1468:"Seattle's racial tiebreaker results, in the end, only in shifting a small number of students between schools. Approximately 307 student assignments were affected by the racial tiebreaker in 2000–2001; the district was able to track the enrollment status of 293 of these students. App. in No. 05-908, at 162a. Of these, 209 were assigned to a school that was one of their choices, 87 of whom were assigned to the same school to which they would have been assigned without the racial tiebreaker. Eighty-four students were assigned to schools that they did not list as a choice, but 29 of those students would have been assigned to their respective school without the racial tiebreaker, and 3 were able to attend one of the oversubscribed schools due to waitlist and capacity adjustments. Id., at 162a-163a. In over one-third of the assignments affected by the racial tiebreaker, then, the use of race in the end made no difference, and the district could identify only 52 students who were ultimately affected adversely by the racial tiebreaker in that it resulted in assignment to a school they had not listed as a preference and to which they would not otherwise have been assigned. As the panel majority in Parents Involved VI concluded: "he tiebreaker's annual effect is thus merely to shuffle a few handfuls of different minority students between a few schools—about a dozen additional Latinos into Ballard, a dozen black students into Nathan Hale, perhaps two dozen Asians into Roosevelt, and so on. The District has not met its burden of proving these marginal changes . . . outweigh the cost of subjecting hundreds of students to disparate treatment based solely upon the color of their skin." 377 F.3d at 984–985. Similarly, Jefferson County's use of racial classifications has only a minimal effect on the assignment of students. Elementary school students are assigned to their first- or second-choice school 95 percent of the time, and transfers, which account for roughly 5 percent of assignments, are only denied 35 percent of the time—and presumably an even smaller percentage are denied on the basis of the racial guidelines, given that other factors may lead to a denial. McFarland I, 330 F. Supp. 2d, at 844–845, nn 16, 18. Jefferson County estimates that the racial guidelines account for only 3 percent of assignments. Brief in Opposition in No. 05-915, p 7, n 4; Tr. of Oral Arg. in No. 05-915, at 46. As Jefferson County explains, "the racial guidelines have minimal impact in this process, because they 'mostly influence student assignment in subtle and indirect ways.'" Brief for Respondents in No. 05-915, pp 8–9.
734:(joined only by a plurality of the Court) rejected the notion that racial balancing could be a compelling state interest, as to do so "would justify the imposition of racial proportionality throughout American society, contrary to our repeated recognition that "t the heart of the Constitution's guarantee of equal protection lies the simple command that the Government must treat citizens as individuals, not as simply components of a racial, religious, sexual or national class." Allowing racial balancing as a compelling end in itself would "effectively assur that race will always be relevant in American life, and that the 'ultimate goal' of 'eliminating entirely from governmental decisionmaking such irrelevant factors as a human being's race' will never be achieved." An interest "linked to nothing other than proportional representation of various races . . . would support indefinite use of racial classifications, employed first to obtain the appropriate mixture of racial views and then to ensure that the continues to reflect that mixture."
514:. Since certain schools often became oversubscribed when too many students chose them as their first choice, the District used a system of tiebreakers to decide which students would be admitted to the popular schools. The second most important tiebreaker was a racial factor intended to maintain racial diversity. If the racial demographics of any school's student body deviated by more than a predetermined number of percentage points from those of Seattle's total student population (approximately 41% white and 59% non-white), the racial tiebreaker went into effect. At a particular school either whites or non-whites could be favored for admission depending on which race would bring the racial balance closer to the goal. No distinction was made between various categories of non-whites; Asian-Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, and African-Americans were all treated solely as "non-white" for purposes of the tiebreaker.
741:
this circumstance to
Grutter, where "the consideration of race was viewed as indispensable" in more than tripling minority representation at the law school—from 4 to 14.5 percent. The districts have also failed to show that they considered methods other than explicit racial classifications to achieve their stated goals. Narrow tailoring requires "serious, good faith consideration of workable race-neutral alternatives", Grutter, supra, at 339, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304, and yet in Seattle several alternative assignment plans—many of which would not have used express racial classifications—were rejected with little or no consideration. Jefferson County has failed to present any evidence that it considered alternatives, even though the district already claims that its goals are achieved primarily through means other than the racial classifications. By contrast,
575:, and their use of race in assigning students to schools. The first case started in 1998 when five African American high school students sued JCPS to allow them to attend Central High School, a magnet school. The suit alleged that they were denied entrance because they were black. In 2000, Federal Judge John Heyburn, after finding that the JCPS school system did not need to be under a court-ordered desegregation policy, ruled that race could not be used for student assignment placement in the JCPS school system in regard to their magnet school programs. In 2004, he ruled the same for the traditional schools, but allowed the regular public schools to use race as the admission requirement. It is this part that went before the US Supreme Court as the other two cases were not appealed by JCPS.
713:
part of a broader effort to achieve "exposure to widely diverse people, cultures, ideas, and viewpoints", ibid.; race, for some students, is determinative standing alone. Even when it comes to race, the plans here employ only a limited notion of diversity, viewing race exclusively in white/nonwhite terms in
Seattle and black/"other" terms in Jefferson County. "The way Seattle classifies its students bears this out. Upon enrolling their child with the district, parents are required to identify their child as a member of a particular racial group. If a parent identifies more than one race on the form, "he application will not be accepted and, if necessary, the enrollment service person taking the application will indicate one box."" Furthermore, Roberts wrote:
462:
utility "of looking simply to whether earlier school segregation was de jure or de facto in order to draw firm lines separating the constitutionally permissible from the constitutionally forbidden use of 'race-conscious' criteria." Justice Breyer noted, "No one here disputes that
Louisville's segregation was de jure" and cites a 1956 memo where the Seattle School Board admitted its schools were de jure segregated as well. All of the dissenting Justices acknowledged that "the Constitution does not impose a duty to desegregate upon districts" if they have not practiced racial discrimination. However, the dissenters argued that the Constitution permits such desegregation even though it does not require it.
458:
districts failed to demonstrate that their plans were sufficiently narrowly tailored), but
Kennedy also found, along with four Justices (Breyer, Stevens, Souter, and Ginsburg), that compelling interests exist in avoiding racial isolation and promoting diversity. With respect to avoiding racial isolation, Kennedy wrote, "A compelling interest exists in avoiding racial isolation, an interest that a school district, in its discretion and expertise, may choose to pursue." He went on to say, "What the government is not permitted to do, absent a showing of necessity not made here, is to classify every student on the basis of race and to assign each of them to schools based on that classification."
144:
721:
tradition." The Court explained that "ontext matters" in applying strict scrutiny, and repeatedly noted that it was addressing the use of race "in the context of higher education." The Court in
Grutter expressly articulated key limitations on its holding—defining a specific type of broad-based diversity and noting the unique context of higher education—but these limitations were largely disregarded by the lower courts in extending Grutter to uphold race-based assignments in elementary and secondary schools. The present cases are not governed by Grutter.
816:. Justice Thomas concludes noting "If our history has taught us anything it has taught us to beware of elites bearing racial theories." In a footnote the Justice added a personal mention of Justice Breyer: "Justice Breyer's good intentions, which I do not doubt, have the shelf life of Justice Breyer's tenure." He goes on to explain that he is skeptical that school boards will always have such good intentions in their race-based decisionmaking, for, as Madison said, "if men were angels, no government would be necessary."
812:, particularly its insistence that the Court should defer to local school board knowledge, expertise, and judgment. He also wrote about the unsettled debate concerning whether racial balance or diversity has a positive effect on educational outcomes. Justice Thomas recoils at the suggestion that black students can only learn if they are sitting next to white students. Some of the concurrence consists of social science citations and statistics showing that black students can succeed in majority black schools such as
934:
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why they consider race alone in their school assignments. However, Roberts considers that this interest is not compelling and that the use of race for this goal is not narrowly tailored, it is instead used for racial balancing, which is unconstitutional. The schools base their numbers in demographics, therefore making this goal a means to achieve a numerical quota to achieve racial balancing. Roberts concludes that racial balancing cannot be a compelling state interest.
