact with the French (late 16th century), they were expanding from their maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula / 538:

readers and historians, who also dealt with the treaties with the non-natives and other Native tribes), the women's council, and the grand chief. The grand chief was a title given to one of the district chiefs, who was usually from the Miꞌkmaw district of Unamáki or

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in greater number put pressure on land use and the treaties. This migration into the region created significant economic, environmental and cultural pressures on the Miꞌkmaq. The Miꞌkmaq tried to enforce the treaties through threat of force. At the beginning of the

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On October 23, 2020, the Mi'kmaq Rights Initiative (known as the KMKNO for "Kwilmu'kw Maw-klusuaqn Negotiation Office") announced that talks with the DFO over defining "moderate livelihood" had broken down. The following Wednesday (October 28), Terry Paul, chief of

3986:"The definite article "the" suggests that "Miꞌkmaq" is the undeclined form indicated by the initial letter "m". When declined in the singular, it reduces to the following forms: nikmaq – my family; kikmaq – your family; wikma – his/her family. The variant form 1147:—"one of Canada's most lucrative lobster fisheries"— became the site of a violent conflict between Mi'kmaq fishers and non-Mi'kmaq commercial fishers. Immediately after the ruling, Mi'kmaq fishers began to lay lobster traps out of season. Incidents such as the 1953:. In his 2002, book on the Marshall case, historian William Wicken said that there is no written documentation to support this assertion that Cope made the treaty on behalf of all the Miꞌkmaq. has been cited in the Supreme Court of Canada's 1985 decision in 1113:

in their 1999 ruling that resulted in Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Peskotomuhkati people the "right to hunt, fish and gather in pursuit of a 'moderate livelihood' from the resources of the land and waters." The legal precedent had previously been established in the

1759:, increased awareness of territoriality. Trader preferences for good harbors resulted in greater numbers of Miꞌkmaq gathering in fewer summer rendezvous locations. This in turn encouraged their establishing larger bands, led by the ablest trade negotiators. 3524:

The pre-contact population is estimated at 3,000–30,000. In 1616, Father Biard believed the Miꞌkmaw population to be in excess of 3,000, but he remarked that, because of European diseases, there had been large population losses during the 16th century.

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was presented with a report recommending a First Nations band without any reserved land to represent the Mi'kmaq of Newfoundland. An Agreement-in-principle was reached in 2006, which the FNI accepted in 2007. The federal government ratified it in 2008.

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having also withdrawn earlier). According to Paul, when he talked with the other ANSMC Chiefs about his decision, there seemed to be a willingness to deal with the issues he had identified in the negotiation process, so that he could rejoin shortly.

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On October 21, Sipekne'katik managed to secure an interim injunction against the restriction of band members' access to the Saulnierville and Weymouth wharves, as well as the New Edinburgh lobster pound. The motion for the injunction was filed

2031:, arrived and battled with the Miꞌkmaq. One Miꞌkmaw was killed and 16 were taken prisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually taken to Halifax. They were released on 28 July 1779 after signing the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown. 1411:

The Sipekneꞌkatik fishing plan "became a flash point" resulting in violent highly-charged conflict pitting non-Miꞌkmaw lobster fishers in the adjacent coastal communities and Miꞌkmaw fishers those carrying out the moderate livelihood fishery.

1767:. The Miꞌkmaq made their bows from maple. They ate fish of all kinds, such as salmon, sturgeon, lobster, squid, shellfish, and eels, as well as seabirds and their eggs. They hunted marine mammals such as porpoises, whales, walrus, and seals. 734:

Jesuit missionaries adopted their use to teach Catholic prayers and religion to the Mi'kmaq. Schmidt and Marshall showed that these hieroglyphics served as a fully functional writing system. They assert it is the oldest writing system for an

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is the official authority that engages in consultation with the Canadian federal government and the provincial government of Nova Scotia, as established by the historic August 30, 2010, agreement with the Miꞌkmaq Nation, resulting from the

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According to the Nova Scotia Museum, bear teeth and claws were used as decoration in regalia. The women used porcupine quills to create decorative beadwork on clothing, moccasins, and accessories. The weapon used most for hunting was the

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in Nova Scotia. This covers most, if not all, actions these governments might take within that jurisdiction. This is the first such collaborative agreement in Canadian history including all the First Nations within an entire province.

1127: 4019:, a Supreme Court case that spanned over a decade, the Ahousaht Indian Band and Nation in British Columbia confirmed their right to "fish in their court-defined territories and sell that fish into the commercial marketplace." 2035:

often used by government officials, "relief". The British said the Miꞌkmaq must give up their way of life and begin to settle on farms. Also, they were told they had to send their children to British schools for education.

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Although the treaties of 1760–61 contain statements of Miꞌkmaw submission to the British crown, later statements made by Miꞌkmaw reveal that they intended a friendly and reciprocal relationship, according to the 2009 book,

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said that his government was "extremely active" in trying to de-escalate the situation. He also stated that he expected the police to be keeping people safe, and acknowledged concerns that the police had not been doing so.

