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primary event are now unavailable to help remember the event. The cues used during encoding are dependent on the environment of the individual at the time the memory occurred. In context-dependent memory, recall is based on the difference between the encoding and recall environments. Recall for items learned in a particular context is better when recall occurs in the same place as when the initial memory occurred. This is why it is sometimes useful to "return to the scene of the crime" to help witnesses remember details of a crime, or for explaining why going to a specific location such as a residence or community setting, may lead to becoming flooded with memories of things that happened in that context. Recall can also depend on state-dependency, or the conditions of one's internal environment, at both the time of the event and of recall. For example, if intoxicated at the time the memory actually occurred, recall for details of the event is greater when recalling while intoxicated. Associated with state-dependency, recall can also depend on mood-dependency, in which recall is greater when the mood for when the memory occurred matches the mood during recall. These specific dependencies are based on the fact that the cues used during the initial event can be specific to the context or state one was in. In other words, various features of the environment (both internal and external) can be used to help encode the memory, and thus become retrieval cues. However, if the context or state changes at the time of recall, these cues may no longer be available, and thus recall is hindered.
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what the assailant was wearing or what distinctive features could be found on their body or face. One explanation for why witnesses tend to gravitate toward the weapon being used is said to be that the arousal of the witness is increased. When arousal becomes increased the number of perceptional cues being utilized by the brain decreases. This allows the individual to focus on the weapon cue and ignore other cues such as distinct scars or a bright red shirt. The weapons focus effect can also refer to how the report of the use of weapons in the case can influence the memory of the event, leading to a false memory of having heard a weapon being fired even if the witness did not. For example, if a newspaper reports that the victim was beaten with a hammer, upon reading this, the witness will begin to believe that a hammer was in fact used, even if they at no point saw a hammer. This can cause many memory errors and conflict of stories for witnesses. As a society we believe that newspapers or televised news reports have fact behind them. If they report the hammer being used, a witness might begin to second-guess their memory wondering if they missed the hammer or failed to remember that detail. Also, their story may become mixed with the media's representation of the story and the knife that they did see will be forgotten and instead be replaced with the hammer that was reported.
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of misleading information and witnessed information become confused. Misleading information can be acquired through reading of the newspaper, watching the news, being interviewed or when sitting in the courthouse during the trial. When witnesses are asked to recall specific details of an event they can begin to doubt their memory, which can cause memory errors. Misinformation can manifest itself as a memory leading the individual to believe it as true and witnesses may also begin to doubt their own memories of the event deciding instead that they must be wrong. Memory errors also occur through the imagination inflation effect. As stated earlier, the imagination inflation effect takes place when an individual imagines an event to the point where it is believed as a memory of an actual event. During trial, witnesses hear many different possible occurrences of events and are led to imagine these situations. Through imagining and rehearsal of the occurrences, witnesses may begin to see vividness and validity in the stories simply from rehearsal, not factual memories. This can create problems for witnesses when trying to distinguish between imagined events and the actual occurrence of the events. Small but largely significant details become easily mixed and these occurrences of memory errors can make or break a trial.
616:(meaning), which is the deepest form of processing. The visual form of processing relies on the ability to see information and break it down into its components (e.g. see the word "dog", composed D, O, and G). Phonology relies on creating links to information through sound such as cues and tricks for memory (e.g. Dog rhymes with Fog). Finally, semantics refer to the creation of meaning behind information such as adding detail to allow the information to create links throughout our memory with other memories and thus be held in long-term memory for a longer period (e.g. A dog is a four-legged pet that often chases cats and chews on bones). Older individuals often begin to lose the quick ability to add meaning to new information, which leads to shallower processing and easier forgetting of the information gained. Both of these possible factors can decrease the validity of the memory due to retrieval for details of the event being more difficult to perform. This leads to details of memories being confused with others or lost completely, which lead to many errors in recall of a memory.
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life. For example, when going to the gas station, there is a general pattern of how things will occur (i.e. turn car off, get out of car, open gas tank, punch the gas button, put nozzle into the tank, fill up the tank, put the nozzle back, close the tank, pay, turn car on, leave). Schemas make the world more predictable, allowing expectations to be formed of how things will enfold and to take note of things that happen out of context. However, schemas also allow for memory errors, in that if certain aspects of a scene or event are missing from memory, people may incorrectly remember having actually seen or experienced them because they are usually a regular aspect of the schema. For example, an individual may not remember paying the waiter, but may believe they have done so, as this is a regular step in the script of going to a restaurant. Similarly, a person may recall seeing a fridge in a picture of a kitchen, even if one was not actually depicted due to existing schemas which suggest that kitchens almost always contain a fridge.
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attraction towards said object or person. Simply their familiarity creates a positive sense when re-exposed to the individual or object. In reality one can know very little about a person but by seeing them over and over again can gain unconscious positive recall for their face. This can create memory errors when individuals are asked to identify a criminal and someone familiar to them is placed in the line up. When a familiar face is in among the individuals that the witness is being asked to study, the witness will find themselves gravitating towards the familiar face whether or not this is who they witnessed committing the crime. This leaves them more likely to ignore the cues that are leading them towards other individuals and concentrate on the familiar face, resulting in a false accusation. The sense of familiarity can play a large role in the identification of criminals but when the familiarity of a criminal is mixed in with the familiarity of other individuals, choosing the right person can become quite difficult.
462:. Encoding processes can occur at three levels: visual form (the letters that make up a word), phonology (the sound of a word), and semantics (the meaning of the word or sentence). With relation to memory errors, the level of processing at the time of encoding and at the time of recall should be the same. Although semantic processing generally produces greater recall that shallower levels of processing, a study by Morris et al. demonstrated that what might be the key factor to greater recall is transfer-appropriate processing–when the level of processing at the original memory/learning time matches the level of processing used to help recall. In other words, if learning occurred by rhyming the target words to other words, then recall is best if testing is also at the phonological level of processing, such as a rhyming recognition test. Thus, memory errors can occur when the levels of processing between encoding and recall do not match.
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receives depends on how many connections the initial node has associated with it. This is because the initial node must divide the amount of activation it spreads to related nodes by the number of connecting nodes it is associated with. If node 1 has three connecting nodes, and node 2 has 15 connecting nodes, the three connecting nodes from node 1 will receive greater activation levels (the activation level is divided less) than for the 15 connecting nodes from node 2, and the components of these nodes will be more easily brought to mind. What this means is that, with more connections a node has, the more difficulty there is bringing to mind one of its connecting features. This can lead to memory errors, in that if the connection density is so great that there is not enough activation reaching the secondary nodes, then the person may not recall a target memory that is actually present, and a memory error occurs.
299:, which occur when incorrect and non-related items are recalled, and were not part of the word study list. These types of intrusion errors often follow the DRM Paradigm effects, in which the incorrectly recalled items are often thematically related to the study list one is attempting to recall from. Another pattern for extra-list intrusions would be an acoustic similarity pattern, this pattern states that targets that have a similar sound to non-targets may be replaced with those non-targets in recall. One major type of extra-list intrusions is called the "Prior-List Intrusion" (PLI), a PLI occurs when targets from previously studied lists are recalled instead of the targets in the current list. PLIs often follow under the temporal aspect of intrusions in that since they were recalled recently they have a high chance of being recalled now. The second type of intrusion error is known as
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work is due to a lack of recall inhibition, which allows irrelevant information to be brought to awareness while attempting to remember. Another possible explanation is that intrusion errors result from a lack of new context integration into a viable memory trace, or into an already existing memory trace that is related to the appropriate memory. More explanations involve the temporal aspect of recall, meaning that as the time difference between the study periods of different lists approaches zero, the amount of intrusions between the lists tends to increase, the semantic aspect, meaning that the list of target words may have induced a false recall of non-target words that happen to have a similar or same meaning as the targets, and the similarity aspect, for example subjects who were given list of letters to recall were likely to replace target vowels with non-target vowels.