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35:
962:
1438:"Croson, supra, at 495, 109 S. Ct. 706, 102 L. Ed. 2d 854 (plurality opinion of O'Connor, J.) (quoting Wygant v. Jackson Bd. of Ed., 476 U.S. 267, 320, 106 S. Ct. 1842, 90 L. Ed. 2d 260 (1986) (Stevens, J., dissenting), in turn quoting Fullilove, 448 U.S., at 547, 100 S. Ct. 2758, 65 L. Ed. 2d 902 (Stevens, J., dissenting); brackets and citation omitted)."
627:." This is because "'racial classifications are simply too pernicious to permit any but the most exact connection between justification and classification.'" In order to survive strict scrutiny analysis, "a narrowly tailored plan" must be presented in order to achieve a "compelling government interest."
905:
that so few have so quickly changed so much," Justice Breyer said of the Court's decision. In the
Justice's 77-page written opinion he called the ruling a "radical" step away from established law that would take from communities a critical tool used for many years in the prevention of resegregation.
803:
because the benignity or malignity of race-based discrimination turns on "whose ox is being gored" or is "in the eye of the beholder"). Justice Thomas also rejected the view advanced by the dissent that these school districts were in danger of resegregation. He contended that whatever trends toward
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addressed the school districts' claim that "the way in which they have employed individual racial classifications is necessary to achieve their stated ends." Roberts replied that these classifications were clearly not necessary, since they had a "minimal effect" on student assignments. He contrasted
720:
In upholding the admissions plan in
Grutter ... this Court relied upon considerations unique to institutions of higher education, noting that in light of "the expansive freedoms of speech and thought associated with the university environment, universities occupy a special niche in our constitutional
461:
According to
Kennedy, "The cases here were argued upon the assumption, and come to us on the premise, that the discrimination in question did not result from de jure actions." That point was challenged in Justice Breyer's dissent (joined by Stevens, Souter and Ginsberg). Justice Breyer questioned the
449:
are compelling state interests. However, the Court struck down both school districts' assignment plans, finding that the plans were not sufficiently "narrowly tailored", a legal term that suggests that the means or method being employed (in this case, a student assignment plan based on individualized
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does not meet the narrowly tailored and compelling interest requirements for a race-based assignment plan because it is used only to achieve "racial balance." Public schools may not use race as the sole determining factor for assigning students to schools. Race-conscious objectives to achieve diverse
921:
Over a period of several months in 2007–2008, JCPS developed a diversity plan based upon social economic and minority status (income of parents), a plan suggested by school board members Steve Imhoff and Larry Hujo in 2002. These changes conformed with the concurring opinion of
Justice Kennedy. This
904:
Justice
Stephen G. Breyer, in the principal dissenting opinion, dismissed Justice Kennedy's proposed alternatives to the labeling and sorting of individual students by race and, in a surprisingly emotional 20 minute speech from the bench, denounced the plurality opinion. "It is not often in the law
457:
decision was a "split decision." The Court split 4–1–4 on key aspects of the case, with Justice Kennedy writing the swing vote opinion and agreeing with four Justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito) that the programs used by Seattle and Louisville did not pass constitutional muster (because the
913:
The opinion came less than two months before the start of the regular school year in King County and less than three weeks before the start of year-round school in the District. At a press conference the day of the opinion, Attorney for the Plaintiff Teddy Gordon stated that he would, if necessary,
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JCPS is the 26th largest school district in the United States. Students are assigned to school based on the race makeup of each school, no less than 15%, no more than 50%. Race is defined as Black and "Other". Asian, Hispanic, White, etc. are classified as "Other". Magnet and Traditional are exempt
853:
A compelling interest exists in avoiding racial isolation, an interest that a school district, in its discretion and expertise, may choose to pursue. Likewise, a district may consider it a compelling interest to achieve a diverse student population. Race may be one component of that diversity, but
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did not join parts of the opinion of Chief Justice Roberts. In cases where an opinion or parts of an opinion do not reach a majority, the narrower opinion represents the holding, so Justice Kennedy's opinion represents parts of the holding of the case. In his concurrence, Kennedy differed with the
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did not join the rest of the opinion by the Chief Justice, therefore, those parts of the opinion did not command a majority. In this plurality opinion, Roberts wrote that the schools at issue contend that a racially diverse environment is beneficial for education and they submit this as the reason
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Court engaged was to ensure that the use of racial classifications was indeed part of a broader assessment of diversity, and not simply an effort to achieve racial balance, which the Court explained would be "patently unconstitutional." In the present cases, by contrast, race is not considered as
613:
Second, Seattle noted that it has ceased using the racial tiebreaker pending the outcome of this litigation. "But the district vigorously defends the constitutionality of its race-based program, and nowhere suggests that if this litigation is resolved in its favor it will not resume using race to
2052:
545:, race-based classifications must be directed toward a "compelling government interest" and must be "narrowly tailored" to that interest. Applying these precedents to K-12 education, the Circuit Court found that the tiebreaker scheme was not narrowly tailored. The District then petitioned for an
1336:
Milliken v. Bradley, 433 U.S. 267, 280, n. 14, 97 S. Ct. 2749, 53 L. Ed. 2d 745 (1977). See also Freeman, supra, at 495–496, 112 S. Ct. 1430, 118 L. Ed. 2d 108; Dowell, 498 U.S., at 248, 111 S. Ct. 630, 112 L. Ed. 2d 715; Milliken v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 717, 746, 94 S. Ct. 3112, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1069
609:
First, Seattle claimed that none of the current members of Parents Involved can claim an imminent injury. Roberts wrote: "The fact that it is possible that children of group members will not be denied admission to a school based on their race—because they choose an undersubscribed school or an
1348:
Id., at 337, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304: " policy makes clear there are many possible bases for diversity admissions, and provides examples of admittees who have lived or traveled widely abroad, are fluent in several languages, have overcome personal adversity and family hardship, have
845:
Kennedy's opinion also emphasized the risks posed by allowing for the proliferation of mechanically imposed individual race classifications of its citizens. He made it clear that "To be forced to live under a state-mandated racial label is inconsistent with the dignity of individuals in our
643:
But the Seattle schools had never been segregated by law; and the Kentucky schools, though previously segregated by law, had their desegregation decree dissolved by a District Court in 2000 on the finding the school district had "eliminated the vestiges associated with the former policy of
1228:"Friends of Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services (TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167, 189, 120 S. Ct. 693, 145 L. Ed. 2d 610 (2000) (quoting United States v. Concentrated Phosphate Export Ass'n, 393 U.S. 199, 203, 89 S. Ct. 361, 21 L. Ed. 2d 344 (1968); internal quotation marks omitted)"
917:
In a separate conference, JCPS Representative Pat Todd emphasized that the current assignment plan would remain in effect for the 2007–2008 school year, citing the finalization of budgets, staffing, assignments and busing as prevailing reasons for no change being logistically possible.
652:
Neither school could plead this compelling interest, because "e have emphasized that the harm being remedied by mandatory desegregation plans is the harm that is traceable to segregation, and that 'the Constitution is not violated by racial imbalance in the schools, without more.'"
914:
seek legal measures to prevent the use of the current Student Assignment Plan for the 2007–2008 school year. When questioned about the close timing, Gordon stated that all the District had to do was "push a button" to change things over to a plan compliant with the Court's ruling.