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Wappel, Tom (November 2003). Report Of The Standing Committee On Fisheries And Oceans, May 2003, Atlantic Fisheries Issues (Report). Ottawa, Ontario: Report Of The Standing Committee On Fisheries And Oceans, House Of

695:, was inspired by marks made by a young Mi'kmaq using charcoal on birchbark. Leclercq created what is now known as Mi'kmaq hieroglyphs to teach Catholic prayers and hymns to the people in their own form of language. 1637:—was established in 1982 he result of a collaboration between the Miꞌkmaw community and the Nova Scotia government. The school is the most successful First Nation Education Program in Canada, according to Benjamin. 576:(1874–1964), a respected Mi'kmaq religious leader and traditional Grand Chief of the Council, was elected as the Council's Grand Chief in 1918. Repeatedly re-elected, he held this position for the rest of his life. 1750:

Braser described the first contact between the Mi'kmaq and early European fishermen. These fishermen salted their catch at sea and sailed directly home with it, but they set up camps ashore as early as 1520 for

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this pre-Le Clerq writing system was part of a writing tradition by the Mi'kmaq similar to that observed in 1651 observed amongst the Eastern Abenakis of Maine. Today it is written mainly using letters of the

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preceded the agreement. The August 2010 agreement is the first such collaborative agreement in Canadian history; it includes representation for all the First Nations within the entire province of Nova Scotia.

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resulted in a compensation to Marshall of a lifetime pension of $ 1.5 million. Marshall used the financial compensation to finance the lengthy and costly Supreme Court case. When Marshall won, 34 Mi'kmaq and

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Harassment around the Sipekne'katik fishery continued through October. On October 5, Sipekne'katik fisher Robert Syliboy, a holder of one of the moderate livelihood fishery's licenses, found his boat at the

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and myths which account for the organization of the world and society; for instance, how men and women were created and why they are different from one another. The most well known Miꞌkmaw myth is that of

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related families indigenous people who lived in a climate unfavorable for agriculture, had subsisted on fishing and hunting. Developed leadership did not extend beyond hunting parties. In the same 1978

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people involved in the raids permission to enter the facility and take the lobsters. Muise offered to work with people charged with offenses connected to the raids and try to get those charges dropped.

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plays two grammatical roles: 1) It is the singular of Miꞌkmaq and 2) it is an adjective in circumstances where it precedes a noun (e.g., miꞌkmaw people, miꞌkmaw treaties, miꞌkmaw person, etc.)" see

1219:"largest investment in the seafood industry by a Canadian Indigenous group". The harvest of non-Indigenous fishermen in the region will now be purchased by Clearwater Seafoods' Miꞌkmaq part owners. 5693: 1533:

due to the urgency of the situation, as the band was struggling to sell any of their catch in the midst of the violence and protests. The injunction will remain in place until December 15, 2020.

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disrupted that authority, by requiring First Nations to establish representative elected governments along the Canadian model, and attempting to limit the Council's role to spiritual guidance.

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Some Miꞌkmaw people practice the Catholic faith while some only practice traditional Miꞌkmaw beliefs. However, many have adopted both because of the compatibility between both systems.

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On October 15, the Miꞌkmaq Warrior Peacekeepers arrived at the Saulnierville wharf with the intention of providing protection to Miꞌkmaq who were continuing to fish amid the violence.

680:

Jerry Lonecloud (1854 – 1930, Mi'kmaq) is considered the "ethnographer of the Mi'kmaq nation". In 1912, he transcribed some of the Kejimkujik petroglyphs, and donated his works to the

5613: 1671:

that lasted "many years", and involved the "slaughter of men, women, and children, and torture of captives", and the eventual displacement of the Kwēdĕchk by the victorious Mi’kmaq.

1122:. This resulted in the 1993 charges laid against Marshall Jr. for "fishing eels out of season, fishing without a licence, and fishing with an illegal net". In the 2018 publication, 757:. Although this older spelling is still in use, the Miꞌkmaq consider the spelling "Micmac" to be "tainted" by colonialism. The "q" ending is used in the plural form of the noun, and 7079: 2405:. Several Miꞌkmaw institutions, including the Grand Council, had argued that the Qalipu Miꞌkmaq Band did not have legitimate aboriginal heritage and was accepting too many members. 1625:, journalist Chris Benjamin wrote about the "raw wounds" of Miꞌkmaw children who attended the Shubenacadie institution in the period spanning over three decades, from 1930 to 1967. 7314:

Speck, Frank G. and R.W. Dexter, 1951, Utilization of Animals and Plants by the Micmac Indians of New Brunswick, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 41:250–259, page 258

2019:

soon after it declared its independence in July 1776. These delegates did not officially represent the Miꞌkmaw government, although many individual Miꞌkmaq did privately join the

6861: 5943: 1614: 519:

disrupted that authority, by requiring First Nations to establish representative elected governments and attempting to limit the Council's role to that of spiritual guidance.

2394:

population. In response, parliament passed Bill C-25, authorizing it to review all applications and retroactively reject some, based on criteria similar to those used in the

2188:. The oldest known hockey stick was made between 1852 and 1856. Recently, it was sold for US$ 2.2 million. The stick was carved by Miꞌkmaq from Nova Scotia, who made it from 1778:, and Portuguese explorers about conditions there encouraged visits by Portuguese, Spanish, Basque, French, and English fishermen and whalers, beginning in the 16th century. 6991: 6768: 6039: 2867: 5479: 5208: 1445:

through this fishery will entitle fishers to 70 tags, and boats will be allowed to carry up to 200 lobster traps each. At the time of the launch of the Potlotek fishery,

5345: 8164: 8137: 8029: 8002: 7975: 7948: 7921: 7894: 7867: 7840: 7813: 7761: 7734: 7707: 7680: 7653: 7626: 7599: 7572: 7545: 7518: 7491: 7464: 7437: 7410: 7383: 7356: 7329: 2455:. Good storytellers are highly prized by the Miꞌkmaq, as they provide important teachings that shape who a person grows to be, and are sources of great entertainment. 5319: 5055: 4590: 9006: 5724: 1408:

Fundy." It is also "one of the most lucrative fishing areas in Canada". DFO reported that as of December 2019, there were 979 commercial lobster licenses in LFA 34.

1641:

there was a 25% increase in Miꞌkmaw students going to university. Atlantic Canada has the highest rate of aboriginal students attending university in the country.