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be seen once familiarity does occur. This may be related to the retrieval cue speculation, in that familiar memories often contain cues we know, and thus may be the reason why familiarity can contribute to memory errors. Lastly, many studies have shown that
Alzheimer's patients commonly suffer from intrusion errors. Relative to the findings that retrieval cues may actually hurt recall performance, one study by Kramer et al. showed that intrusions are most commonly associated with cue-recall tasks. This study suggests that cues may lead to intrusions because patients may have a difficult time distinguishing between cues and distractions, which may help explain why cues increase memory errors in patients with Alzheimer's. Since verbal intrusions are a common aspect of Alzheimer's, some researchers believe that this characteristic may be helpful in the diagnosis of the disease.
417:, the total activation being spread from node 1 to connecting nodes is divided by the number of connections. With a greater number of connections, each connecting node receives less activation, which may result in too little activation for the memory cue to be brought to awareness. Connection strength, in which more strongly connected associations receive more activation than less-related associations, may also prevent specific connections from being brought to awareness due to being out-competed by the stronger associations. Second, with more connections branching from various other nodes, there is a greater probability of linking associated connections of different memories together (transplant errors) so that memory errors occur and incorrect features are recalled.
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cues continue to be associated and aimed at recalling previously learned information, affecting the recall of new material. Retroactive interference is the opposite of proactive interference, in which there is difficulty in the recall of previously learned information based on the interference of newly acquired information. In this case, retrieval cues are associated with the new information and not the older memory. thus affecting recall of older material. Interference of either form can produce memory errors, in which there is interference with the recall of material. In other words, previously used retrieval cues are no longer associated with prior memories, and thus memory confusion or even an inability to recall the memory can occur.
244:. That is, when one imagines an event occurring, their confidence that this event actually did occur increases. One reason for this may be due to the act of imagination increasing the familiarity of the event. When the event seems more familiar, it may become more likely for people to report it actually occurring. For instance, in an experiment participants were asked to imagine playing inside and then running outside toward a window, falling and breaking it, while other participants did not imagine anything. Participants who had imagined this scenario reported an increased level of confidence that the event had actually happened in comparison to those who did not imagine the event. This error can be caused simply by imagining an event.
701:, which is the perspective use of negative schemas and self-concepts to relate to the external world. Due to this negative triad, depressive patients have a tendency to have a much greater focus on, and recall for, negative details and events over positive ones. This may lead to memory errors related to the positive details of memories, impairing the accuracy or even complete recall of such memories. Depressed patients also experience deficits in psychomotor speed and in free recall of material both immediate and delayed. This suggests that material has been encoded but that patients are particularly impaired with regard to search and retrieval processes. Diverse aspects of memory such as
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absentmindedness is a lack of attention. Attention is vital to encoding information in long-term memory. Without proper attention, material is much less likely to be stored properly and recalled later. When attention is divided, less activity in the lower left frontal lobe diminishes the ability for elaborative memory encoding to take place, and results in absentminded forgetting. More recent research has shown that divided attention also leads to less hippocampal involvement in encoding. A common example of absentmindedness is not remembering to carry out actions that had been planned to be done in the future, for example, picking up grocery items, and remembering times of meetings.
138:) or spilling a bowl of punch at a wedding reception. In this case, false memories were implanted among participants by their family members who claimed that the event had happened. This evidence demonstrates the possibility of implanting false memories on individuals by leading them to remember such events that never occurred. This memory error can be particularly worrisome in judicial settings, in which witnesses may have false recollections of a crime after it has happened, especially when told by others that particular things may have happened which did not. Another area of concern regarding false memories is in cases of child abuse.
348:. The first factor is time. As time passes, memories fade. Therefore, source confusion may result due to time delay. The second factor is the imagination inflation effect. As the amount of imagination increases, so does one's familiarity for the contents of the imagination. Thus, source confusion may also occur due to the individual confusing the source of the memory for being true, when in fact it was imaginary. Lastly, social pressure to recall the memory may affect the individual's belief in the false memory. For example, with increase in pressure, the individual may lower their criteria for validating a memory, and come to accept a
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creating complex memory errors in relation to speech and surrounding details. Individuals suffering with depression also showed a specific deficit in retrieving information meaningfully organized in their semantic memory, conceptual knowledge about the real world. Therefore, depressive patients can show memory errors for the most meaningful events in their lives, unable to recall these specific moments vividly like someone not suffering from depression might. In the case of implicit memory, when previous information influences ongoing responses, there has been little to no proof of a deficit in relations to depressed individuals.
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other memories (highly emotional events do not occur on a regular basis, and thus are easily separated from other events that are more commonly met). Emotional events may affect memory not only because of their distinctiveness, but also because of their arousal on the individual. Studies have found that prime or central features of such highly emotional events tend to be accurately recalled, whereas subtle details of the events are not remembered, or are remembered with vague consistency. Memory errors related to highly emotional events are influenced in ways such as:
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participants remember the texture of the foods much better than for fatty content, although they could discern the difference of both among the different items. Participants were also most certain about foods that they did not have during breakfast, but were the least certain about foods that they said were in their breakfast and about foods that were in their breakfast but were not recognized. This suggests that incidental and implicit memory for foods are more focused on discerning new and potentially unsafe food rather than remembering the details of familiar foods.
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the content and the source become dissociated. This may be more likely for more distant memories, such as childhood memories. In more severe cases of source confusion, you can take fictional stories you heard from when you were younger and assimilated these stories being your childhood. For example, say your father told you stories about his life when he was a child every night before you went to sleep when you were a child. When you grow up, you might mistakenly remember these stories your dad told you as your own and integrate them into your childhood memories.
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information (e.g. which of two experimenters presented them with facts and which presented them with irrelevant information), and whether the information came from an imagined source, and is thus not factual, or a real world source. This in itself is a form of memory error but can also create larger memory errors. When an older individual is confused whether the information is factual or was imagined they can begin to accept imagined memories as real and thus begin to rely on new false information.
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philosopher named
Hermann Ebbinghaus decided to measure his own memory for lists of nonsense syllables at various times after studying them. He decided to draw out a curve of his forgetting pattern over time. He realized that there is a rapid drop-off in retention during the first tests and there is a slower rate of forgetting later on. Therefore, transience denotes the gradual change of a specific knowledge or idea into more general memories.
303:, which is similar to extra-list errors, except it refers to irrelevant recall for items that were on the word study list. Although these two categories of intrusion errors are based on word list studies in laboratories, the concepts can be extrapolated to real-life situations. Also, the same three factors that play a critical role in correct recall (recency, temporal association and semantic relatedness) play a role in intrusions as well.
