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431:. Embryogenesis has also been studied, and the stages of development are easily identifiable with a phase contrast microscope following preparation of an egg mass squash. The egg is formed as one cell, with two-cell, four-cell and eight-cell stages recognisable. Further cell division leads to the tadpole stage, with further elongation resulting in the first stage juvenile, which is roughly four times as long as the egg. The J1 stage of
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After further feeding, the J2s undergo morphological changes and become saccate. Without further feeding, they moult three times and eventually become adults. In females, which are close to spherical, feeding resumes and the reproductive system develops. The life span of an adult female may extend to
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to form feeding cells, generally known as giant cells, from which the J2 and later the adults feed. Concomitant with giant cell formation, the surrounding root tissue gives rise to a gall in which the developing juvenile is embedded. Juveniles first feed from the giant cells about 24 hours after
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is variable depending on cultivar planted, and can range from negligible to serious. Early-season infection leads to worse damage. In most crops, nematode damage reduces plant health and growth; in cassava, though, nematode damage sometimes leads to increased aerial growth as the plants try to
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Root-knot nematode females lay eggs into a gelatinous matrix produced by six rectal glands and secreted before and during egg laying. The matrix initially forms a canal through the outer layers of root tissue and later surrounds the eggs, providing a barrier to water loss by maintaining a high
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The length of the life cycle is temperature-dependent. The relationship between rate of development and temperature is linear over much of the root-knot nematode life cycle, though it is possible the component stages of the life cycle, e.g. egg development, host
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occurs in 23 of 43 crops listed as having plant-parasitic nematodes of major importance, ranging from field crops, through pasture and grasses, to horticultural, ornamental and vegetable crops. If root-knot nematodes become established in deep-rooted,
216:
spp.) are one of the three most economically damaging genera of plant-parasitic nematodes on horticultural and field crops. Root-knot nematodes are distributed worldwide, and are obligate parasites of the roots of thousands of plant species, including
659:
Moens, Maurice, Roland N Perry, and James L Starr. 2009. "Meloidogyne
Species: a Diverse Group of Novel and Important Plant Parasites." In Root-knot Nematodes, ed. Roland N Perry, Maurice Moens, and James L Starr, 1–17. Wallingford, UK: CABI
283:, other diseases). A high level of damage can lead to total crop loss. Nematode-damaged roots do not use water and fertilisers as effectively, leading to additional losses for the grower. In cassava, it has been suggested that levels of
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Hussey, R. S. & Grundler, F. M. W. 1998 Nematode parasitism of plants. In: The
Physiology and Biochemistry of free-living and plant-parasitic nematodes. Perry, R. N. & Wright, D. J. (Eds), CABI Publishing, UK. pp 213 –
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spp. that are sufficient to cause injury rarely occur naturally. However, with changing farming systems, in a disease complex or weakened by other factors, nematode damage is likely to be associated with other problems.
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of the host to trigger hatching. Root-knot nematodes are generally unaffected by the presence of a host, but hatch freely at the appropriate temperature when water is available. However, in an egg mass or
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three months, and many hundreds of eggs can be produced. Females can continue egg laying after harvest of aerial parts of the plant and the survival stage between crops is generally within the egg.
783:
Theberge, R. L. (eds). 1985. Common
African Pests and Diseases of cassava, Yam, Sweet Potato and Cocoyam. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). Ibadan, Nigeria 107 p.
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of the host plants. They may reinvade the host plants of their parent or migrate through the soil to find a new host root. J2 larvae do not feed during the free-living stage, but use
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compensate. This possibly enables the plant to maintain a reasonable level of production. Therefore, aerial correlations to nematode density can be positive, negative or not at all.
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moisture level around the eggs. As the gelatinous matrix ages, it becomes tanned, turning from a sticky, colourless jelly to an orange-brown substance which appears layered.
439:
likely has a similar number, since all nematodes are morphologically and anatomically similar. The egg shell has three layers, with the vitelline layer outermost, then a
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Norton, D. C. & Niblack, T. L. 1991 Biology and ecology of nematodes. In: Manual of
Agricultural Nematology, Nickle, W. R. (Ed), Marcel Dekker, New York. pp 47–68.
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in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5% of global
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that drain the plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal, while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield.