6409: 6347: 2146:

to the wider world. The mission was dissolved in 1870. After a long period of disagreement with the Baptist church, he eventually returned to the church in 1885.

8054: 1851:

Over a period of seventy-five years, during six wars in Miꞌkmaꞌki, the Miꞌkmaq and Acadians fought to keep the British from taking over the region (See the four

1457:

wharf destroyed in a suspicious fire. On the evening of October 13, several hundred non-Indigenous fishers and their supporters raided two storage facilities in

1077: 498: 460: 4424: 3880: 8764: 6195:

Snow, Dean R. (1978). "Late Prehistory of the East Coast: Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Eastern New Brunswick Drainages". In Trigger, Bruce G. (ed.).

6096:

Christianson, D.J. 1979. The Use of Subsistence Strategy Descriptions in Determining Wabanaki Residence Location. Journal of Anthropology at McMaster 5( 1 ).

5755: 5556: 4306: 3900: 1449:

was also planning on launching their own fishery, following a similar plan. After the launch of this fishery, DFO officers continued to seize Mi'kmaq traps.

1109:

ruling, which "affirmed a treaty right to hunt, fish and gather in pursuit of a 'moderate livelihood'." The Supreme Court also cited Section 35 of the 1982

7017: 4270: 9031: 8073: 5293: 64:

Although the flag is meant to be displayed hanging vertically as shown here, it is quite commonly flown horizontally, with the star near the upper hoist.

2027:

valley of New Brunswick attacked and plundered some of the British in the area. The following month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, in command of HMS

934:

was documented as the first European to record the term "Mi'kmaq" for the people, using it in his 1676 memoir. Marion Robertson stated this in the book

8511:

Mr. Bromley's second address, on the deplorable state of the Indians delivered in the "Royal Acadian School," at Halifax, in Nova Scotia, March 8, 1814

5505: 5891: 3968:

professor of history of religions; she conducted fieldwork on reservations of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, and Canada in 1992–1993, 1996 and 2000.

2988:

Big Hole Tract 8 (North Half), Indian Point 1, Metepenagiag Urban Reserve 3, Metepenagiag Urban Reserve 8, Metepenagiag Uta'nk, Red Bank 4, Red Bank 7

2184:

appeared in recorded colonial histories from as early as the 18th century. Since the nineteenth century, the Miꞌkmaq were credited with inventing the

6936: 1878:

Along with Acadians, the Miꞌkmaq used military force to resist the founding of British (Protestant) settlements by making numerous raids on Halifax,

579:

In 1927, Grand Chief Sylliboy was charged by Nova Scotia with hunting muskrat pelts out of season. He was the first to use the rights defined in the

7305:

Chandler, R. Frank, Lois Freeman and Shirley N. Hooper, 1979, Herbal Remedies of the Maritime Indians, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1:49–68, page 53

5865: 2446:

primarily via storytelling. There were traditionally three levels of oral traditions: religious myths, legends, and folklore. This includes Miꞌkmaw

1523:, released a Twitter statement requesting that the federal government define "what constitutes legal harvesting in a "moderate livelihood" fishery. 8787: 7277: 2475:. The island is also the site of the St. Anne Mission, an important pilgrimage site for the Miꞌkmaq. The island has been declared a historic site. 371: 6527: 2509: 1512:

On October 16, Mi'kmaq lobster fishers from the Sipekne'katik First Nation quickly sold all their lobsters after setting up shop in front of the

593:. On the 50th anniversary of Sylliboy's death, the Grand Council asked the Nova Scotia government for a pardon for the late Grand Chief. Premier 7141: 854: 1140:

DFO had the power to regulate the fishery for conservation purposes if it "consulted with the First Nation and could justify the regulations".

938:(1960s), published by the Nova Scotia Museum, Robertson cites Professor Ganong, who suggested that "Mi'kmaq" was derived from the Mi'kmaq word 6883: 5001: 5582: 3693: 768:

The Miꞌkmaq prefer to use one of the three current Miꞌkmaq orthographies when writing the language. Spellings used by Mi'kmaq people include

589: 5917: 4247: 2075:

was celebrated by Nova Scotians on October 1, 1986 in recognition of the treaties signed between the British Empire and the Miꞌkmaw people.

497:

was the official consultative authority that engages with the Canadian federal government and the provincial government of Nova Scotia. The

463:. This collaborative agreement, which includes all the First Nations within the province of Nova Scotia, was the first in Canadian history. 451:

upheld the 1752 Peace and Friendship Treaty "which promised Indigenous Peoples the right to hunt and fish their lands and establish trade."

5836: 7090: 4363: 2467:

One spiritual capital of the Miꞌkmaq Nation is Mniku, the gathering place of the Miꞌkmaw Grand Council or Santé Mawiómi, Chapel Island in

753:, which is preferred by the Miꞌkmaq people, was widely adopted by scholarly publications and the media. It replaced the previous spelling 8710: 6115: 5639: 2374:

was willing to work with the FNI and the government of Newfoundland, but the provincial government considered it to be a federal matter.

1662:

In southwestern Nova Scotia, there is archaeological evidence that traces traditional land use and resources to at least 4,000 years. In

2290:

In 1914, over 150 Miꞌkmaw men signed up during World War I. During the First World War, thirty-four out of sixty-four male Miꞌkmaq from

8757: 8596: 6793: 6398:

According to historian Stephen Patterson, the British imposed the treaties on the Miꞌkmaq to confirm the British conquest of Miꞌkmaꞌki.

1807: 5264: 3530:

the 19th century. During the 20th century, the population was on the rise again. The average growth from 1965 to 1970 was about 2.5%.