150:, which is the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences. Sometimes what people remember from their past says less about what actually happened than about what they personally believe, feel, and the knowledge they have acquired at the present time. An individual's current moods can bias their memory recall, researchers have found. There are three types of memory biases,
96:, which is a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it. The information you are trying to remember has been encoded and stored, and a cue is available that would usually trigger its recollection. The information has not faded from memory and a person is not forgetting to retrieve the information. What a person is experiencing is a complete retrieval failure, which makes
738:, which involve a decrease in normal bodily functions (e.g. refusal to speak). Possible reasons for this are reduced function in the central executive of the working memory, as well as defects in self-reflectivity, organization and reasoning. Self-reflectivity is the ability to recognize and reason about one's own thought process, recognize that one has thoughts, and that those thoughts are one's own and differentiate between
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towards an event can change depending on their current emotional state toward the same event. If a person believes their feelings at both times continue to be the same, then the current emotion to "remember" how they felt about the event at a previous time is used. If feelings are believed to have changed, then recall of the emotional involvement in the past event is adjusted to the current feelings.
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stories which involve details that are believed to have been experienced or witnessed, such as a natural disaster close to where one resides, or a situation that is common and could have occurred, such as getting lost as a child. Personal life effects are most powerful when claimed to be true by a family member, and even more powerful when a secondary source confirms the event having happened.
356:, especially those of abuse, in which the individual may have been led to believe they had been abused as a child by a therapist during psychological therapy, when in fact they had not been. Personal life effects can also be important in witness testimonies, in which suggestions from authorities may incorrectly implant memories regarding witnesses a particular detail about a crime (see the
750:. Source-monitoring processes allow one to distinguish between a memory that we may believe has happened because it seems familiar and one that has truly occurred. In the case of schizophrenics, whose abilities to reason through their thoughts is impaired, something that they have imagined and thus, seems familiar can easily be mistaken for an actual event, especially in the case of quick
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This is likely to occur with high connection densities, in which the incorrect (but associated) node was activated and thus recalled, instead of the target memory. Third, the retrieval cue chosen may be correct and associated with the target memory, but it may not have a strong connection to the target memory, and thus may not produce enough activation to produce the target memory.
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of retrieval cues in being a reason for the occurrence of memory errors. As noted above, memory errors may be due to the lack of cues that can trigger a memory trace and bring it to awareness. However, studies have shown that the opposite may be true for patients with
Alzheimer's, such that cues may actually decrease perform on
47:, in which people may inaccurately recall details of events that did not occur, or they may simply misattribute the source of a memory. In other instances, imagination of a certain event can create confidence that such an event actually occurred. Causes of such memory errors may be due to certain cognitive factors, such as
643:- Items/events are better recalled when the mood of the individual at the time of the event and the time of recall are the same. Thus, if the mood at the time of recall does not match the mood experienced at the time the event occurred, there is an increased chance that complete recall will be affected/interrupted.
328:) to help fill in these holes with general knowledge of what they know happened around this time. Since scripts are a time-based knowledge structure, which puts details of a memory in sequence to make it easier to understand, time-slice errors can occur if a detail is mistakenly placed in the wrong sequence.
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Alzheimer's disease is characterized by progressive memory impairment and decline, usually beginning short-term memory. As it is a progressive disease, Alzheimer's usually begins with memory errors before proceeding to long-term memory stores. One form of memory error occurs in contrast to the theory
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Intrusion errors - This term refers to the inclusion of details that may have been commonly experienced in the event, but not by the individual. For example, in the
September 11 terrorist attacks, many people may state that they remember hearing about the attacks on the television news, as this was a
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The emotional impact of an event can have a direct impact on how the memory is first encoded, how it is later recalled, and what details of the event are accurately recalled. Highly emotional events tend to be recalled easily due to their emotional impact, as well as their distinctiveness relative to
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Although retrieval cues are usually helpful in helping to remember something, they can produce memory errors in three ways. First, incorrect cues can be used, leading to recall of an incorrect memory. Second, although the correct retrieval cues may be used, they may still produce an incorrect memory.
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A retrieval cue is a type of hint that can be used to evoke a memory that has been stored but cannot be recalled. Retrieval cues work by selecting traces or associations in memory that contain specific content. With regards to the theory of spreading activation, retrieval cues use associated nodes to
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The connection densities, or neighbourhood densities of memory arrangements help distinguish which elements are a part of, or related to, the target memory. As the density of neural networks increases, the number of retrieval cues (associated nodes) also increases, which may allow for enhanced memory
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especially frustrating. Blocking occurs especially often for the names of people and places, because their links to related concepts and knowledge are weaker than for common names. The experience of blocking occurs more often as we get older; this "tip of the tongue" experience is a common complaint
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can sometimes manifest false memories by creating knowledge of possible events and asking individuals to focus on if these events actually took place. Individuals begin to overthink these situations visualizing them in their mind and overanalyzing them. This in turn leads to the belief of situations
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Refers to the fact that witnesses are highly likely to pay close attention to the weapon being used during an event, which creates a reduction in the ability to remember other details regarding the crime. This can in turn create memory errors leaving the witness less able to remember details such as
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or an imagination inflation effect. The misinformation effect occurs when information is presented after the events in question have occurred which leads to memory errors in later retrieval. Studies have suggested that witnesses may misattribute accuracy to misleading information because the sources
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In a study done by J. Mojet and E.P. Köster, participants were asked to have a drink, yoghurt, and some biscuits for breakfast. A few hours later, they were asked to identify and the items they had during breakfast out of five variations of the drinks, yoghurts, and biscuits. The results showed that
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Personal life effects are believed to be a form of source confusion, in which the individual cannot recall where the memory is coming from. Therefore, without being able to confirm the source of the memory, the individual may accept the false memory as true. Three factors may be responsible for the
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or unconscious transference, involves the misattribution of the source of a memory. For instance, an individual may recall seeing an event in person when in reality they only witnessed the event on television. Ultimately, the individual has an inability to remember the source of information in which
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Long-term memory, large capacity able to retain information over long periods of time, does however show impairment in the case of depressed individuals. They tend to have difficulties in recall and recognition for both verbal and visuo-spatial material with intervals of a few minutes or even hours
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Although patients tend to exhibit a higher level of false recognitions than control groups, researchers have shown that they may exhibit less false-recognition early in the test due to familiarity being slower to develop. However, the observation of increasing instances of misattribution errors can
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Levels of processing refers to the manner in which someone encodes information into their memory and how deeply it is encoded. There are three different levels of processing ranging from shallow to deep, deep being stored in long-term memory for a longer period and thus better remembered. The three
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occurs when specific information inhibits learning and /or recall for a specific memory. There are two forms of interference. First, proactive interference has to do with difficulty in learning new material based on the inability to override information from older memories. In such cases, retrieval
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system for a certain detail and/or event. Memory errors may include remembering events that never occurred, or remembering them differently from the way they actually happened. These errors or gaps can occur due to a number of different reasons, including the emotional involvement in the situation,
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Memory errors, specifically intrusion errors and imagination inflation effects, have been found to occur in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. Intrusion errors can commonly be found in the recall portion of a memory test when a participant includes items that were not on the original list that
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Activation levels to secondary nodes is also determined by the strength of the association to the primary node. Some connections have greater association with the primary node (e.g. fire truck and fire or red, versus fire truck and hose or
Dalmatian), and thus will receive a greater portion of the
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Refers to the tendency of individuals to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar. This can leave an individual to identify familiar people as guilty, even if they are not. When a person is continuously exposed to the same object or person, they begin to develop a positive