3785:
799:, that the Constitution is "color-blind." For Thomas, this means that no discrimination on the basis of race is permitted by the Constitution, even for a so-called "benign" purpose (Thomas rejected the notion that there could be a purely benign purpose in his concurrence in
771:
in his dissent. He writes that Justice Breyer misused and misapplied previous Supreme Court precedents in this area and that he greatly exaggerates the consequences of the decision of this case. He also chastises Justice Breyer for saying that the Court silently overruled
557:, the Circuit Court also ruled that the tiebreaker plan was narrowly tailored, because 1) the District did not employ quotas, 2) the District had considered race-neutral alternatives, 3) the plan caused no undue harm to races, and 4) the plan had an ending point.
858:
Nevertheless, Kennedy found the school districts did not narrowly tailor the use of race to achieve the compelling interests in the case. Specifically, Kennedy finds that the districts could have achieved the same goal through less racially charged means.
414:
case which found it unconstitutional for a school district to use race as a factor in assigning students to schools in order to bring its racial composition in line with the composition of the district as a whole, unless it was remedying a prior history of
614:
assign students. Voluntary cessation does not moot a case or controversy unless 'subsequent events ma it absolutely clear that the allegedly wrongful behavior could not reasonably be expected to recur,'" a heavy burden that Seattle has clearly not met.
517:
A non-profit group, Parents Involved in Community Schools, sued the District, arguing that the racial tiebreaker violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Washington state law. The
837:
Furthermore, Kennedy found that race-conscious mechanisms can be used by school districts to further the goal of diversity, a position rejected by the plurality. Kennedy argued that the government had an interest in ensuring racial equality:
1197:"McFarland v. Jefferson County Public Schools & Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (PICS): Resources On U.S. Supreme Court Voluntary School Desegregation Rulings — The Civil Rights Project at UCLA"
1614:
1261:"Johnson v. California, 543 U.S. 499, 505–506, 125 S. Ct. 1141, 160 L. Ed. 2d 949 (2005); Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306, 326, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304 (2003); Adarand, supra, at 224, 115 S. Ct. 2097, 132 L. Ed. 2d 158."
696:, noting that "it is not an interest in simple ethnic diversity, in which a specified percentage of the student body is in effect guaranteed to be members of selected ethnic groups, that can justify the use of race." What was upheld in
862:
Justice Kennedy asserts that the dissent must "brush aside two concepts of central importance" to uphold the racial classification in the case. First, Kennedy harshly faults the dissent for consciously ignoring the difference between
1802:
1424:"Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900, 911, 115 S. Ct. 2475, 132 L. Ed. 2d 762 (1995) (quoting Metro Broadcasting, 497 U.S., at 602, 110 S. Ct. 2997, 111 L. Ed. 2d 445 (O'Connor, J., dissenting); internal quotation marks omitted)."
52:
1272:
quoting Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244, 270, 123 S. Ct. 2411, 156 L. Ed. 2d 257 (2003) (quoting Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448, 537, 100 S. Ct. 2758, 65 L. Ed. 2d 902 (1980) (Stevens, J., dissenting); brackets
1204:
489:, acknowledging the flexibility that school districts have in taking proactive steps to meet the compelling interests of promoting diversity and avoiding racial isolation within the parameters of current law.
1365:, supra, at 324–325, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304 (citing and quoting Bakke, supra, at 314–315, 98 S. Ct. 2733, 57 L. Ed. 2d 750 (opinion of Powell, J.); brackets and internal quotation marks omitted)."
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exceptional records of extensive community service, and have had successful careers in other fields." Id., at 338, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304 (brackets and internal quotation marks omitted).
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686:, the interest was student body diversity "in the context of higher education", and was not focused on race alone but encompassed "all factors that may contribute to student body diversity". The
3865:
708:
Court explained, "he importance of this individualized consideration in the context of a race-conscious admissions program is paramount." The point of the narrow tailoring analysis in which the
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was consideration of "a far broader array of qualifications and characteristics of which racial or ethnic origin is but a single though important element." "The entire gist of the analysis in
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segregation. And second, Kennedy faults the dissent for ignoring the "presumptive invalidity of a State's use of racial classifications to differentiate its treatment of individuals."
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panel came to the opposite conclusion and upheld the tiebreaker. The majority ruled that the District had a compelling interest in maintaining racial diversity. Applying a test from
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99:
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71:
4753:
3697:
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17:
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539 U.S., at 325, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304 (quoting Bakke, supra, at 315, 98 S. Ct. 2733, 57 L. Ed. 2d 750 (opinion of Powell, J.); internal quotation marks omitted).
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Roberts cites to: "539 U.S., at 329, 334, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304. See also Bakke, 438 U.S., at 312, 313, 98 S. Ct. 2733, 57 L. E. 2d 750 (opinion of Powell, J.)."
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Parents Involved in Community Schools, Petitioner v. Seattle School District No. 1, et al.; Crystal D. Meredith, Custodial Parent and Next Friend of Joshua Ryan McDonald v.
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and more respectful of our precedent than it is today. It is my firm conviction that no Member of the Court that I joined in 1975 would have agreed with today's decision."
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1941:
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with this case and that the method that Breyer applies to this case is that of "the ends justify the means". Roberts concludes his opinion for the plurality by saying:
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was used to uphold the validity of affirmative action programs that fostered diversity in higher education for a quarter of a century. To that end, in 2011, the
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was that the admissions program at issue there focused on each applicant as an individual, and not simply as a member of a particular racial group." As the
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first reiterated that "when the government distributes burdens or benefits on the basis of individual racial classifications, that action is reviewed under
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The plurality opinion is too dismissive of the legitimate interest government has in ensuring all people have equal opportunity regardless of their race.
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442:. Both school districts voluntarily used racial classifications to achieve diversity and/or to avoid racial isolation through student assignment.
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wrote a sharply worded short dissent in which he accused the plurality of misusing and misapplying previous Supreme Court precedents including
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racial classifications) is closely and narrowly tied to the ends (the stated goals of achieving diversity and/or avoiding racial isolation).
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Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 (U.S. 2007). Here Roberts provides the following string citation:
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from this ratio per the 2000 and 2003 Court Order. Louisville's population is about 58% White; 38% Black, 2% Asian, 1.3% Hispanic.
1171:"Guidance ESE from Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights Russlynn Ali and United States Assistant Attorney General Thomas E. Perez"
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Guidance on the Voluntary Use of Race to Achieve Diversity and Avoid Racial Isolation in Elementary and Secondary Schools
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488 U.S., at 519, 109 S. Ct. 706, 102 L. Ed. 2d 854 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment)
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Diversity, depending on its meaning and definition, is a compelling educational goal a school district may pursue.
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case, which held that affirmative action was unconstitutional in the case directly before the Court. Nonetheless,
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classroom racial imbalance have obtained, they were not the result of state-sanctioned segregation as in the pre-
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In concurrence with the majority opinion Justice Clarence Thomas restated his view, in agreement with Justice
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that "The way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race."
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plurality because, he found, the goal of obtaining a diverse student body is a compelling state interest.
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Roberts noted that prior Supreme Court cases had recognized two compelling interests for the use of race.
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era. Justice Thomas goes on to call out the dissent for adopting segregationist reasoning advanced in
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The way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race.
1452:"Metro Broadcasting, supra, at 614, 110 S. Ct. 2997, 111 L. Ed 2d 445 (O'Connor, J., dissenting)."
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The Chief Justice finally concludes his opinion by answering some of the issues raised by Justice
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oversubscribed school in which their race is an advantage—does not eliminate the injury claimed.
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1058:"PARENTS INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY SCHOOLS V. SEATTLE: THE END OF RACE BASED SCHOOL POPULATIONS"
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Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. City of Jacksonville
2012:
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889:. He concluded by saying that the current Court has greatly changed and that previously:
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1412:
Roberts cites to: Grutter, supra, at 327, 328, 334, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304.