9011: 8991: 8159: 8132: 8024: 7997: 7970: 7943: 7916: 7862: 7835: 7808: 7756: 7729: 7702: 7648: 7621: 7594: 7540: 7405: 7378: 7351: 6526:

Among the annual festivals of the old times, now lost, was the celebration of St. Aspinquid's Day; he was known as the Indian Saint.

5395: 5371: 3611: 1596: 1516:

in Halifax with potential customers lined up around the block. The fishers said they were putting pressure on Premier McNeil to act.

7889: 7675: 7567: 7513: 7486: 7459: 7432: 7324: 5968: 4824: 1536:

In January 2021, 23 people were charged in connection to the violence at the lobster storage facilities on October 13, 2020: 15 for

9016: 2079: 1478:, and Colin Sproul, president of the Bay of Fundy Inshore Fishermen's Association, all condemned the violence. Nova Scotia Premier 493:

On August 30, 2010, the Miꞌkmaw Nation and the Nova Scotia provincial government reached an historic agreement, affirming that the

6539:. This was soon reversed, but public officials quickly left, and St. Aspinquid was never after celebrated at Halifax. (See Akins. 5085: 4003: 8904: 7116: 7053: 5430:

Implementing the right to fish in pursuit of a moderate livelihood: Rebuilding trust and establishing a constructive path forward

1490:

while trying to give a press conference on October 14. Also during the violence, an elder had sage knocked out of her hand while

1164:. The documentary also described how Ocean and Fisheries department officials seemed to "wage a war" on the Mi'kmaq fishermen of 6043: 5694:"Manager of Nova Scotia pound claims in online post that he 'opened the doors' for non-Indigenous fishers to take Mi'kmaw catch" 4198: 2343:

In 1972 activists formed the Native Association of Newfoundland and Labrador as the main organization representing the Mi'kmaq,

1770:

Miꞌkmaw territory was the first portion of North America that Europeans exploited at length for resource extraction. Reports by

6962: 3837: 1618: 5456: 2743: 1367:

who said that Mik'maq communities had benefitted from improvements resulting from the Marshall decision, as the Department of

597:

granted the posthumous pardon in 2017. Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, John James Grant, McNeil, and the Justice Minister

8750: 8407: 7155: 6473: 6448: 6383: 6023: 5039: 4899: 4767: 4713: 4685: 4660: 4573: 2616: 1883: 391: 6910: 6862:"Statement by the Honourable Chuck Strahl on the Ratification Vote by the Mi'kmaq of the Federation of Newfoundland Indians" 2352:

Indian Band, Glenwood Mi'kmaq First Nation, and the Port au Port Indian Band). The provincial government supported the FNI.

644:

According to the 2021 census, 9,245 people identified as speakers of the Miꞌkmaq language. 4,910 of which said it was their

8601: 7208: 5530: 4600: 3945: 2307: 1970: 735: 6105:

Ferguson, R. 1986. Archaeological Sites of Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia. Unpublished Ms., Parks Canada , Halifax.

2496:

Miꞌkmaw names in the following table are spelled according to several orthographies. The Miꞌkmaw orthographies in use are

8791: 8306: 2298:. In 1939, over 250 Miꞌkmaq volunteered in World War II. (In 1950, over 60 Miꞌkmaq enlisted to serve in the Korean War.) 1215: 6637: 4310: 3633: 2321: 8185: 1371:(DFO) granted access to Mi'kmaq fishers to the "commercial fishery through communal licences operated by the bands". 8619: 8586: 8564: 8541: 8519: 8455: 8388: 7241: 4535:

The Petroglyphs of Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia: A Fresh Perspective on their Physical and Cultural Contexts

4496: 3925: 3559: 2923: 2356: 2234: 2221: 2060:

was the first Miꞌkmaw elected as grand chief in 1919 and the first to fight for treaty recognition—specifically, the

1910: 1060: 350: 6589: 4389: 4333: 1785:, (1885–1965), a journalist who wrote historical novels. By 1578, some 350 European ships were operating around the 9026: 8996: 8695: 8242: 6835: 6704: 6571: 6495: 5506:"Trapped in Conflict: How the corporate megafishery Clearwater has set the stage for violent conflict in Mi'kma'ki" 2497: 2355:

The federal government approved only the petition for recognition made by the Mi'kmaq at Conne River. In 1987, the

2008: 1683:

in Halifax, since 2007 focused his MA research specifically on pre-contact fish weirs in southwestern Nova Scotia.

1462: 657: 418: 5811:"Lobsters quickly sell out in front of Nova Scotia legislature: 'They have a treaty right to buy from the Mi'kmaq" 4759:

We Were Not the Savages: A Miꞌkmaq Perspective on the Collision Between European and Native American Civilizations

4514:

The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travel and Explorations of the Jesuit Missions in New France, 1610–1791

4219: 405:

There are 66,748 Mi'kmaq people in the region as of 2023, (including 25,182 members in the more recently formed

9001: 7182: 5614:"Respected chief leaves two Mi'kmaw political organizations because of 'distrust' over moderate livelihood plans" 4940: 3930: 3574: 2978: 1781:

European fishing camps traded with Miꞌkmaw fishermen, and trading rapidly expanded to include furs, according to