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judgments and systematic judgments, which involve analyzing the qualities of memories and the retrieval and evaluation of supporting or disconfirming information. Thus, if the frontal region is damaged, these abilities will be impaired and memories may not be retrieved or evaluated correctly. For
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Spreading activation can also demonstrate how memory errors may occur. As the network of memory associations increases in the number of connections–the connection density–the likelihood of memory gaps and errors occurring also increases. Put simply, the amount of activation a secondary connection
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refer to when information that is related to the theme of a certain memory, but was not actually a part of the original episode, become associated with the event. This makes it difficult to distinguish which elements are in fact part of the original memory. One idea regarding how intrusion errors
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to help reconstruct parts of an experience that cannot be remembered. This may include parts of the schema that did not actually take place, or aspects of a schema that are stereotypical of an event. Schemas can be described as mental guidelines (scripts) for events that are encountered in daily
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and snap judgments. Continuously imagining an action or event makes this action more and more familiar thus making it harder for a patient with schizophrenia to distinguish its source, questioning whether it is familiar because they have imagined it or if it is familiar because it happened. This
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refer to the recall and belief in events as declared by family members or friends for having actually happened. Personal life effects are largely based on suggestive influences from external sources, such as family members or a therapist. Other influential sources may include media or literature
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below). A second theory is that intrusion errors may be responsible, in that memories revolving around a similar time period thus share a common theme, and memories of various points of time within that larger time period become mixed with each other and intrude on each other's recall. Last, the
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or suggestions. Memories are likely to be altered when questions are worded differently or when inaccurate information is presented. For example, in one experiment participants watched a video of an automobile accident and were then asked questions regarding the accident. When asked how fast the
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Transience refers to forgetting what occurs with the passage of time. Transience occurs during the storage phase of memory, after an experience has been encoded and before it is retrieved. As time passes, the quality of our memory also changes, deteriorating from specific to more general. German
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is when retrieval is successful to the extent that the retrieval cues used to help recall, match the cues the individual used during learning or encoding. Memory errors due to encoding specificity means that the memory is likely not forgotten, however, the specific cues used during encoding the
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refers to the firing of connected nodes in associated memory links. The theory states that memory is organized in a theoretical web of associated ideas and related features. Each feature, or node, is connected to related features or ideas, which in turn are themselves connected to other related
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occur when a correct event is in fact recalled; however the event that was asked to be recalled is not the one that is recalled. In other words, the timing of events is incorrectly remembered. As discovered in a study by Brewer (1988), often the event or event details that are recalled occurred
134:, refer to the recollection of inaccurate details of an event, or recollection of a whole event that never occurred. Studies investigating this memory error have been able to successfully implant memories among participants that never existed, such as being lost in a mall as a child (termed the
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Imagination inflation effects were also common memory errors in patients with schizophrenia. This effect refers to events that individuals have imagined so vividly in their minds that this adds belief to the fact that the event truly occurred, although it did not. Possible reasons for this are
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Implicit theories of consistency and change - This term was coined by Ross (1989), and is used to describe the phenomena of memory change based on the belief of how the person felt at the time of the event compared to their current feelings about it. In other words, the memory of one's emotion
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Absentmindedness is a gap in attention which causes memory failure. In this situation the information does not disappear from memory, it can later be recalled. But the lack of attention at a specific moment prevents the information from being recalled at that specific moment. A common cause of
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Retrieval cues can be divided into two subsets, although they are by no means used independent of each other. The first are called feature cues, in which information of the content of the original memory, or related content, is used to aid recall. The second category is context cues, in which
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of repressed memories as a defense mechanism for the anxiety that recall of the abuse would cause. Freud said that repression operates unconsciously in individuals who are not able to recall a threatening situation or may even forget that the abusive individual was ever part of their lives.
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refers to the incorrect recall of features of an event that were not actually present, due to the features being related to a common theme. This paradigm has been demonstrated with the use of word lists and subsequent recognition tests. For example, experiments have shown that if a research
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when first presented with new information. Source confusion refers to the inability to distinguish how one came upon different information. Older individuals can become confused with where they learnt information (e.g. TV, radio, newspaper, word of mouth, etc.), who presented them with the
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and false memory effect. The fact that memories are not retrieved as whole entities but rather are reconstructed from information remaining in memory and other related knowledge make them easily susceptible to memory errors. This explains why working with mental health professionals and
717:, have been studied and linked to depression. Short-term memory, a temporary store for newly acquired information, seems to show no major impairments in the case of depressive patients who do seem to complain about poor concentration, which by itself can cause simple memory errors.
742:. Self-reflectivity has been shown to be one of the biggest deficits faced by schizophrenics and data suggests that verbal memory intrusions are linked to deficits in the ability to identify, organize, and reason about one's own thoughts in patients with schizophrenia.
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Memory errors regarding the recovery of repressed childhood abuse can occur due to post-event suggestions from a trusted source, such as a family member, or more commonly, a mental health professional. Due to possible relationships between childhood abuse and
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was presented. These types of errors are linked to problems with self-monitoring, increased positive and disorganized symptoms (confusion within the brain), and poor executive functioning. Intrusion errors are found to be more likely in patients with positive
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Stip, E., Corbière, M., Boulay, L. J., Lesage, A., Lecomte, T., Leclerc, C., Richard, N., Cyr, M., & Guillem, F. (2007). Intrusion errors in explicit memory: Their differential relationship with clinical and social outcome in chronic schizophrenia.
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Memory errors can occur in eyewitness testimonies due to a number of features commonly present in a trial, all of which may influence the authenticity of the memory, and may be detrimental to the outcome of the case at hand. Such features include:
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Jaimes, A., Omura, K., Nagamine, T., & Hirata, K. (2004). Memory cues for meeting video retrieval. In
Proceedings of the 1st ACM Workshop on Continuous Archival and Retrieval of Personal Experiences (CARPE) at the ACM International Multimedia
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and vivid memories. Patients are left with memories they believe are real and new events from their childhood which can lead to stress and trauma in their adult life and loss of relationships with those who are believed to be the abuser.
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divided activation than less associated connections. Thus, associations that receive less activation will be out-competed by associations with stronger connections, and may fail to be brought into awareness, again causing a memory error.
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tasks. Patients also demonstrate errors known as misattribution errors, otherwise known as source confusion. However, studies show that these misattribution errors are dependent on whether the task is a familiarity or recollection task.
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Dewar, M.T., Cowan, N., & Della Sala, S. (2007). Forgetting due to retroactive interference: A fusion of Muller and
Pilzecker's (1900) early insights into everyday forgetting and recent research on anterograde amnesia.
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of childhood abuse to arise, in an attempt to seek a cause to a mental illness. No matter the confidence in the memory, this does not necessarily equate to the memory being true. This is an example of the
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was in the list of words. These results show a significant illusion in memory, in which people remember items that were never presented simply due to their relation with other items in a common theme.
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example, one patient who suffered frontal lobe damage after an automobile accident reported memories of the support his family provided for him after the accident, which in reality, was false.
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Hildebrandt, H., Haldenwanger, A., & Eling, P. (2009). False recognition helps to distinguish patients with
Alzheimer’s disease and amnesic mci from patients with other kinds of dementia.
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leads to many memory errors for these individuals who are led to believe by their imagination of the event that it is real, has occurred and thus is stored in their memory for that reason.
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Deffenbacher, K.A., Bornstein, B.H., & Penrod, S.D. (2006). Mugshot exposure effects: Retroactive interference, mugshot commitment, source confusion, and unconscious transference.