1086:
4581:
4400:
4392:
4218:
4178:
4146:
4063:
3932:
3924:
3892:
3809:
3633:
3585:
3561:
3529:
3450:
3394:
3386:
3238:
3134:
2949:
2618:
2533:
2462:
2373:
2292:
2240:
2180:
1973:
1786:
1654:
983:
678:
541:
507:
1241:
http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=05-908
751:(again joined only by a plurality of the Court) addressed Justice Breyer's dissent.
223:
180:
4716:
4708:
4661:
4384:
4258:
3972:
3729:
3569:
3553:
3504:
3490:
3466:
3222:
3206:
3166:
3094:
3035:
2735:
2642:
2578:
2525:
2417:
2302:
2267:
1877:
1590:
1310:"See Freeman v. Pitts, 503 U.S. 467, 494, 112 S. Ct. 1430, 118 L. Ed. 2d 108 (1992)."
1239:
Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 (U.S. 2007)
880:
854:
other demographic factors, plus special talents and needs, should also be considered.
424:
280:
1298:
Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 (U.S. 2007)
3964:
3940:
3521:
3270:
3246:
3110:
2517:
2485:
2433:
1770:
603:
dismissed the respondent's attempts to argue that Parents Involved lacks standing.
533:
Under the Supreme Court's precedents on racial classification in higher education,
194:
3786:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville
3378:
3118:
2987:
2541:
2501:
2425:
2287:
2106:
2101:
1247:
825:
760:
624:
522:
dismissed the suit, upholding the tiebreaker. On appeal, a three-judge panel the
341:
Roberts (Parts I, II, III–A, and III–C), joined by Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, Alito
304:
292:
1572:"Not Hearing History: A Critique of Chief Justice Roberts's Reinterpretation of
4528:
4360:
4106:
4071:
3948:
3458:
3214:
3126:
2895:
2401:
2297:
2176:
1481:
Here Roberts cites: "See 539 U.S., at 320, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304."
990:
967:
768:
316:
288:
4737:
4622:
Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
4250:
3641:
3513:
3182:
3150:
3078:
2941:
2847:
2695:
2610:
2282:
1680:
4536:
3900:
3086:
2441:
588:
324:
300:
272:
3410:
2687:
2602:
2474:
1672:
1282:
Roberts cites Adarand, supra, at 227, 115 S. Ct. 2097, 132 L. Ed. 2d 158.
745:
notes that racial classifications are permitted only "as a last resort".
3866:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
1851:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
68:"Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1"
3956:
2250:
2170:
953:
3834:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
3690:
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
1811:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
1622:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
1615:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
657:
Second, "the interest in diversity in higher education", as upheld in
401:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
137:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
206:
1385:
Roberts cites to: "Id., at 330, 123 S. Ct. 2325, 156 L. Ed. 2d 304."
1145:"PARENTS INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY SCHOOLS v.SEATTLE SCHOOL DIST. NO. 1"
1116:"PARENTS INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY SCHOOLS v.SEATTLE SCHOOL DIST. NO. 1"
1087:"PARENTS INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY SCHOOLS v.SEATTLE SCHOOL DIST. NO. 1"
947:
34:
2752:
Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists
2230:
2210:
2200:
2190:
591:
wrote the opinion of the court as to Parts I, II, III-A and III-C.
1609:
634:
First, "remedying the effects of past intentional discrimination."
2317:
2220:
550:
527:
1505:"Justices Limit the Use of Race in School Plans for Integration"
597:
recounted the background of the plans of the two school boards.
2958:
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York
2358:
795:
143:
3012:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
676:
from this case, and argued that this case was more similar to
813:
754:
349:
Roberts (Parts III–B and IV), joined by Scalia, Thomas, Alito
1718:
4646:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
2550:
O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.
445:
The Court recognized that seeking diversity and avoiding
3443:
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
465:
The 4–1–4 split makes PICS somewhat similar to the 1978
2856:
Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.
530:
rehearing the court affirmed the lower court decision.
4754:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
3538:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
1803:
Doe v. Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate
1449:
Here, Roberts provides the following string citation:
3602:
United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
2744:
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
1435:
Here Roberts provides the following string citation:
1421:
Here Roberts provides the following string citation:
1307:
Here Roberts provides the following string citation:
1022:
1020:
4433:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
3498:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
2824:
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England
929:
565:
This case is the last of a trilogy of cases against
4321:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
1139:
1137:
1110:
1108:
209:
508; 75 U.S.L.W. 4577; 20 Fla. L. Weekly Fed. S 490
59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3981:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
3850:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
2704:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth
1827:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
1333:Here, Roberts provides the following string cite:
1017:
549:ruling by a panel of 11 Ninth Circuit judges. The
3618:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
3295:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health
1498:
1496:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1081:
1079:
998:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
819:
4735:
4497:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
3706:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
1755:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
1225:Roberts provides the following string citation:
1134:
1105:
784:
690:Court quoted the articulation of diversity from
3578:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
3103:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.
1843:Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board
1005:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
18:Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education
1493:
1285:
1076:
4654:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs
4005:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County
3762:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
3610:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
3403:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
2344:
1704:
874:
4789:United States racial discrimination case law
2872:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
2776:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
2659:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
1982:Charlton-Perkins v. University of Cincinnati
899:
572:McFarland v. Jefferson County Public Schools
4744:United States school desegregation case law
4457:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia
4369:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections
3358:
2996:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police
524:U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
381:Breyer, joined by Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg
4769:Jefferson County Public Schools (Kentucky)
3722:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education
3255:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill
2351:
2337:
1894:Hazelwood School District v. United States
1711:
1697:
1533:
1502:
908:
755:Plurality opinion by Chief Justice Roberts
497:
4774:United States affirmative action case law
4481:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer
4013:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
3028:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
2142:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
1569:
1358:Roberts provides the following citation:
404:, 551 U.S. 701 (2007), also known as the
119:Learn how and when to remove this message
3714:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1
2137:Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
644:segregation and its pernicious effects".
4784:United States equal protection case law
4425:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.
4294:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward
3159:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur
2760:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
2627:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
1720:Affirmative action in the United States
582:
14:
4736:
4568:
3666:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
2461:
2372:
1548:from the original on February 26, 2017
1177:from the original on February 27, 2017
1064:from the original on February 11, 2022
1038:from the original on December 22, 2021
567:Jefferson County Public Schools (JCPS)
4696:
4567:
3357:
3020:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
2460:
2371:
2332:
1692:
1515:from the original on February 2, 2017
257:school environment may be acceptable.
131:2007 United States Supreme Court case
3746:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
2887:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes
2077:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta
2069:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater
1918:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
1536:"The New Look of School Integration"
1534:Kahlenberg, Richard (June 2, 2008).
1207:from the original on January 4, 2022
430:At issue were efforts for voluntary
57:adding citations to reliable sources
28:
4513:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools
4329:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth
3754:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
2864:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo
2840:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
2651:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
2029:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
1503:Greenhouse, Linda (June 29, 2007),
560:
169:Jefferson County Board of Education
24:
4286:Arlington County Board v. Richards
4211:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero
3989:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.
3475:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
2360:United States Fourteenth Amendment
2061:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
1563:
1151:from the original on June 13, 2016
149:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
4800:
4749:United States Supreme Court cases
4630:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents
4171:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n
1966:Piscataway School Board v. Taxman
1934:Firefighters v. City of Cleveland
1632:701 (2007) is available from:
1602:
1122:from the original on May 24, 2017
1093:from the original on July 6, 2017
1028:"Can Affirmative Action Survive?"