1228: 7028: 5111: 72: 8347: 8083: 6290: 5665: 3280: 1421: 1384: 1118:, one in a series of treaties known as the Peace and Friendship Treaties, but was not being respected prior to 7294: 4971: 9021: 8981: 8690: 8307:"Investigating the restoration of the Miꞌkmaq language and culture on the First Nations reserve of Miawpukek" 5944:"'We're going to establish our own fishery': Sipekne'katik First Nation rejects DFO moderate livelihood plan" 2606: 1817: 1666:, there are canoe routes that have been used for thousands of years by Indigenous people travelling from the 1329: 931: 8278:"Our Strength is Ourselves: Identity, Status, and Cultural Revitalization among the Miꞌkmaq in Newfoundland" 7209:"Canada signed private agreement with Qalipu Mi'kmaq days before contentious changes to application process" 1890:

between France and Britain in Europe, the Miꞌkmaq assisted the Acadians in resisting the British during the

969:

as "red on the earth", "red ground", or "red earth". Other suggestions from Robertson include its origin in

8773: 8501: 8277: 2329: 2225: 2217: 2007:

tribes supported the Americans against the British. They participated in the Maugerville Rebellion and the

1513: 558:. The Miꞌkmaq, as trading allies of the French, were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst. 414: 5235:"Fish Buyers' Licensing and Enforcement Regulations via Fisheries and Coastal Resources Act (Nova Scotia)" 8986: 8680: 8247: 7274: 6709: 6576: 6500: 3189: 3080: 2121:

to the plight of the Miꞌkmaq "particularly contributes to his historical significance". Finguard writes:

1372: 1368: 1360: 1165: 612:

in Cape Breton. In the early 21st century, this site is now within the reserve known as Chapel Island or

522:

In addition to the district councils, the Mꞌikmaq have been traditionally governed by a Grand Council or

506: 494: 467: 455: 59: 31: 17: 8262: 8186:

Massachusetts Historical Society; John Davis Batchelder Collection (Library of Congress) (8 June 1792).

1654: 5457:

The Marshall Decision at 20: Two Decades of Commercial Re-Empowerment of the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet, Munk

5086:"Mi'kmaq tackle decades-old standstill on fishing rights with historic, self-regulated lobster fishery" 3799: 3583: 3158: 2892: 2688: 2291: 1923:

that through these treaties—which were referenced as legal precedent by the Supreme Court of Canada in

1895: 1864: 1458: 1389: 842:, meaning "human being" or "the people". Members of the Miꞌkmaq historically referred to themselves as 684:. He is credited with the first Mi'kmaq memoir, which was recorded from his oral history in the 1920s. 6256: 3862: 2078:

The treaties were only formally recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada once they were enshrined in

7142:"Updated Founding Members List for the Qalipu First Nation Adopted Through Order in Council – Qalipu" 6536: 3260: 3031: 2733: 2313: 2065: 2047: 1979: 1891: 1860: 1467: 1352:

After Mi'kmaq chiefs declared a state of emergency in October 2020, the Federal Government appointed

627: 119: 6513:

Sessional papers, Volume 5 By Canada. Parliament July 2 – September 22, 1779; Wilfred Brenton Kerr.

4039: 1898:

in Cape Breton. In 1763, Great Britain formalized its colonial possession of all of Miꞌkmaki in the

1177:, 1982. In May 2003, the House of Commons' Standing Committee On Fisheries And Oceans chaired by MP 616:. The Grand Council continues to meet at Mniku to discuss current issues within the Miꞌkmaq Nation. 4916: 2294:, Prince Edward Island enlisted in the armed forces, distinguishing themselves particularly in the 2138:

in 1849 help found the Mi'kmaq Missionary Society, a full-time Miꞌkmaw mission. Basing his work in

2072: 2024: 1983: 1879: 1663: 669: 204: 192: 8495: 6742: 4457: 4157: 8898: 8877: 8477: 5557:"Sipekne'katik Chief calls on NS Premier, DFO, RCMP to protect Mi'kmaw harvesters' treaty rights" 3712: 3316: 3172: 3118: 2799: 2709: 2633: 2512:

orthography. The latter has been adopted throughout Nova Scotia and in most Miꞌkmaw communities.

2416:

is currently taking Qalipu First Nation (and its precursor) to court over the enrolment process.

2378: 2337: 2295: 1735:

of the interior. Autumn frost killed the biting insects during the September harvest of spawning

1603: 1096: 584: 543:. This title was hereditary within a clan and usually passed on to the grand chief's eldest son. 442: 78: 5781: 5725:"Southwest N.S. lobster pound destroyed by fire, man in hospital with life-threatening injuries" 5666:"Vehicle torched, lobster pounds storing Mi'kmaw catches trashed during night of unrest in N.S." 5320:"The deal is sealed, Mi'kmaq coalition partner with B.C company to buy seafood giant Clearwater" 587:

finally recognized the 1752 treaty rights for indigenous hunting and fishing in their ruling on

6724: 6590:

Nova Scotia Historical Society; Nova Scotia Historical Society. Report and collections (1878).

4181: 4053: 3841: 3780: 3070: 3047: 3026: 2944: 2196: 2084: 1995: 1957:. With the signing of various treaties, the 75 years of regular warfare ended in 1761 with the 1899: 1852: 1571: 1567: 1446: 1208: 5346:"Twenty Indigenous stories that shaped 2020 — a year of racism and fear, of fighting and hope" 4680:. Vitality of indigenous religions series. Aldershot, England ; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. 8724: 6618:

Cutherbertson, Brian (2005). "The Starr Manufacturing Company: Skate Exporter to the World".

4118: 3347: 3228: 3215: 3207: 2822: 2768: 2535: 1915: 1441: 1437: 1052: 1016: 6373: 5976: 5143: 4892:

Red earth: tales of the Micmac with an introduction to the customs and beliefs of the Micmac

4757: 4533: 4145:

Best Practices and Challenges in Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet/Wolastoqi Language Immersion Programs.