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Brébion, G., Amador, X., Smith, M.J., Malaspina, D., Sharif, Z. & Gorman, J.M. (1999). Opposite links of positive and negative symptomatology with memory errors in schizophrenia.
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help activate a specific or target node. When no cues are available, recall is greatly reduced, leading to forgetting and possible memory errors. This is called retrieval failure, or
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Whether the event was positive or negative in nature - The nature of the event can affect memory, negative events tend to be remembered with greater accuracy than positive events.
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Fridberg, D.J., Brenner, A., & Lysaker, P.H. (2010). Verbal memory intrusions in schizophrenia: Associations with self-reflectivity, symptomatology, and neurocognition.
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The feeling that a person gets when they know the information, but can not remember a specific detail, like an individual's name or the name of a place is described as the
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Laney, C., & Loftus, E.F. (2010). Truth in emotional memories. In B.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Emotion and the Law (pp. 157–183). Leicester: Springer
Science + Business Media
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refers to when a person remembers details of a memory that are exaggerated versions of the actual event or remember an entire memory that never occurred due to the act of
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Lindsay, D.S., & Read, J.D. (1995). Memory work and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Scientific evidence and public, professional, and personal issues.
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Kapatsinski, V. (2004). Frequency, age-of-acquisition, lexicon size, neighborhood density, and speed of processing: towards a domain-general, single mechanism account.
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within a short time proximity to the memory required to be recalled. There are three possible theories as to why time-slice errors occur. First, they may be a form of
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Memory errors can occur in patients with depression or with depressive symptoms. Patients with depressive symptoms have a tendency to experience what is known as the
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Kleider, H.M., Pezdek, K., Goldinger, S.D., & Kirk, A. (2008). Schema-driven source misattribution errors: Remembering the expected from a witnessed event.
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Mammarella, N., Altamura M., Padalino F.A., Petito A., Fairfield B. & Bellomo A. (2010). False memories in schizophrenia? An imagination inflation study.
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Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "Chapter 6: Memory." Psychology. ; Second
Edition. N.p.: Worth, Incorporated, 2011. 244-45.
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Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "Chapter 6: Memory." Psychology. ; Second Edition. N.p.: Worth, Incorporated, 2011. 245.
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Mimura, M., & Komatsu, S.I. (2010). Factors of error and effort in memory intervention for patients with Alzheimer's disease and amnesic syndrome.
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Fuld, P.A., Katzman, R., Davies, P., & Terry, R.D. (2004). Intrusions as a sign of Alzheimer dementia chemical and pathological verification.
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and retrieval of the memory lengthens, there is an increase in both the amount that is forgotten, and the likelihood of a memory error occurring.
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Whitehouse, W.G., Orne, E.C., Dinges, D.F. (2010). Extreme cognitive interviewing: A blueprint for false memories through imagination inflation.
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is the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe in the present and what we previously felt or believed in the past.
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Therefore, mental health professionals will sometimes seek to uncover possible instances of childhood abuse in patients, which may lead to
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Baddeley, A.D., & Dale, H.C.A. (1966). The effect of semantic similarity on retro-active interference in long- and short-term memory.
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new false memories can often lead to wrong information and lack of conviction or wrongful conviction of individuals. Also in the case of
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Baddeley, A.D., Bressi, S., Della Sala, S., Logie, R., & Spinnler, H. (1991). The decline of working memory in Alzheimer's disease.
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Schmidt, S.R. (2004). Autobiographical memories for the September 11 attacks: Reconstructive errors and emotional impairment of memory.
771:, memory errors can lead to the creation of false traumatic childhood memories, which can lead to false accusations and loss of trust.
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Dolcos, F., & Denkova, E. (2008). Neural correlates of encoding emotional memories: A review of functional neuroimaging evidence.
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Studies have shown that the likelihood of memory errors occurring increases as age increases. Possible reasons for this are increased
178:, the tendency to exaggerate the change between the past and the present in order to make ourselves look good in any given situation.
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Kramer, J.H., Delis, D.C., Blusewicz, M.J., & Brandt, J. (1988). Verbal memory errors in Alzheimer's and Huntington's dementias.
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is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as a
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Moscovitc, M., & Craik, F.I.M. (1976). Depth of processing, retrieval cues, and uniqueness of encoding as factors in recall.
63:. The consequences of memory errors can have significant implications. Two main areas of concern regarding memory errors are in
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Mitchell, J.P., Sullivan, A.L., Schacter, D.L., & Budson, A.E. (2006). Misattribution errors in Alzheimer’s disease: The
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was used instead of other verbs. Evidently, memory recollection can be altered with misleading information after the event.
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Forster, K.I. (1991). The density constraint on form-priming in the naming task: Interference effects from a masked prime.
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common way of finding out this information, whereas they may have actually heard about it from a neighbour or on the radio.
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Memory errors can also depend on the method of encoding used when initially experiencing or learning information, known as
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Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.
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information based on the specific context (environment) in which the memory or learning occurred is used to aid recall.
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Lindsay, D.S., & Read, J.D. (1994). Psychotherapy and memories of childhood sexual abuse: A cognitive perspective.
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Kern, B.S., Gorp, W.G.V., Cummings, J.L., Brown, W.S., & Osato, S.S. (1992). Confabulation in Alzheimer's disease.
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of the event. However, too many connections can inhibit memory in two ways. First, as described under the sub-section
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into each other. Similarly, participants were more likely to report there being shattered glass present when the word
1915:
Moreland, R.L., Zajonc, R.B. (1982). Exposure effects in person perception: Familiarity, similarity, and attraction.
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refers to the change in memory due to the presentation of information that is relevant to the target memory, such as
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Hyman Jr., I.E., & Pentland, J. (1996). The role of mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories.
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Ilsley, J.E., Moffoot, A.P.R., & O'Carroll, R.E. (1995). An analysis of memory dysfunction in major depression.
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studies have provided evidence for links between brain damage and memory errors. Brain areas implicated include the
1985:
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Jacobs, D. (1990). Intrusion errors in the figural memory of patients with Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease.
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English, S.M., Nielson, K.A. (2010). Reduction of the misinformation effect by arousal induced after learning.
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into each other, the speed estimate was higher than when asked how fast the automobiles were driving when they
319:, in which the memory information from one time impairs the recall of information from a different time. (see
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recall of memories often have holes due to forgotten details. Thus, individuals may be using a script (see
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Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.
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Wickelgren, Wayne, A., (1965. Similarity and Intrusions in Short Term Memory for Consonant-Vowel Digrams.
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Mitchell, K.J., Livosky, M., Mather, M. (1998). The weapon focus effect revisited: The role of novelty.
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Kensinger, E.A., & Corkin, S. (2004). The effects of emotional content and aging on false memories.
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Damage in the temporal lobe (green) and frontal lobe (blue) are associated with resulting memory errors.
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Ruci, L., Tomes, J.L., & Zelenski, J.M. (2009). Mood-congruent false memories in the DRM paradigm.
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Treves, A. & Rolls, E. T. (1994). Computational analysis of the role of the hippocampus in memory.
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Deese, J. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall.
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increased source confusion and/or decreased source recollection of an event, which shows poor use of
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Loftus, E. F. & Hoffman, H. G. (1989). Misinformation and memory, the creation of new memories.
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Refers to how wording of questions can influence how an event is remembered. This can result from a
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Thomson, D.M., & Tulving, E. (1970). Associative encoding and retrieval: Weak and strong cues.
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Badre, D. & Wagner, A.D. (2005). Frontal lobe mechanisms that resolve proactive interference.