693:Regents of Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke
506:allowed students to apply to any
365:Kennedy (in part and in judgment)
4449:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas
3858:Fisher v. University of Texas II
3319:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
1958:Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio
1950:Johnson v. Transportation Agency
1835:Fisher v. University of Texas II
1608:
960:
946:
932:
142:
33:
4779:History of Louisville, Kentucky
4163:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach
3842:Fisher v. University of Texas I
3199:Moore v. City of East Cleveland
3044:Los Angeles County v. Humphries
2558:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
2037:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
1819:Fisher v. University of Texas I
1527:
1484:
1475:
1457:
1443:
1429:
1415:
1406:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1352:
1342:
1327:
1315:
1301:
1276:
1266:
1252:
254:Jefferson County Public Schools
248:The student assignment plan of
228:United States courts of appeals
44:needs additional citations for
4759:2007 in United States case law
4029:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
1233:
1219:
1189:
1163:
1050:
820:Concurrence by Justice Kennedy
520:Western District of Washington
13:
1:
3698:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman
2903:McNeese v. Board of Education
2410:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
1011:
922:plan is in place as of 2017.
785:Concurrence by Justice Thomas
492:
447:racial segregation in schools
3427:Hirabayashi v. United States
3279:DeShaney v. Winnebago County
3231:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.
2972:Owen v. City of Independence
2587:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
1902:United Steelworkers v. Weber
477:U.S. Department of Education
7:
4313:United States v. Cruikshank
3483:Brown v. Board of Education
2784:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
2635:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
1926:Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC
1570:Goldstein, Joel K. (2008).
1201:civilrightsproject.ucla.edu
925:
886:Brown v. Board of Education
412:United States Supreme Court
10:
4805:
3435:Korematsu v. United States
1673:Oyez (oral argument audio)
892:"t was...more faithful to
875:Dissent by Justice Stevens
672:But Roberts distinguished
481:U.S. Department of Justice
4703:
4697:
4692:
4638:United States v. Morrison
4576:
4563:
4304:
4269:
4090:
4055:
4045:United States v. Skrmetti
4037:United States v. Virginia
3876:
3650:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson
3370:
3366:
3353:
3071:Jacobson v. Massachusetts
3062:
3004:Gonzaga University v. Doe
2882:
2669:
2568:
2473:
2469:
2456:
2380:
2367:
2260:
2156:
2099:
1992:
1942:United States v. Paradise
1861:
1738:
1726:
1394:Parents Involved, Note 11
900:Dissent by Justice Breyer
390:
385:
377:
369:
361:
353:
345:
337:
332:
266:
261:
247:
242:
219:
214:
186:
176:
162:
155:
141:
136:
4670:United States v. Georgia
4614:City of Boerne v. Flores
3778:United States v. Fordice
3335:Williams v. Pennsylvania
3303:Washington v. Glucksberg
2116:Civil Rights Act of 1866
1870:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
1763:United States v. Fordice
849:Finally, Kennedy wrote:
4678:Shelby County v. Holder
4243:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido
4099:Patsone v. Pennsylvania
3360:Equal Protection Clause
3287:Michael H. v. Gerald D.
2680:United States v. Vuitch
2595:Griswold v. Connecticut
2121:Equal Protection Clause
909:Subsequent developments
504:Seattle School District
498:Seattle School District
156:Argued December 4, 2006
4545:Armour v. Indianapolis
3909:Moritz v. Commissioner
2965:Procunier v. Navarette
2883:Civil rights liability
2671:Abortion jurisprudence
2021:Fullilove v. Klutznick
1910:Firefighters v. Stotts
1886:Schlesinger v. Ballard
1583:Ohio State Law Journal
1246:July 30, 2010, at the
856:
835:
782:
392:U.S. Const. amend. XIV
250:Seattle Public Schools
4598:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer
4441:Richardson v. Ramirez
4409:Boddie v. Connecticut
3997:Kirchberg v. Feenstra
3826:Johnson v. California
3546:McLaughlin v. Florida
2934:O'Connor v. Donaldson
2494:Allgeyer v. Louisiana
2386:Slaughter-House Cases
2147:Executive Order 11246
2131:Executive Order 10925
1732:lower court decisions
1541:The American Prospect
1324:, 551 U.S. 701 (2007)
977:Mendez v. Westminster
851:
831:
778:
421:Chief Justice Roberts
205:127 S. Ct. 2738; 168
158:Decided June 28, 2007
4764:Education in Seattle
4590:Katzenbach v. Morgan
4337:Breedlove v. Suttles
4187:Graham v. Richardson
4080:Obergefell v. Hodges
3885:Breedlove v. Suttles
3818:Grutter v. Bollinger
3658:Jefferson v. Hackney
3327:Obergefell v. Hodges
3263:Edwards v. Aguillard
3143:Epperson v. Arkansas
2980:Harlow v. Fitzgerald
2915:Jenkins v. McKeithen
2808:Mazurek v. Armstrong
2768:Hodgson v. Minnesota
2728:Bellotti v. Baird II
2720:Colautti v. Franklin
2475:Economic substantive
2125:Fourteenth Amendment
2114:Section 1981 of the
1795:Grutter v. Bollinger
1463:Roberts noted that:
1173:. November 5, 2015.
1060:. October 19, 2015.
940:United States portal
660:Grutter v. Bollinger
583:Opinion of the Court
536:Grutter v. Bollinger
440:Louisville, Kentucky
432:school desegregation
53:improve this article
4521:Gregory v. Ashcroft
4489:Mills v. Habluetzel
4473:Zablocki v. Redhail
4417:Eisenstadt v. Baird
4353:Oyama v. California
4345:Skinner v. Oklahoma
4278:Shapiro v. Thompson
4195:Sugarman v. Dougall
4139:Porterfield v. Webb
4131:Terrace v. Thompson
3794:Missouri v. Jenkins
3738:Hunter v. Underwood
3682:Milliken v. Bradley
3674:Norwood v. Harrison
3626:McDaniel v. Barresi
3311:Troxel v. Granville
3191:Mathews v. Eldridge
3175:Taylor v. Louisiana
3052:Connick v. Thompson
2832:Gonzales v. Carhart
2816:Stenberg v. Carhart
2800:Lambert v. Wicklund
2712:Bellotti v. Baird I
2510:Lochner v. New York
2394:Minor v. Happersett
2013:Califano v. Webster
1747:DeFunis v. Odegaard
1664:Library of Congress
526:reversed, but upon
436:Seattle, Washington
434:and integration in
313:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
4582:Civil Rights Cases
4570:Enforcement Clause
4401:Oregon v. Mitchell
4393:Williams v. Rhodes
4219:Nyquist v. Mauclet
4179:Hernandez v. Texas
4064:Bowers v. Hardwick
4056:Sexual orientation
3933:Stanton v. Stanton
3925:Geduldig v. Aiello
3893:Goesaert v. Cleary
3810:Gratz v. Bollinger
3634:Palmer v. Thompson
3586:Hunter v. Erickson
3562:Loving v. Virginia
3530:Anderson v. Martin
3451:Shelley v. Kraemer
3395:Plessy v. Ferguson
3387:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
3239:Kolender v. Lawson
3135:Loving v. Virginia
2950:Imbler v. Pachtman
2927:Wood v. Strickland
2792:Leavitt v. Jane L.