2370:

Recognition for the remainder of Newfoundland's Mi'kmaq was a much longer process. Minister

1126:, Marshall was quoted as saying, "I don't need a licence. I have the 1752 Treaty." The 1989 8652: 8485: 7183:"Qalipu First Nation marks a milestone, celebrating 10 years as recognized Indigenous band" 6797: 6070: 5294:"Nova Scotia chiefs rejected $ 87-million offer from DFO, want moderate livelihood defined" 5234: 3891: 3853: 3786: 3663: 3617: 3203: 3199: 2897: 2540: 2505: 2386: 2117: 1991: 1825: 1813: 1786: 1752: 1600: 1592: 949:

The Mi'kmaq may have identified as "the Red Earth People, or the People of the Red Earth".

639: 626:

territory. (Later the large island was organized as a separate district in the province of

410: 360: 188: 169: 109: 8976: 6699: 2332:

in Newfoundland." This ultimately led to the Miꞌkmaq people of Newfoundland not receiving

1694:, ethnologist T. J. Brasser, described how pre-contact small semi-nomadic bands of a few 8: 8795: 8576: 7159: 4832: 4729: 3751: 3255: 3009: 2566: 2088:

of 1982. The first Treaty Day occurred the year after the Supreme Court upheld the Peace

2012: 2000: 1946: 1887: 1675: 1153: 1148: 1100: 688: 406: 269: 6769:"In Newfoundland, too many want recognition as Mi'kmaq Indians, federal government says" 6591: 6566: 2258: 2246: 382:, primarily Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, and the 8336: 6310: 5756:"After a week of violence, Mi'kmaq Warrior Peacekeepers arrive at wharf in Nova Scotia" 4271:"N.S. calls on Ottawa to define a 'moderate livelihood,' as fishing dispute boils over" 3935: 3920: 3758: 2501: 2135: 2093: 1942: 1816:

between English colonists and Native Americans in southern New England (which included

1680: 839: 681: 623: 540: 222: 8237: 4093:"Native Languages of the Americas: Mi'kmaq Language (Mi'kmaw, Micmac, Mikmaq, Mikmak)" 1388:

was located "outside of the regulated commercial season in Lobster Fishing Area 34 in

865: 692: 383: 8615: 8582: 8560: 8537: 8515: 8451: 8403: 8384: 8371: 8343: 8187: 7237: 6684: 6490: 6469: 6444: 6379: 6286: 6019: 5035: 4895: 4763: 4709: 4681: 4656: 4569: 4568:. Fredericton, N.B. : Halifax, N.S: Goose Lane Editions via Nova Scotia Museum. 4492: 4220:"Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population – Canada [Country]" 3790: 3539: 3211: 3168: 2999: 2468: 2413: 2159: 1782: 1617:

that travelled to various communities in Atlantic Canada, who were all served by the

1475: 1024: 998: 715: 609: 409:

in Newfoundland.) According to the Canadian 2021 census, 9,245 people claim to speak

399: 6217:

Brasser, T.J. (1978). "Early Indian-European Contacts". In Trigger, Bruce G. (ed.).

6169: 4307:"Miꞌkmaq of Nova Scotia, Province of Nova Scotia and Canada Sign Landmark Agreement" 1789:

estuary. Most were independent fishermen, but increasing numbers were exploring the

719:

from 1856 to 1871. He included samples of Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing, such as the

8487:

An account of the customs and manners of the MicMakis and Marichetts Savage Nations

7234:

Tán Teli-Ktlamsitasit (Ways of Believing): Míkmaw Religion in Eskasoni, Nova Scotia

3887: 3735: 3731: 3629: 3092: 3013: 2954: 2854: 2390: 2185: 2097: 2057: 2020: 1958: 1935: 1868: 1471: 1353: 1222: 1161: 1051:, Kespukwitk (Gespugwitg), Siknikt (Signigtewaꞌgi), Sipekniꞌkatik (Sugapuneꞌgati), 727: 573: 566: 555: 530:("captains" in English), who were the district chiefs. There were also elders, the 324: 184: 8718: 2878: 1894:. The military resistance was reduced significantly with the French defeat at the 677:

petroglyphs date from the late prehistoric period through the nineteenth century.

515:, was the traditional senior level of government for the Miꞌkmaw people. The 1876 476:, was the traditional senior level of government for the Miꞌkmaw people. The 1876 8923: 8910: 8636: 8436: 7281: 6410:"Eighteenth-Century Treaties:The Miꞌkmaq, Maliseet, and Passamaquoddy Experience" 6348:"Eighteenth-Century Treaties:The Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Passamaquoddy Experience" 5531:"The lobster catch in St. Marys Bay is down, but there's little consensus on why" 4653:

Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic prayers: readings in North America's first indigenous script

4628:. Wien [Vienna: Die Kaiserliche wie auch Königliche Buchdruckerei hat es gedruckt 4623: 4489:

Mi'kmaq Hieroglyphic Prayers: Readings in North America's First Indigenous Script

3965: 3824: 3806: 3794: 3601: 3595: 3570: 3302: 3290: 3238: 3084: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2584: 2580: 2274: 1931: 1856: 1775: 1537: 1337: 1325: 1313: 1136: 974: 551: 547: 379: 279: 105: 8705: 8628: 5892:"Sipekne'katik First Nation lobster harvesters sue feds, non-Indigenous fishers" 2402: 1027:, is traditionally divided into seven districts. Prior to the imposition of the 561: 8861: 8742: 8108: 4753: 3722: 3718: 3706: 3669: 3652: 3623: 3579: 2484: 2325: 2113: 2089: 2061: 2043: 1695: 1520: 1501: 1479: 1200: 1115: 943: 662: 645: 594: 580: 437: 422: 54: 5169: 1188:

reported that "Maritime waters" were "calm a decade after Marshall decision."