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Smith, Troy, A., Kimball, Daniel, R. Kahana, Michael, J. (2007). The fSAM Model of False Recall.
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Daniel L. Schacter, "Searching for memory: the brain, the mind, and the past", (New York, 1996)
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Smith, S.M. (1984). A comparison of two techniques for reducing context-dependent forgetting.
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Wade, K.A., & Garry, M. (2005). Strategies for verifying false autobiographical memories.
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Memory errors often lead to the belief of new memories, which are problematic. In the case of
55:, age or emotional factors. Furthermore, memory errors have been reported in individuals with
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Wickelgren, Wayne, A., (1965). Acoustic Similarity and Intrusion Errors in Short Term Memory.
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Mazzoni, G. & Memon, A. (2003). Imagination can create false autobiographical memories.
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for being true. Personal life effects can be extremely crucial to recognize in cases of
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734:, which involve an excess of normal bodily functions (e.g. delusions), versus negative
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Dell, G.S. (1986). A spreading-activation theory of retrieval in sentence production.
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Kahana et al. (2006). Temporal Associations and Prior list intrusions in Free Recall.
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Schacter, D.L., Koutstaal, W., & Norman, K.A. (1997). False memories and aging.
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Loftus, E. F. & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction.
260:, there is a high likelihood that the participant will falsely recall that the word
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One theory on how memory works is through a concept called spreading activation.
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Hyman Jr., I.E., & Loftus, E.F. (1998). Errors in autobiographical memory.
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Loftus, E.F., Loftus, G.R., Messo, J. (1987). Some fact about “weapon focus”.
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Greenberg, D.L. (2004). President Bush's false "flashbulb" memory of 9/11/01.
659:. Memory errors can commonly be found in types of abnormal psychology such as
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Intrusion errors can be divided into two categories. The first are known as
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Eich, J.E. (1980). The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval.
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expectations and environmental changes. As the retention interval between
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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21
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Kensinger, E.A. (2009). Remembering the details: Effects of emotion.
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Johnson, M. & Raye, C. (1998). False memories and confabulation.
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Conway, M. A., & Tacchi, P. C. (1996). Motivated confabulation.
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Anderson, J.R. (1983). A spreading activation theory of memory.
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International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 58
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later in life, some mental health professionals believe in the
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for the event and findings that older persons have decreased
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regions of the brain. Such damage may result in significant
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bed rest awake tired dream wake snooze snore nap yawn drowsy
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is the bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present.
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Mojet J, Ko¨ster EP. Sensory memory and food texture.
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Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioural Neuroscience, 4
1499:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15
1384:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22
1123:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13
992:Schacter, Daniel L.,,"Worth Publishers",2009,2011.
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248:Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm
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195:automobiles were driving when they
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92:experience is a classic example of
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1943:Journal of Memory and Language, 35
1781:Journal of Affective Disorders, 35
1416:Journal of Memory and Language, 30
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575:region of the brain contains the
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1307:Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18
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460:transfer-appropriate processing
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2601:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
2474:Memory and social interactions
1355:10.1016/j.foodqual.2004.04.017
1291:Clinical Psychology Review, 18
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101:amongst 60- and 70-year-olds.
16:Error caused by a memory fault
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1228:Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 12
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759:Consequences of memory errors
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608:, being the shallowest form,
368:Memory error relating to food
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2310:Retrieval-induced forgetting
1078:Schacter, Daniel L. (2011).
940:Schacter, Daniel L. (2011).
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1139:Law and Human Behaviour, 30
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748:source-monitoring processes
559:and source confusion. The
130:, sometimes referred to as
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2648:Levels of Processing model
2573:World Memory Championships
2406:Lost in the mall technique
2253:dissociative (psychogenic)
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1161:Psychological Science, 14
1081:Psychology Second Edition
978:Schacter, Daniel (2011).
943:Psychology Second Edition
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346:autobiographical memories
2686:The Seven Sins of Memory
2631:Intermediate-term memory
2436:Indirect tests of memory
2413:Recovered-memory therapy
2363:Misattribution of memory
1832:Psychiatry Research, 179
1801:Psychiatry Research, 179
1645:Memory and Cognition, 32
1457:Memory and Cognition, 12
1444:Psychological Review, 80
1371:Psychological Review, 93
1035:Scientific American, 277
490:Lobes of the human brain
428:cue-dependent forgetting
2373:Source-monitoring error
1814:Psychiatry Research, 88
1759:Annals of Neurology, 11
1746:Brain and Cognition, 19
1470:Memory and Cognition, 8
563:is in charge of making
22:refer to the incorrect
2780:George Armitage Miller
2740:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
736:schizophrenic symptoms
732:schizophrenic symptoms
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344:implantation of false
275:refer to the use of a
75:Types of memory errors
20:Memory gaps and errors
2943:Philosophy portal
2931:Psychology portal
2795:Henry L. Roediger III
2396:False memory syndrome
2368:Misinformation effect
2348:Imagination inflation
1700:illusory truth effect
865:False memory syndrome
842:misinformation effect
791:misinformation effect
478:Physiological factors
362:Eye Witness Testimony
337:Personal life effects
332:Personal life effects
237:Imagination inflation
231:Imagination inflation
188:misinformation effect
182:Misinformation effect
2300:Motivated forgetting
1684:Psychogeriatrics, 10
798:Weapons focus effect
775:Eyewitness testimony
765:eyewitness testimony
740:cognitive operations
597:levels of processing
447:Encoding specificity
442:Encoding specificity
415:Spreading Activation
393:Spreading activation
387:Spreading activation
65:eyewitness testimony
49:spreading activation
2810:Arthur P. Shimamura
2710:Richard C. Atkinson
2527:Effects of exercise
2401:Memory implantation
2285:Interference theory
2201:Selective retention
2181:Meaningful learning
1704:Neuropsychology, 20
1525:Cerebral Cortex, 15
1349:2005; 16: 251–266.
870:Memory implantation
752:heuristic processes
675:Alzheimer's disease
661:Alzheimer's disease
653:Abnormal psychology
86:"tip-of-the-tongue"
2907:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2730:Hermann Ebbinghaus
2636:Involuntary memory
2537:Memory improvement
2522:Effects of alcohol
2484:Transactive memory
2462:Politics of memory
2431:Exceptional memory
807:Familiarity effect
408:Connection density
354:recovered memories
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2902:Cosmos Rossellius
2750:Marcia K. Johnson
2621:Exosomatic memory
2606:Context-dependent
2596:Absent-mindedness
2479:Memory conformity
2457:Collective memory
2358:Memory conformity
2295:Memory inhibition
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2206:Tip of the tongue
1619:Emotion Review, 1
1095:978-1-4292-3719-2
980:Psychology 2nd Ed
957:978-1-4292-3719-2
890:Memory conformity
847:leading questions
785:Leading questions
703:short-term memory
561:prefrontal cortex
542:
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538:
382:Cognitive factors
364:sections below).