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Stirling, G. R.; Stanton, J. M.; Marshall, J. W. (1992). "The importance of plant-parasitic nematodes to
Australian and New Zealand agriculture".
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Trudgill, D. L. 1995 An assessment of the relevance of thermal time relationships to nematology. Fundamental and
Applied Nematology, 18, 407–417.
279:. Root-knot nematode damage results in poor growth, a decline in quality and yield of the crop and reduced resistance to other stresses (e.g.
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Dama, L.B.; Poul, B.N.; Jadhav, B.V.; Hafeez, M.D. (1999). "Effect of Herbal "Juglone" on
Development of the plant parasitic nematode (
472:, not all eggs will hatch when the conditions are optimal for their particular species, leaving some eggs to hatch at a later date.
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crops grown in warm climates can experience severe losses from root-knot nematodes, and are often routinely treated with a chemical
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roots are initially small and transparent, enabling every detail to be seen. Invasion and migration in the root was studied using
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Sijmons, P. C.; Atkinson, H. J.; Wyss, U. (1994). "Parasitic strategies of root nematodes and associated host cell responses".
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Charles, Lauren; Carbone, Ignazio; Davies, Keith G.; Bird, David; Burke, Mark; Kerry, Brian R.; Opperman, Charles H. (2005).
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An excellent model system for the study of the parasitic behaviour of plant-parasitic nematodes has been developed using
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225:, herbaceous and woody plants. The genus includes more than 90 species, with some species having several races. Four
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species and races. In: Manual of
Agricultural Nematology, W. R. Nickle. (Ed). Marcel Dekker, New York. pp 281–286.
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Neal, J. C. 1889. The root-knot disease of the peach, orange and other plants in
Florida due to the work of
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having occurred within the egg. Newly hatched juveniles have a short free-living stage in the soil, in the
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Bird, A. F.; Wallace, H.R. (1965). "The
Influence of Temperature On Meloidogyne Hapla and M. Javanica".
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McClure, M. A.; Bird, A. F. (1976). "The tylenchid (Nematoda) egg shell: formation of the egg shell in
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has been studied in detail, and is similar to egg formation in the well studied, free-living nematode
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Wyss, U., Grundler, F.M.W. & Munch, A. 1992 The parasitic behaviour of second stage juveniles of
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650:. Edited by: Sasser JN, Carter CC. Raleigh: North Carolina State University Graphics; 1985:19–24.
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406:, development occurs between 13 and 34 °C, with optimal development at about 29 °C.
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Sijmons, P. C.; Grundler, F. M. W.; von Mende, N.; Burrows, P. R.; Wyss, U. (1991). "
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have been shown to inhibit hatching and to reduce the plant-penetration ability of
247:) are major pests worldwide, with another seven being important on a local basis.
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Root-knot nematodes exhibit a range of reproductive modes, including sexuality (
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Maggenti, A. R. & Allen, M. W. 1960 The origin of the gelatinous matrix in
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Wallace, H. R. 1968 The influence of soil moisture on survival and hatch of
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Jatala, P., bridge, J. 1990. Nematode parasites of root and tuber crops. In
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371:. Briefly, second stage juveniles invade in the root elongation region and
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1112:"Effect of ammonium ions on egg hatching and second-stage juveniles of
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Eisenback, J. D. & Triantaphyllou, H. H. 1991 Root-knot Nematodes:
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1010:. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 27, 4–10.
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1091:, W. B. Wood (Ed), Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory, New York. pp 1–16.
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in the root until they became sedentary. Signals from the J2 promote
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or growth, have slightly different optima. Species within the genus
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Bird, A. F. 1958 The adult female cuticle and egg sac of the genus
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Madulu, J. & Trudgill, D. L. 1994 Influence of temperature on
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Plant parasitic nematodes in sub-tropical and tropical agriculture
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Makumbi-kidza, N. N., Speijer and Sikora R. A. 2000. Effects of
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Wood, W. B. 1988 Introduction to C.elegans. In::The Nematode
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Root-knot nematodes can be controlled with biocontrol agents
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Gapasin, R.M. 1980. Reaction of golden yellow cassava to
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spp. Inoculation. Annals of Tropical Research 2:49–53.