2619:Bowers v. Hardwick
2534:Buchanan v. Warley
2463:Due Process Clause
2374:Citizenship Clause
2313:Stephan Thermstrom
2308:Abigail Thermstrom
2293:Richard Kahlenberg
2227:State Question 759
1974:Ricci v. DeStefano
1787:Gratz v. Bollinger
1682:Parents v. Seattle
984:Plessy v. Ferguson
679:Gratz v. Bollinger
542:Gratz v. Bollinger
277:Associate Justices
4731:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4717:Trump v. Anderson
4709:Gold Clause Cases
4688:
4687:
4662:Tennessee v. Lane
4559:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4465:Trimble v. Gordon
4385:Levy v. Louisiana
4377:Rinaldi v. Yeager
4259:Bernal v. Fainter
4235:Ambach v. Norwick
4227:Foley v. Connelie
4123:Crane v. New York
4021:Lehr v. Robertson
3973:Caban v. Mohammed
3730:Palmore v. Sidoti
3570:Lee v. Washington
3554:Reitman v. Mulkey
3505:Gebhart v. Belton
3491:Briggs v. Elliott
3467:Sweatt v. Painter
3349:
3348:
3345:
3344:
3223:Parratt v. Taylor
3207:Duren v. Missouri
3167:Arnett v. Kennedy
3095:Powell v. Alabama
3036:Ashcroft v. Iqbal
2921:Scheuer v. Rhodes
2736:H. L. v. Matheson
2643:Lawrence v. Texas
2579:Meyer v. Nebraska
2526:Coppage v. Kansas
2452:
2451:
2418:Perez v. Brownell
2326:
2325:
2303:Stuart Taylor Jr.
2268:Peter Arcidiacono
2095:
2094:
1878:Morton v. Mancari
1613:Works related to
1034:. July 23, 2021.
881:John Paul Stevens
425:plurality opinion
397:
396:
129:
128:
121:
103:
16:(Redirected from
4796:
4694:
4693:
4606:Dellmuth v. Muth
4565:
4564:
3965:Parham v. Hughes
3941:Edwards v. Healy
3770:Freeman v. Pitts
3525:(M.D. Ala. 1956)
3522:Browder v. Gayle
3368:
3367:
3355:
3354:
3271:Turner v. Safley
3247:Hudson v. Palmer
3111:NAACP v. Alabama
2570:Right to privacy
2518:Muller v. Oregon
2486:Mugler v. Kansas
2471:
2470:
2458:
2457:
2434:Rogers v. Bellei
2369:
2368:
2353:
2346:
2339:
2330:
2329:
2085:Vitolo v. Guzman
2048:(D.C. Cir. 1992)
2045:Lamprecht v. FCC
1771:Hopwood v. Texas
1736:
1735:
1713:
1706:
1699:
1690:
1689:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1635:
1612:
1598:
1580:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1531:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1500:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1461:
1455:
1447:
1441:
1433:
1427:
1419:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1356:
1350:
1346:
1340:
1331:
1325:
1322:Parents Involved
1319:
1313:
1305:
1299:
1296:
1283:
1280:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1256:
1250:
1237:
1231:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1141:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1112:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1083:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1024:
970:
965:
964:
963:
956:
951:
950:
942:
937:
936:
935:
561:Jefferson County
455:Parents Involved
262:Court membership
146:
145:
134:
133:
124:
117:
113:
110:
104:
102:
61:
37:
29:
21:
4804:
4803:
4799:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4734:
4733:
4732:
4723:
4699:
4684:
4572:
4551:
4300:
4265:
4203:In re Griffiths
4147:Webb v. O'Brien
4086:
4051:
3872:
3802:Texas v. Lesage
3594:Hadnott v. Amos
3379:Pace v. Alabama
3362:
3341:
3119:Hoyt v. Florida
3058:
2988:Felder v. Casey
2884:
2878:
2665:
2564:
2542:Adams v. Tanner
2502:Holden v. Hardy
2476:
2465:
2448:
2426:Afroyim v. Rusk
2376:
2363:
2357:
2327:
2322:
2288:Arthur Fletcher
2256:
2253:, 2020, failed)
2243:, 2019, failed)
2217:Proposition 107
2203:, 2008, failed)
2167:Proposition 209
2152:
2104:
2091:
2088:(6th Cir. 2021)
1996:
1994:
1988:
1985:(6th Cir. 2022)
1857:
1846:(4th Cir. 2023)
1806:(9th Cir. 2006)
1779:Texas v. Lesage
1774:(5th Cir. 1996)
1731:
1722:
1717:
1685:at Discourse DB
1675:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1633:
1605:
1578:
1566:
1564:Further reading
1561:
1551:
1549:
1532:
1528:
1518:
1516:
1501:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1462:
1458:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1343:
1332:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1257:
1253:
1248:Wayback Machine
1238:
1234:
1224:
1220:
1210:
1208:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1180:
1178:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1143:
1142:
1135:
1125:
1123:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1096:
1094:
1085:
1084:
1077:
1067:
1065:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1041:
1039:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1014:
966:
961:
959:
952:
945:
938:
933:
931:
928:
911:
902:
877:
826:Anthony Kennedy
822:
787:
761:Anthony Kennedy
757:
625:strict scrutiny
585:
563:
500:
495:
483:jointly issued
315:
305:Clarence Thomas
303:
293:Anthony Kennedy
291:
281:John P. Stevens
210:
157:
151:
132:
125:
114:
108:
105:
62:
60:
50:
38:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4802:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4729:
4728:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:
4713:
4704:
4701:
4700:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4674:
4666:
4658:
4650:
4642:
4634:
4626:
4618:
4610:
4602:
4594:
4586:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4561:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4549:
4541:
4533:
4529:Vacco v. Quill
4525:
4517:
4509:
4505:Clark v. Jeter
4501:
4493:
4485:
4477:
4469:
4461:
4453:
4445:
4437:
4429:
4421:
4413:
4405:
4397:
4389:
4381:
4373:
4365:
4361:Oyler v. Boles
4357:
4349:
4341:
4333:
4325:
4317:
4308:
4306:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4290:
4282:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4263:
4255:
4247:
4239:
4231:
4223:
4215:
4207:
4199:
4191:
4183:
4175:
4167:
4159:
4151:
4143:
4135:
4127:
4119:
4115:Heim v. McCall
4111:
4107:Truax v. Raich
4103:
4094:
4092:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4084:
4076:
4072:Romer v. Evans
4068:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4049:
4041:
4033:
4025:
4017:
4009:
4001:
3993:
3985:
3977:
3969:
3961:
3953:
3949:Craig v. Boren
3945:
3937:
3929:
3921:
3917:Kahn v. Shevin
3913:
3905:
3897:
3889:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3862:
3854:
3846:
3838:
3830:
3822:
3814:
3806:
3798:
3790:
3782:
3774:
3766:
3758:
3750:
3742:
3734:
3726:
3718:
3710:
3702:
3694:
3686:
3678:
3670:
3662:
3654:
3646:
3638:
3630:
3622:
3614:
3606:
3598:
3590:
3582:
3574:
3566:
3558:
3550:
3542:
3534:
3526:
3518:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3501:
3494:
3479:
3471:
3463:
3459:Perez v. Sharp
3455:
3447:
3439:
3431:
3423:
3419:Smith v. Texas
3415:
3407:
3399:
3391:
3383:
3374:
3372:
3364:
3363:
3351:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3331:
3323:
3315:
3307:
3299:
3291:
3283:
3275:
3267:
3259:
3251:
3243:
3235:
3227:
3219:
3215:Parham v. J.R.