312:Time-slice errors
307:Time-slice errors
301:intra-list errors
297:extra-list errors
192:leading questions
90:tip-of-the-tongue
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2835:Robert Stickgold
2805:Richard Shiffrin
2760:Elizabeth Loftus
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2616:Childhood memory
2423:Research methods
2305:Repressed memory
2280:Forgetting curve
2268:transient global
2139:Autobiographical
2049:
2048:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1952:
1946:
1939:
1933:
1926:
1920:
1913:
1907:
1900:
1887:
1880:
1871:
1864:
1853:
1846:
1835:
1828:
1817:
1810:
1804:
1797:
1784:
1777:
1762:
1755:
1749:
1742:
1736:
1729:
1720:
1713:
1707:
1696:
1687:
1680:
1674:
1667:
1661:
1654:
1648:
1641:
1635:
1628:
1622:
1615:
1609:
1602:
1581:
1574:
1568:
1561:
1555:
1548:
1542:
1534:
1528:
1521:
1515:
1508:
1502:
1495:
1486:
1479:
1473:
1466:
1460:
1453:
1447:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1419:
1412:
1403:
1396:
1387:
1380:
1374:
1367:
1358:
1347:Food Qual Prefer
1343:
1337:
1330:
1319:
1316:
1310:
1303:
1294:
1287:
1272:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1242:
1231:
1223:
1210:
1203:
1197:
1190:
1177:
1170:
1164:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1142:
1135:
1126:
1119:
1113:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1075:
1056:
1049:
1038:
1031:
1014:
1011:
1005:
1002:
993:
990:
984:
983:
975:
962:
961:
937:
920:
913:
880:Memory and aging
707:long-term memory
593:source confusion
536:
529:
520:
513:
506:
500:
487:
486:
289:Intrusion errors
284:Intrusion errors
273:Schematic errors
268:Schematic errors
224:Source confusion
219:Source confusion
164:Consistency bias
152:consistency bias
114:Absentmindedness
88:experience. The
2984:
2983:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2947:
2937:
2935:
2925:
2923:
2911:
2892:Dominic O'Brien
2870:
2839:
2820:Susumu Tonegawa
2800:Daniel Schacter
2775:Eleanor Maguire
2765:Geoffrey Loftus
2720:Stephen J. Ceci
2715:Robert A. Bjork
2691:
2610:state-dependent
2584:
2556:
2488:
2469:Cultural memory
2445:
2441:Memory disorder
2417:
2377:
2319:
2210:
2120:
2095:
2040:
1997:
1992:
1962:
1953:
1949:
1940:
1936:
1927:
1923:
1914:
1910:
1901:
1890:
1881:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1847:
1838:
1829:
1820:
1811:
1807:
1798:
1787:
1778:
1765:
1756:
1752:
1743:
1739:
1730:
1723:
1714:
1710:
1697:
1690:
1681:
1677:
1668:
1664:
1655:
1651:
1642:
1638:
1632:Cell Science, 5
1629:
1625:
1616:
1612:
1603:
1584:
1575:
1571:
1565:Neuroscience, 4
1562:
1558:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1531:
1522:
1518:
1509:
1505:
1496:
1489:
1480:
1476:
1467:
1463:
1454:
1450:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1422:
1413:
1406:
1397:
1390:
1381:
1377:
1368:
1361:
1344:
1340:
1331:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1304:
1297:
1288:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1234:
1224:
1213:
1204:
1200:
1191:
1180:
1171:
1167:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1136:
1129:
1120:
1116:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1076:
1059:
1050:
1041:
1032:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1003:
996:
991:
987:
976:
965:
958:
938:
923:
914:
907:
903:
856:
828:Freudian theory
819:
777:
761:
727:
715:implicit memory
711:semantic memory
695:
677:
657:mental disorder
650:
641:Mood-congruency
622:
589:
553:medial-temporal
531:
530:
526:
523:
521:
516:
514:
509:
507:
502:
485:
480:
468:
456:
444:
423:
410:
389:
384:
379:
370:
358:Childhood Abuse
334:
309:
286:
270:
250:
233:
221:
184:
172:Egocentric bias
160:egocentric bias
146:The problem of
144:
142:Problem of bias
125:
116:
107:
82:
77:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2982:
2972:
2971:
2966:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2945:
2933:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2887:Paul R. McHugh
2884:
2878:
2876:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2745:Ivan Izquierdo
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2706:
2704:
2697:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2689:
2682:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2603:
2598:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2582:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2502:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2427:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2398:
2393:
2387:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2343:Hindsight bias
2340:
2335:
2329:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2290:Memory erasure
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2248:post-traumatic
2245:
2240:
2235:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2186:Personal-event
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2141:
2136:
2130:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2116:Working memory
2113:
2105:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2086:Motor learning
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2005:
2003:
2002:Basic concepts
1999:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1961:
1960:
1947:
1934:
1921:
1908:
1888:
1872:
1868:Cognition, 117
1854:
1836:
1818:
1805:
1785:
1763:
1750:
1737:
1721:
1708:
1688:
1675:
1662:
1660:(6), 1153–1165
1649:
1636:
1623:
1610:
1582:
1569:
1556:
1543:
1529:
1516:
1503:
1487:
1474:
1461:
1448:
1435:
1420:
1404:
1388:
1375:
1359:
1338:
1320:
1311:
1295:
1273:
1264:
1255:
1246:
1232:
1211:
1198:
1178:
1165:
1152:
1143:
1127:
1114:
1101:
1094:
1057:
1039:
1015:
1006:
994:
985:
963:
956:
921:
904:
902:
899:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
855:
852:
833:suggestibility
824:mental illness
818:
815:
814:
813:
809:
804:
800:
795:
787:
776:
773:
760:
757:
726:
723:
699:negative triad
694:
691:
676:
673:
649:
646:
645:
644:
638:
634:
630:
621:
618:
588:
585:
557:confabulations
540:
539:
533:
532:
522:
515:
508:
501:
492:
491:
484:
481:
479:
476:
467:
464:
455:
452:
443:
440:
422:
421:Retrieval cues
419:
409:
406:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
369:
366:
333:
330:
308:
305:
285:
282:
269:
266:
249:
246:
232:
229:
220:
217:
183:
180:
143:
140:
128:False memories
124:
123:False memories
121:
115:
112:
106:
103:
81:
78:
76:
73:
40:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2981:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2944:
2934:
2932:
2922:
2921:
2918:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2866:Clive Wearing
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2830:Endel Tulving
2828:
2826:
2825:Anne Treisman
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:Brenda Milner
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2770:James McGaugh
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2735:Sigmund Freud
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2679:retrospective
2676:
2673:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2658:Muscle memory
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2505:Art of memory
2503:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2353:Memory biases
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2333:Confabulation
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2325:Memory errors
2322:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2243:post-hypnotic
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2196:Rote learning
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2171:Hyperthymesia
2169:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2134:Active recall
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2031:Consolidation
2029:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1977:
1975:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1944:
1938:
1931:
1925:
1918:
1912:
1905:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1885:
1879:
1877:
1870:(2), 237–242.
1869:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1833:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1815:
1809:
1802:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1782:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1761:(2), 155–159.
1760:
1754:
1748:(2), 172–182.
1747:
1741:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1718:
1712:
1706:(2), 185–192.
1705:
1701:
1695:
1693:
1685:
1679:
1672:
1666:
1659:
1653:
1646:
1640:
1633:
1627:
1620:
1614:
1607:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1579:
1573:
1566:
1560:
1553:
1547:
1541:(5), 616–634.
1540:
1533:
1526:
1520:
1513:
1507:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1485:(2), 255–262.
1484:
1478:
1472:(2), 157–173.
1471:
1465:
1459:(5), 477–482.