8970: 8851: 8681:

Bras d'Or – Pitawpoꞌq, Indian name; Little Bras d'Or – Panuꞌskek, Indian name

8578:

The Abnakis and their history: Historical notices on the aborigines of Acadia

8055:"Government of Canada Announces the Creation of the Qalipu First Nation Band" 5918:"Membertou latest First Nation to leave Assembly of NS Mi'kmaw Chiefs, KMKNO" 5866:"Mi'kmaw lobster harvester fears for her safety after receiving online video" 5583:"Mi'kmaw harvesters confront protesters at wharf in southwestern Nova Scotia" 4595: 4092: 3872: 3675: 3357: 3326: 3242: 3176: 3142: 3123: 2983: 2962: 2958: 2849: 2804: 2786: 2747: 2738: 2714: 2693: 2669: 2651: 2647: 2592: 2549: 2447: 2371: 2333: 2016: 1837: 1764: 1686:

In the chapter "Late Prehistory of the East Coast" in the Smithsonian's 1978

1658:

Miꞌkmaq Women Selling Baskets, Halifax, Nova Scotia, by Mary R. McKie c. 1845

1426: 1170: 1144: 1007: 433: 235: 139: 6645: 5209:"Listuguj impatient with failure to define 'moderate livelihood' in fishery" 822:(the adjectival and singular noun, previously spelled "L'nu"; the plural is 698: 569:– first to fight for Treaty Rights in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1929 511:, or Grand Council, which was made up of chiefs of the district councils of 472:, or Grand Council, which was made up of chiefs of the district councils of 8803: 6515:

The Maritime Provinces of British North America and the American Revolution

6236:. Northeast. Vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 109–122. 6040:"Number of Mi'kmaq graduates continues to rise | the Chronicle Herald" 5436:(Report). Final report by the Federal Special Representative. 29 April 2021 5032:

Truth and conviction: Donald Marshall Jr. and the Mi'kmaw quest for justice

4425:"9 decades after hunting conviction, Mi'kmaq leader gets posthumous pardon" 3852:

Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the

3818: 3768: 3687: 3681: 3607: 3547: 3330: 3266: 3088: 2809: 2751: 2674: 2664: 2643: 2620: 2553: 2459:

canoes, but only a single old man and woman survive to populate the earth.

1974: 1736: 1712: 1704: 1667: 1588: 1487: 1333: 1124:

Truth and conviction: Donald Marshall Jr. and the Mi'kmaq quest for justice

1105: 1090: 598: 447: 208: 7156:"Qalipu First Nation to welcome special guests from Mi'kmaq Grand Council" 4965: 4963: 4961: 2038: 1938:(1760–61), marked the end of warfare between the Miꞌkmaq and the British. 1927:—the Mi'kmaq "did not cede or give up their land title and other rights." 8846: 8816: 8609: 8553: 8531: 8509: 6466:

An unsettled conquest: the British campaign against the peoples of Acadia

6221:. Northeast. Vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 78–88. 3658: 3543: 3352: 3321: 3294: 3285: 3233: 3194: 3163: 3075: 3057: 2949: 2832: 2827: 2782: 2773: 2638: 2611: 2576: 2571: 2472: 2364: 2278: 2167: 2051: 2011:

in 1776. Miꞌkmaw delegates concluded the first international treaty, the

1949:

Miꞌkmaq has been cited in the Supreme Court of Canada's 1985 decision in

1454: 1341: 1056: 889: 129: 8223:

Megumaage: the home of the Micmacs or the True Men. A map of Nova Scotia

6839: 4246:

Bernard, Tim; Rosenmeier, Leah Morine; Farrell, Sharon L., eds. (2015).

1621:, the sole residential school for the region. In his 2004 book entitled 1066: 648:, and 2,595 reported it to be their most often spoken language at home. 6666: 6532: 5835:

Forester, Brett; Moore, Angel; Pashagumskum, Jamie (October 21, 2020).

4958: 4783: 3940: 3812: 3763: 3738: 3725: 3626:, Elder, author, tribal historian, columnist, and human rights activist 3620:, wrongly convicted of murder; later, fought for Mi'kmaq fishing rights 2965: 2778: 2588: 2395: 2181: 2154: 1771: 1595:

in Canadian history, representing an estimated 79,000 survivors of the

1376: 1364: 1178: 874: 673: 478: 6937:"Scrap Qalipu membership requirements, says Mi'kmaq association chair" 3538:

The Miꞌkmaw people have been commemorated in numerous ways, including

1941:

The 1752 Peace and Friendship Treaty Between His Majesty the King and

1930:

Some historians have asserted that first treaty signed in 1725, after

765:. It is also used as an adjective, for example, "the Miꞌkmaw nation". 8821: 8685: 8533:

An account of the aborigines of Nova Scotia called the Micmac Indians

8203: 6314: 5480:"Scale of Sipekne'katik fishery won't harm lobster stocks, says prof" 3907: 3298: 3104: 3100: 3096: 2720: 2139: 1833: 1790: 1720: 720: 703: 239: 8675: 6992:"About 80,000 denied eligibility for Newfoundland first nation band" 6911:"6,500 rejected Qalipu Mi'kmaq band applications to be reconsidered" 5837:"Mi'kmaq secure injunction against interference with treaty fishery" 5804: 5802: 1886:. During the French and Indian War, the North American front of the 1739:. Smaller groups would disperse into the interior where they hunted 1332:

members of the Mi'kmaq and non-Indigenous lobster fishers mainly in

973:, which means "my brother" or "my friend", or a term of endearment. 8882: 8841: 6375:

Miꞌkmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land and Donald Marshall Junior

6016:

Indian school road: legacies of the Shubenacadie Residential School

5640:"Mi'kmaw fishing vessel destroyed in suspicious fire at N.S. wharf" 3868: 3646: 3526: 2545: 2452: 2340:

that other indigenous groups in Canada did in the years following.