3211:
3203:
3195:
3187:
3179:
3171:
3163:
3155:
3147:
3139:
3131:
3127:Oyler v. Boles
3123:
3115:
3107:
3099:
3091:
3083:
3075:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3048:
3040:
3032:
3024:
3016:
3008:
3000:
2992:
2984:
2976:
2968:
2962:
2954:
2946:
2938:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2909:Pierson v. Ray
2906:
2900:
2896:Monroe v. Pape
2891:
2889:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2868:
2860:
2852:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2820:
2812:
2804:
2796:
2788:
2780:
2772:
2764:
2756:
2748:
2740:
2732:
2724:
2716:
2708:
2700:
2692:
2684:
2675:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2655:
2647:
2639:
2631:
2623:
2615:
2607:
2599:
2591:
2583:
2574:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2554:
2546:
2538:
2530:
2522:
2514:
2506:
2498:
2490:
2481:
2479:
2467:
2466:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2438:
2430:
2422:
2414:
2406:
2402:Elk v. Wilkins
2398:
2390:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2365:
2364:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2341:
2333:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2298:Richard Sander
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2247:Proposition 16
2244:
2234:
2224:
2214:
2207:Initiative 424
2204:
2194:
2184:
2177:Initiative 200
2174:
2163:
2161:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2150:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2128:
2118:
2111:
2109:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2081:
2073:
2065:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2005:Kahn v. Shevin
2000:
1998:
1997:and Set-Asides
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1978:
1970:
1969:(3d Cir. 1996)
1962:
1954:
1946:
1938:
1930:
1922:
1914:
1906:
1898:
1890:
1882:
1874:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1847:
1839:
1831:
1823:
1815:
1807:
1799:
1791:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1759:
1751:
1742:
1740:
1733:
1724:
1723:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1678:
1618:
1604:
1603:External links
1601:
1600:
1599:
1589:(5): 791–846.
1565:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1526:
1509:New York Times
1492:
1483:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1456:
1454:
1453:
1442:
1440:
1439:
1428:
1426:
1425:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1378:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1351:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1300:
1284:
1275:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1251:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1218:
1188:
1162:
1133:
1104:
1075:
1049:
1032:The New Yorker
1015:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1001:
994:
991:Tape v. Hurley
987:
980:
972:
971:
968:Schools portal
957:
943:
927:
924:
910:
907:
901:
898:
876:
873:
821:
818:
793:'s dissent in
786:
783:
769:Stephen Breyer
756:
753:
729:
728:
727:
726:
725:
724:
723:
722:
715:
714:
665:
664:
650:
649:
648:
647:
646:
645:
636:
635:
618:
617:
616:
615:
611:
587:Chief Justice
584:
581:
562:
559:
499:
496:
494:
491:
395:
394:
388:
387:
383:
382:
379:
375:
374:
371:
367:
366:
363:
359:
358:
355:
351:
350:
347:
343:
342:
339:
335:
334:
330:
329:
328:
327:
317:Stephen Breyer
289:Antonin Scalia
278:
275:
270:
264:
263:
259:
258:
245:
244:
240:
239:
221:
217:
216:
212:
211:
204:
188:
184:
183:
178:
174:
173:
164:
163:Full case name
160:
159:
153:
152:
147:
139:
138:
130:
127:
126:
41:
39:
32:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4801:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4702:
4695:
4691:
4680:
4679:
4675:
4672:
4671:
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4664:
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4659:
4656:
4655:
4651:
4648:
4647:
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4640:
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4635:
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4627:
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4608:
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4595:
4592:
4591:
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4584:
4583:
4579:
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4575:
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4562:
4547:
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4522:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4507:
4506:
4502:
4499:
4498:
4494:
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4490:
4486:
4483:
4482:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4438:
4435:
4434:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4398:
4395:
4394:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4303:
4296:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4261:
4260:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4251:Plyler v. Doe
4248:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4208:
4205:
4204:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4176:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4155:Frick v. Webb
4152:
4149:
4148:
4144:
4141:
4140:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4108:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4096:
4095:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4081:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4069:
4066:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4046:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4010:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3970:
3967:
3966:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3887:
3886:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3867:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3831:
3828:
3827:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3647:
3644:
3643:
3642:Coit v. Green
3639:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3572:
3571:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3514:Lucy v. Adams
3511:
3507:
3506:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3495:
3493:
3492:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3356:
3352:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:Goss v. Lopez
3180:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3151:In re Winship
3148:
3145:
3144:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3079:Zucht v. King
3076:
3073:
3072:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2997:
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1728:Supreme Court
1725:
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1617:at Wikisource
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423:wrote in his
422:
419:segregation.
418:
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393:
389:
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333:Case opinions
331:
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269:Chief Justice
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84:
80:
77:
73:
70: –
69:
65:
64:Find sources:
58:
54:
48:
47:
42:This article
40:
36:
31:
30:
27:
19:
4715:
4707:
4676:
4668:
4660:
4652:
4644:
4636:
4628:
4620:
4612:
4604:
4596:
4588:
4580:
4543:
4537:Bush v. Gore
4535:
4527:
4519:
4511:
4503:
4495:
4487:
4479:
4471:
4463:
4455:
4447:
4439:
4431:
4423:
4415:
4407:
4399:
4391:
4383:
4375:
4367:
4359:
4351:
4343:
4335:
4327:
4319:
4311:
4292:
4284:
4276:
4257:
4249:
4241:
4233:
4225:
4217:
4209:
4201:
4193:
4185:
4177:
4169:
4161:
4153:
4145:
4137:
4129:
4121:
4113:
4105:
4097:
4078:
4070:
4062:
4043:
4035:
4027:
4019:
4011:
4003:
3995:
3987:
3979:
3971:
3963:
3955:
3947:
3939:
3931:
3923:
3915:
3907:
3901:Reed v. Reed
3899:
3891:
3883:
3864:
3856:
3848:
3840:
3833:
3832:
3824:
3816:
3808:
3800:
3792:
3784:
3776:
3768:
3760:
3752:
3744:
3736:
3728:
3720:
3712:
3704:
3696:
3688:
3680:
3672:
3664:
3656:
3648:
3640:
3632:
3624:
3616:
3608:
3600:
3592:
3584:
3576:
3568:
3560:
3552:
3544:
3536:
3528:
3520:
3512:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3481:
3473:
3465:
3457:
3449:
3441:
3433:
3425:
3417:
3409:
3401:
3393:
3385:
3377:
3333:
3325:
3317:
3309:
3301:
3293:
3285:
3277:
3269:
3261:
3253:
3245:
3237:
3229:
3221:
3213:
3205:
3197:
3189:
3181:
3173:
3165:
3157:
3149:
3141:
3133:
3125:
3117:
3109:
3101:
3093:
3087:Buck v. Bell
3085:
3077:
3069:
3050:
3042:
3034:
3026:
3018:
3010:
3002:
2994:
2986:
2978:
2970:
2964:
2956:
2948:
2940:
2932:
2926:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2894:
2870:
2862:
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2806:
2798:
2790:
2782:
2774:
2766:
2758:
2750:
2742:
2734:
2726:
2718:
2710:
2702:
2694:
2686:
2678:
2657:
2649:
2641:
2633:
2625:
2617:
2609:
2601:
2593:
2585:
2577:
2556:
2548:
2540:
2532:
2524:
2516:
2508:
2500:
2492:
2484:
2442:Saenz v. Roe
2440:
2432:
2424:
2416:
2408:
2400:
2392:
2384:
2197:Amendment 46
2083:
2075:
2067:
2059:
2051:
2043:
2035:
2027:
2019:
2011:
2003:
1995:Contracting,
1980:
1972:
1964:
1956:
1948:
1940:
1932:
1924:
1916:
1908:
1900:
1892:
1884:
1876:
1868:
1849:
1841:
1833:
1825:
1817:
1810:
1809:
1801:
1793:
1785:
1777:
1769:
1761:
1753:
1745:
1681:
1621:
1586:
1582:
1573:
1552:February 25,
1550:. Retrieved
1539:
1529:
1519:February 23,
1517:, retrieved
1508:
1486:
1477:
1459:
1445:
1431:
1417:
1408:
1399:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1362:
1354:
1344:
1329:
1321:
1317:
1303:
1278:
1268:
1254:
1235:
1221:
1209:. Retrieved
1200:
1191:
1181:February 10,
1179:. Retrieved
1165:
1155:February 10,
1153:. Retrieved
1124:. Retrieved
1095:. Retrieved
1068:February 11,
1066:. Retrieved
1052:
1040:. Retrieved
1031:
1003:
996:
989:
982:
975:
920:
916:
912:
903:
893:
891:
884:
878:
868:
864:
861:
857:
852:
848:
844:
839:
836:
832:
823:
809:
805:
800:
794:
788:
779:
773:
766:
758:
748:
747:
742:
737:
736:
731:
730:
709:
705:
701:
697:
691:
687:
683:
677:
673:
658:
651:
629:
620:
619:
600:
599:
594:
593:
589:John Roberts
586:
577:
570:
569:, including
564:
554:
546:
540:
534:
532:
516:
501:
484:
472:
466:
464:
460:
454:
452:
444:
429:
416:
406:
405:
400:
399:
398:
386:Laws applied
325:Samuel Alito
320:
308:
301:David Souter
296:
284:
273:John Roberts
215:Case history
198:
166:
115:
106:
96:
89:
82:
75:
63:
51:Please help
46:verification
43:
26:
3462:(Cal. 1948)
3411:Lum v. Rice
2688:Roe v. Wade
2603:Roe v. Wade
2477:due process
2273:Edward Blum
2159:initiatives
2102:legislation
508:high school
362:Concurrence
354:Concurrence
4738:Categories
3957:Orr v. Orr
2278:Carl Cohen
2187:Proposal 2
1862:Employment
1211:January 4,
1042:January 4,
1012:References
954:Law portal
846:society".