1458:
1452:
1445:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1417:
1411:
1409:
1401:
1395:
1393:
1385:
1379:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1342:
1335:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1315:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1292:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1268:
1259:
1250:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1229:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1208:
1202:
1195:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1175:
1169:
1162:
1156:
1147:
1140:
1134:
1132:
1124:
1118:
1111:
1105:
1097:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1054:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1036:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1010:
1001:
999:
989:
981:
974:
972:
970:
968:
959:
953:
949:
945:
944:
936:
934:
932:
930:
928:
926:
918:
912:
910:
905:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
857:
851:
848:
843:
838:
834:
829:
825:
810:
808:
805:
801:
799:
796:
792:
788:
786:
783:
782:
781:
772:
770:
766:
756:
753:
749:
743:
741:
737:
733:
725:Schizophrenia
722:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
690:
686:
683:
672:
670:
669:schizophrenia
666:
662:
658:
654:
642:
639:
635:
631:
628:
627:
626:
617:
615:
611:
607:
601:
598:
594:
584:
582:
578:
574:
569:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
535:
534:
528:
519:
518:Parietal lobe
512:
511:Temporal lobe
505:
499:
494:
493:
489:
488:
475:
472:
463:
461:
451:
448:
439:
435:
431:
429:
418:
416:
405:
401:
397:
394:
374:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
341:
338:
329:
327:
326:schema errors
322:
318:
313:
304:
302:
298:
293:
290:
281:
278:
274:
265:
263:
259:
254:
245:
243:
239:
238:
228:
225:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
193:
189:
179:
177:
174:is a form of
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
139:
137:
133:
132:confabulation
129:
120:
111:
102:
99:
95:
91:
87:
72:
70:
67:and cases of
66:
62:
58:
57:schizophrenia
54:
50:
46:
45:memory errors
36:
34:
29:
25:
21:
2897:Ben Pridmore
2815:Larry Squire
2725:Susan Clancy
2684:
2568:Memory sport
2493:Other topics
2383:False memory
2338:Cryptomnesia
2324:
2315:Weapon focus
2275:Decay theory
2036:Neuroanatomy
1995:Human memory
1958:(4), 846–908
1955:
1950:
1942:
1937:
1929:
1924:
1919:(5), 395–415
1916:
1911:
1903:
1883:
1867:
1852:(3), 269–287
1849:
1831:
1813:
1808:
1800:
1780:
1758:
1753:
1745:
1740:
1732:
1716:
1711:
1703:
1683:
1678:
1673:, 2521–2542.
1670:
1665:
1657:
1652:
1647:(3), 443–454
1644:
1639:
1631:
1626:
1618:
1613:
1605:
1577:
1572:
1567:(3), 374–391
1564:
1559:
1552:Neurocase, 2
1551:
1546:
1538:
1532:
1527:, 2003–2012.
1524:
1519:
1511:
1506:
1498:
1482:
1477:
1469:
1464:
1456:
1451:
1446:(5), 352–373
1443:
1438:
1415:
1399:
1383:
1378:
1373:(3), 283–321
1370:
1346:
1341:
1336:(4), 587–602
1333:
1314:
1306:
1293:(8), 933–947
1290:
1267:
1258:
1249:
1230:(2), 112–127
1227:
1206:
1201:
1193:
1173:
1168:
1163:(2), 186–188
1160:
1155:
1146:
1141:(3), 287–307
1138:
1122:
1117:
1112:(1), 100–104
1109:
1104:
1080:
1055:(4), 137–145
1052:
1034:
1009:
988:
979:
942:
916:
895:Kleptomnesia
837:false memory
835:and cause a
820:
778:
762:
744:
728:
719:
696:
687:
678:
651:
623:
604:levels are;
602:
590:
570:
549:frontal lobe
545:Neuroimaging
543:
504:Frontal lobe
483:Brain damage
471:Interference
469:
466:Interference
457:
445:
436:
432:
424:
414:
411:
402:
398:
390:
371:
361:
357:
350:false memory
342:
336:
335:
325:
321:interference
320:
317:interference
311:
310:
300:
296:
294:
288:
287:
272:
271:
261:
257:
251:
235:
234:
223:
222:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
185:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
145:
126:
117:
108:
97:
93:
89:
85:
83:
53:brain damage
44:
42:
19:
18:
2755:Eric Kandel
2703:Researchers
2675:Prospective
2626:Free recall
2580:Shas Pollak
2233:anterograde
2149:Declarative
1886:(1), 55–62.
1621:(2), 99–113
885:Memory bias
875:Memory loss
817:Child abuse
769:child abuse
606:visual form
577:hippocampus
242:imagination
176:change bias
168:Change bias
156:change bias
69:child abuse
2958:Categories
2790:Lynn Nadel
2668:intertrial
2653:Metamemory
2641:flashbacks
2561:In society
2258:retrograde
2220:Forgetting
2191:Procedural
2101:Short-term
2071:Eyewitness
1945:, 101–117.
1932:, 281–338.
1834:, 267–273.
1735:(1), 1–15.
1686:, 179–186.
1671:Brain, 114
1539:Cortex, 43
1514:, 417–420.
1501:, 447–458.
1433:Conference
1418:(1), 1–25.
1402:, 131–150.
901:References
693:Depression
665:depression
105:Transience
61:depression
2542:Nutrition
2450:In groups
2263:selective
2238:childhood
2166:Flashbulb
2126:Long-term
2026:Attention
1906:, 287–303
1580:(1), 1–9.
1554:, 325–338
1386:, 261–295
1309:, 363–370
1125:, 585–589
919:, 803–814
614:semantics
610:phonology
565:heuristic
525:Occipital
2844:Patients
2515:mnemonic
2510:chunking
2176:Implicit
2159:Semantic
2154:Episodic
2144:Explicit
2009:Encoding
1816:, 15–24.
1209:, 49–57.
854:See also
573:temporal
209:collided
98:blocking
94:blocking
80:Blocking
39:Overview
33:encoding
2663:Priming
2589:Related
2532:Emotion
2228:Amnesia
2066:Eidetic
2053:Sensory
2014:Storage
1803:, 6–11.
1176:, 17–22
1086:253–254
1037:, 70–75
860:Amnesia
682:priming
620:Emotion
396:nodes.
213:smashed
197:smashed
2964:Memory
2696:People
2681:memory
2612:memory
2552:Trauma
2091:Visual
2081:Iconic
2076:Haptic
2061:Echoic
2019:Recall
1783:, 1–9.
1196:, 1–20
1092:
954:
667:, and
581:memory
377:Causes
277:schema
205:bumped
28:memory
24:recall
2969:Error
2875:Other
2547:Sleep
2500:Aging
2045:Types
262:sleep
2677:and
2608:and
1719:(2).
1608:(6).
1090:ISBN
952:ISBN
713:and
571:The
551:and
527:lobe
360:and
186:The
158:and
148:bias
59:and
1634:(2)
1351:doi
948:246
587:Age
207:or
201:hit
2960::
2861:NA
2856:KC
2851:HM
1891:^
1875:^
1857:^
1839:^
1821:^
1788:^
1766:^
1724:^
1702:.
1691:^
1585:^
1490:^
1423:^
1407:^
1391:^
1362:^
1323:^
1298:^
1276:^
1235:^
1214:^
1181:^
1130:^
1088:.
1060:^
1042:^
1018:^
997:^
966:^
950:.
924:^
908:^
709:,
705:,
671:.
663:,
430:.
203:,
162:.
154:,
71:.
2112:"
2108:"
1987:e
1980:t
1973:v
1357:.
1353::
1098:.
960:.
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