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Journal of Ecotoxicology and Environmental Monitoring
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as vermiform, second-stage juveniles (J2), the first
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crops, control is difficult and options are limited.
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as a new model host for plant-parasitic nematodes".
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Sasser JN, Carter CC: Overview of the International
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752:on growth and storage-root formation of cassava (
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646:Project 1975–1984. In An Advanced Treatise on
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336:stages (J1–J4) and an adult stage. Juvenile
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400:also have different temperature optima. In
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451:Preceded by induced changes in eggshell
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1110:Surdiman; Webster, J. M. (1995).
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49:Larva of root-knot nematode,
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961:. Nematologica, 40, 230–243.
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690:Australasian Plant Pathology
262:spp. were first reported in
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568:Meloidogyne enterolobii
461:Globodera rostochiensis
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561:Meloidogyne coffeicola
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905:Meloidogyne incognita
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617:Meloidogyne partityla
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1021:Meloidogyne javanica
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1181:
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1052:Parasitology
1051:
1047:
1041:
1033:
1028:
1020:
1015:
1007:
1002:
985:
982:Nematologica
981:
975:
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958:
953:
936:
932:
926:
916:
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907:in roots of
904:
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573:
566:
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545:
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531:
528:Santos, 1968
523:
516:
490:
487:Reproduction
481:M. incognita
480:
460:
453:permeability
450:
447:Egg hatching
436:
432:
428:
424:
422:
413:
401:
397:
390:
386:
369:M. incognita
368:
364:
360:
358:
338:Meloidogynes
337:
332:stage, four
327:
311:
305:
303:
284:
259:
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240:M. incognita
230:
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180:
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139:
50:
29:
1402:meloidogyne
1325:iNaturalist
1239:Meloidogyne
1226:Meloidogyne
1212:Meloidogyne
1206:Wikispecies
1182:Meloidogyne
1034:Meloidogyne
1008:Meloidogyne
939:: 235–259.
848:Meloidogyne
771:Meloidogyne
676:Meloidogyne
660:Publishing.
648:Meloidogyne
644:Meloidogyne
437:M. javanica
425:M. javanica
403:M. javanica
398:Meloidogyne
365:Arabidopsis
350:rhizosphere
285:Meloidogyne
260:Meloidogyne
249:Meloidogyne
236:M. arenaria
232:M. javanica
227:Meloidogyne
214:Meloidogyne
181:Meloidogyne
141:Meloidogyne
110:Secernentea
18:Meloidogyne
1438:Tylenchida
1432:Categories
1158:APS Review
724:Anguillula
631:References
493:amphimixis
459:, such as
433:C. elegans
377:parenchyma
324:Life cycle
277:nematicide
171:are plant-
120:Tylenchida
1058:: 29–39.
850:spp.) on
501:automixis
441:chitinous
330:embryonic
273:Vegetable
254:perennial
229:species (
190:crop loss
176:nematodes
173:parasitic
161:See text
86:Kingdom:
80:Eukaryota
1197:Q2215256
1191:Wikidata
1142:19277298
1072:84455043
862:: 73–76.
833:16077116
710:30012090
505:apomixis
474:Ammonium
465:exudates
334:juvenile
244:M. hapla
155:Species
126:Family:
100:Nematoda
96:Phylum:
90:Animalia
76:Domain:
1415:1294055
1343:1209227
1317:9705419
1133:2619617
824:1196054
511:Species
373:migrate
318:Juglone
300:Control
281:drought
268:cassava
264:cassava
136:Genus:
116:Order:
106:Class:
1389:NZOR:
1382:189290
1330:460866
1291:225045
1278:1MELGG
1252:173075
1140:
1130:
1070:
831:
821:
708:
354:lipids
242:, and
194:larvae
149:, 1892
55:tomato
1410:WoRMS
1399:PPE:
1356:63578
1338:IRMNG
1265:58928
1068:S2CID
706:S2CID
346:moult
202:galls
198:roots
147:Göldi
57:root
1377:NCBI
1351:ITIS
1312:GBIF
1273:EPPO
1247:BOLD
1138:PMID
921:243.
829:PMID
477:ions
470:cyst
342:eggs
316:and
221:and
186:soil
1364:NBN
1260:EoL
1234:AFD
1221:ADW
1128:PMC
1060:doi
1050:".
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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