738:Part III C
732:Part III B
621:Part III A
493:Background
224:Certiorari
177:Docket no.
79:newspapers
4270:Residency
1739:Education
1273:omitted).
407:PICS case
346:Plurality
238:Circuits.
207:L. Ed. 2d
187:Citations
4091:Alienage
2362:case law
2100:Federal
1620:Text of
1546:Archived
1513:archived
1244:Archived
1205:Archived
1175:Archived
1149:Archived
1126:June 27,
1120:Archived
1097:June 27,
1091:Archived
1062:Archived
1036:Archived
926:See also
879:Justice
869:de facto
824:Justice
759:Justice
512:District
338:Majority
230:for the
171:, et al.
109:May 2009
3486:(1954)
2318:Ron Unz
2233:, 2012)
2223:, 2010)
2213:, 2008)
2193:, 2006)
2183:, 1998)
2173:, 1996)
2123:of the
1993:Grants,
1646:Findlaw
1637:Cornell
1595:1387162
1363:Grutter
1337:(1974).
865:de jure
801:Adarand
774:Grutter
749:Part IV
710:Grutter
706:Grutter
702:Grutter
698:Grutter
688:Grutter
684:Grutter
674:Grutter
601:Part II
555:Grutter
551:en banc
547:en banc
528:en banc
510:in the
417:de jure
410:, is a
378:Dissent
373:Stevens
370:Dissent
243:Holding
226:to the
93:scholar
4720:(2024)
4712:(1935)
4681:(2013)
4673:(2006)
4665:(2004)
4657:(2003)
4649:(2001)
4641:(2000)
4633:(2000)
4625:(1999)
4617:(1997)
4609:(1989)
4601:(1976)
4593:(1966)
4585:(1883)
4548:(2012)
4540:(2000)
4532:(1997)
4524:(1991)
4516:(1988)
4508:(1988)
4500:(1985)
4492:(1982)
4484:(1979)
4476:(1978)
4468:(1977)
4460:(1976)
4452:(1974)
4444:(1974)
4436:(1973)
4428:(1973)
4420:(1972)
4412:(1971)
4404:(1970)
4396:(1968)
4388:(1968)
4380:(1966)
4372:(1966)
4364:(1962)
4356:(1948)
4348:(1942)
4340:(1937)
4332:(1928)
4324:(1886)
4316:(1876)
4297:(1985)
4289:(1977)
4281:(1969)
4262:(1984)
4254:(1982)
4246:(1982)
4238:(1979)
4230:(1978)
4222:(1977)
4214:(1976)
4206:(1973)
4198:(1973)
4190:(1971)
4182:(1954)
4174:(1948)
4166:(1927)
4158:(1923)
4150:(1923)
4142:(1923)
4134:(1923)
4126:(1915)
4118:(1915)
4110:(1915)
4102:(1914)
4083:(2015)
4075:(1996)
4067:(1986)
4048:(2024)
4040:(1996)
4032:(1994)
4024:(1983)
4016:(1982)
4008:(1981)
4000:(1981)
3992:(1980)
3984:(1979)
3976:(1979)
3968:(1979)
3960:(1979)
3952:(1976)
3944:(1975)
3936:(1975)
3928:(1974)
3920:(1974)
3912:(1972)
3904:(1971)
3896:(1948)
3888:(1937)
3869:(2023)
3861:(2016)
3853:(2014)
3845:(2013)
3837:(2007)
3829:(2005)
3821:(2003)
3813:(2003)
3805:(1999)
3797:(1995)
3789:(1993)
3781:(1992)
3773:(1992)
3765:(1991)
3757:(1989)
3749:(1986)
3741:(1985)
3733:(1984)
3725:(1982)
3717:(1982)
3709:(1978)
3701:(1977)
3693:(1977)
3685:(1974)
3677:(1973)
3669:(1973)
3661:(1972)
3653:(1971)
3645:(1971)
3637:(1971)
3629:(1971)
3621:(1971)
3613:(1969)
3605:(1969)
3597:(1969)
3589:(1969)
3581:(1968)
3573:(1968)
3565:(1967)
3557:(1967)
3549:(1964)
3541:(1964)
3533:(1964)
3517:(1955)
3478:(1950)
3470:(1950)
3454:(1948)
3446:(1948)
3438:(1944)
3430:(1943)
3422:(1940)
3414:(1927)
3406:(1899)
3398:(1896)
3390:(1886)
3382:(1883)
3338:(2016)
3330:(2015)
3322:(2009)
3314:(2000)
3306:(1997)
3298:(1990)
3290:(1989)
3282:(1989)
3274:(1987)
3266:(1987)
3258:(1985)
3250:(1984)
3242:(1983)
3234:(1982)
3226:(1981)
3218:(1979)
3210:(1979)
3202:(1977)
3194:(1976)
3186:(1975)
3178:(1975)
3170:(1974)
3162:(1974)
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3106:(1950)
3098:(1932)
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2521:(1908)
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2489:(1887)
2445:(1999)
2437:(1971)
2429:(1967)
2421:(1958)
2413:(1898)
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2261:People
2157:State
2149:(1965)
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2127:(1868)
2107:edicts
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2016:(1977)
2008:(1974)
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1655:Justia
1652:
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791:Harlan
743:Croson
595:Part I
438:, and
357:Thomas
323:
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181:05-908
95:
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3063:Other
1628:
1579:(PDF)
1574:Brown
894:Brown
814:HBCUs
810:Brown
806:Brown
682:. In
473:Bakke
468:Bakke
236:Sixth
232:Ninth
220:Prior
100:JSTOR
86:books
3371:Race
2105:and
1630:U.S.
1591:SSRN
1554:2017
1521:2017
1213:2022
1183:2017
1157:2017
1128:2017
1099:2017
1070:2022
1044:2022
867:and
539:and
502:The
479:and
453:The
252:and
234:and
200:more
192:U.S.
190:551
72:news
3877:Sex
1730:and
1626:551
195:701
55:by
4740::
2251:CA
2241:WA
2231:OK
2221:AZ
2211:NE
2201:CO
2191:MI
2181:WA
2171:CA
1624:,
1587:69
1585:.
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