2189: 2143: 2004: 1845: 1841: 1744: 1732: 1724: 1541: 1529: 1491: 1132: 1048: 1002: 429: 366: 284: 231: 8670: 8597:

An account of the present state of Nova Scotia Hollingsworth. 1873

6257:"The Nova Scotia Museum – Heritage Attractions across Nova Scotia" 6072:

Pre-contact fish weirs: a case study from southwestern Nova Scotia

4704:

Metallic, Emmanuel N; Cyr, Danielle E; Sévigny, Alexandre (2005).

4358: 4356: 1905: 1719:

and shellfish, and coastal breezes brought relief from the biting

8856: 8811: 8655:(1986) — Míkmaq basketmakers and potato diggers in northern Maine 8078: 5799: 1829: 1708: 227: 6305:

The allied tribes occupied the territory which the French named

5265:"Mi'kmaq push for legal lobster sales for non-Indigenous buyers" 4564:

Whitehead, Ruth Holmes; Dennis, Clara; Lonecloud, Jerry (2002).

1828:), an alliance with four other Algonquian-language nations: the 1223:

Dispute over rights-based inshore lobster fishery (2020–present)

8777: 8700: 6306: 5396:"Fisheries conflict: Mi'kmaw Chiefs declare state of emergency" 5034:. Law and society series. Vancouver ; Toronto: UBC Press. 4941:"Factsheet: The 1999 Supreme Court of Canada Marshall Decision" 4557: 4391:

Kekina'muek (learning)Learning about the Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia

4353: 4335:

Kekina'muek (learning)Learning about the Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia

3376: 3052: 2928: 2872: 2317: 1818:

the first military conflict between the Miꞌkmaq and New England

1756: 1253: 723: 706: 535: 387: 375: 149: 8717: 6963:"Decision week for thousands of applicants to the Qalipu band" 6821: 6285:. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company. p. 54. 6232:

Bock, Philip K. (1978). "Micmac". In Trigger, Bruce G. (ed.).

3977:"It is now the preferred choice of our People." See Paul:2000. 1615:

Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission

8836: 5782:"Massive fire destroys lobster pound in southern Nova Scotia" 5372:"Mi'kmaq lobster dispute: A conflict brewing since the 1700s" 3906:

Western Abenaki (Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Cowasuck, Sokoki,

3004: 2348: 2220:(3rd from left with beard) meets Governor General of Canada, 1740: 1728: 1047:

aq Piktuk (Epegwitg aq Pigtug), Eskikewaꞌkik (Esgeꞌgewaꞌgi),

869:. Adopting a term from the English, they referred to them as 398:. The traditional national territory of the Mi'kmaq is named 395: 342: 159: 8428:

The Míkmaq: Resistance, Accommodation, and Cultural Survival

7018:"Nova Scotia Chiefs Raise Concerns over Qalipu Miꞌkmaq Band" 4462:

Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, Government of Canada

1019:. Taqamgug was historically part of Onamag before the 1800s. 8831: 8826: 8448:

The Old Man Told Us: Excerpts from Míkmaq History 1500–1950

8263:"50 Things You Don't Know About Halifax – Halifax Magazine" 7257: 7080:"Defining Aboriginal Identity: What the Courts Have Stated" 6260: 6158:. New York and London: Longman, Green, and Co. p. 206. 3815:, a scout around the time of the American Revolutionary War 2344: 1934:, did not cede hunting, fishing, and gathering rights. The 554:

and was baptised. He concluded an alliance with the French

6317:-speaking tribes. The Miꞌkmaq name for this peninsula was 4708:. Sainte-Foy, Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval/IQRC. 1214:

On November 9, 2020, a group of Miꞌkmaq First Nations and

896:, meaning "The Brother(s)/Ally(ies)", with the use of the 8737: 8192:. Boston : The Society – via Internet Archive. 8141:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 8033:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 8006:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7952:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7925:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7871:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7817:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7783: 7765:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7738:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7684:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7603:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7549:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7495:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7468:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 7441:. First Nation Profiles. Government of Canada. 2008-11-14 6199:. Northeast. Vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution Press. 5834: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4249:

Mi'kmawe'l Tan Teli-kina'muemk Teaching About the Mi'kmaq

2424: 1867:

and political claim (apart from Cape Breton) by the 1713

1716: 1044: 1015:, the eighth district that includes the entire island of 709:

prayer in Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics by Christian Kauder, 1866

336: 333: 6560: 6558: 5063:

Royal Commission on the Donald Marshall, Jr. Prosecution

4563: 4516:(Vol. 38 ed.). Cleveland: Burrows Bros. p. 27. 4245: 2419: 1548:

like a racial slur and six gunshots in the background."

1128:

Royal Commission on the Donald Marshall, Jr. Prosecution

957:, what they called themselves, were linked to the words 953:, the name the Mi'kmaq used to describe their land, and 604:

Traditionally, the Grand Council met on a small island,

7117:"Thousands of Qalipu Mi'kmaq applicants rejected again" 5389: 5387: 5385: 5258: 5256: 5254: 5252: 5002:"Maritime waters calm a decade after Marshall decision" 4646: 4644: 4642: 4582: 4264: 4262: 4199:"Thousands of Qalipu Miꞌkmaq applicants rejected again" 3783:, a Miꞌkmaw chief and medical practitioner in the 1850s 2116:

was a British officer and reformer who established the

1359:

In the March 2021 report's backgrounder, Surette cited

730:, in his German Christian catechism published in 1866. 8732: 8165: