545:(1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servants and requiring police permission for all meetings. Within the ruling circle, however, and despite the conservative approach of the leadership, Åkuma continued as a lone advocate of British-style government, a government with political parties and a cabinet organized by the majority party, answerable to the national assembly. He called for elections to be held by 1882 and for a national assembly to be convened by 1883; in doing so, he precipitated a political crisis that ended with an 1881 imperial rescript declaring the establishment of a national assembly in 1890 and his dismissal from government.
787:(Constitutional Association of Political Friendship) âin September 1900, and a month later ItÅ became prime minister of the first SeiyÅ«kai cabinet. The SeiyÅ«kai held the majority of seats in the House, but Yamagata's conservative allies had the greatest influence in the House of Peers, forcing ItÅ to seek imperial intervention. Tiring of political infighting, ItÅ resigned in 1901. Thereafter, the prime ministership alternated between Yamagata's protégé,
888:
345:
that by the end of 1871, Japan had become a fully centralized state. The transition was made gradually, so that there was no disruption to the lives of the common people, and no outbreaks of resistance or violence. The central government absorbed all of the debts and obligations of the domains, and many former officials in the domains found new employment with the central government.
506:(Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government political restrictions. The restrictions hindered the political parties and led to divisiveness within and among them. The JiyÅ«tÅ, which had opposed the KaishintÅ, was disbanded in 1884, and Åkuma resigned as KaishintÅ president.
738:, there followed five years of unity, unusual cooperation, and coalition cabinets. From 1900 to 1912, the Diet and the cabinet cooperated even more directly, with political parties playing larger roles. Throughout the entire period, the old Meiji oligarchy retained ultimate control but steadily yielded power to the opposition parties. The two major figures of the period were
244:). Local government in Japan consisted of area confiscated from the Tokugawa, administered from the Department of Civil Affairs, and 273 semi-independent domains. Agents from the central government were sent to each of the domains to work towards administrative uniformity and conformation to the directives of the central government.
660:. The House of Representatives was popularly elected with a very limited franchise of male citizens who paid 15 yen in national taxes (about 1 percent of the population) being eligible candidates. The House of Peers was composed of nobility and imperial appointees. There was also the provision for the creation of a
762:(Real Constitutional Party) led by Åkuma, and the cabinet ended after only four months. Yamagata then returned as prime minister with the backing of the military and the bureaucracy. Despite broad support of his views on limiting constitutional government, Yamagata formed an alliance with KenseitÅ. Reforms of
348:
In 1871, the central government supported the creation of consultative assembles at the lowest levels of government, at the town, village and county level. The membership of the prefectural assemblies was drawn from these local assemblies. As the local assemblies only had the power of debate, and not
668:
Nevertheless, in spite of these institutional changes, sovereignty still resided in the
Emperor on the basis of his divine ancestry. The new constitution specified a form of government that was still authoritarian in character, with the Emperor holding the ultimate power and only minimal concessions
520:
Government leaders, long preoccupied with violent threats to stability and the serious leadership split over the Korean affair, generally agreed that constitutional government should someday be established. Kido
Takayoshi had favored a constitutional form of government since before 1874, and several
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were generously pensioned off into retirement, and their castles became the local administrative centers for the central government. This decree resulted in 305 units of local administration, which were reduced to 72 prefectures and 3 municipalities by the end of the year through various mergers, so
828:
The beginning of the TaishÅ era was marked by a political crisis that interrupted the earlier politics of compromise. When Prime
Minister Saionji attempted to cut the military budget, the army minister resigned, bringing down the Seiyūkai cabinet. Both Yamagata and Saionji refused to resume office,
770:
won Diet support for
Yamagata's budgets and tax increases. He continued to use imperial ordinances, however, to keep the parties from fully participating in the bureaucracy and to strengthen the already independent position of the military. When Yamagata failed to offer more compromises to the
102:
had no clear agenda or pre-developed plan on how to run Japan. They did have a number of things in common; according to Andrew Gordon, âIt was precisely their intermediate status and their insecure salaried position, coupled with their sense of frustrated ambition and entitlement to rule, that
705:
over large issues, such as the budget, the ambiguity of the constitution on the Diet's authority, and the desire of the Diet to interpret the "will of the
Emperor" versus the oligarchy's position that the cabinet and administration should "transcend" all conflicting political forces. The main
422:
of perhaps 20 individuals (from
Satsuma, ChÅshÅ«, Tosa, Hizen, and the Imperial Court). The Home Ministry, which appointed all prefectural governors and controlled police apparatus, was the most powerful, and Åkubo left the Ministry of Finance to head the Home Ministry when it was established.
720:, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically. Throughout the period, however, political problems were usually solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever larger role in the political process as a result.
529:
tasked with reviewing proposals for a constitution. The emperor declared that "constitutional government shall be established in gradual stages" as he ordered the GenrÅin to draft a constitution. In 1880, delegates from twenty-four prefectures held a national convention to establish the
626:
and was to become the first constitutional Prime
Minister. The Supreme War Council developed a German-style general staff system with a chief of staff who had direct access to the emperor and who could operate independently of the army minister and civilian officials.
664:
composed of ministers of State directly responsible to the
Emperor and independent of the legislature. Functionally, the Diet was able to approve government legislation and initiate laws, make representations to the government, and submit petitions to the Emperor.
441:
One of the pressures on the early Meiji government was the division between those members of the oligarchy who favored some form of representative government, based on overseas models, and the more conservative faction who favored centralized, authoritarian rule.
357:
In August 1869, during abolition of feudal domains and redrawing of local administrative boundaries, the central government itself was restructured to reinforce centralized authority. The idea of division of powers was abandoned. The new government was based on a
742:, whose long tenure (1868â1922) as a military and civil leader, including two terms as prime minister, was characterized by his intimidation of rivals and resistance to democratic procedures, and ItÅ Hirobumi, who was a compromiser and, although overruled by the
590:
peerage system with new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred persons from the old court nobility, former daimyÅ, samurai and commoners who had provided valuable service to the government were organized in five ranks: prince, marquis, count, viscount, and baron.
473:
in 1874 criticizing the unbridled power of the oligarchy and calling for the immediate establishment of representative government. Dissatisfied with the pace of reform after having rejoined the
Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other
746:, wanted to establish a government party to control the House during his first term. When ItÅ returned as prime minister in 1898, he again pushed for a government party, but when Yamagata and others refused, ItÅ resigned. With no willing successor among the
709:
In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji
Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and ChÅshÅ« elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extraconstitutional body of
700:
The JiyūtŠand KaishintŠparties had been revived in anticipation of the election and together won more than half of the seats. The House of Representatives soon became the arena for disputes between the politicians and the government
821:). The end of the Meiji era was marked by huge government domestic and overseas investments and military programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign exchange to pay debts. But, the "Meiji regime" lasted until the
669:
made to popular rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of the political process. The Meiji Constitution was to last as the fundamental law until 1947, when it was supplanted by Japan's
697:, a qualification to be lowered in 1900 and 1919 with universal male suffrage passed after much debate in 1925. Women never obtained the franchise until after World War II when a new constitution was introduced.
184:(both of whom had studied abroad and who had a liberal political outlook), and was a mixture of western concepts such as division of powers, and a revival of ancient structures of bureaucracy dating back to
129:. As a result, they knew of the military superiority of the western nations and of the need for Japan to unify, and to strengthen itself to avoid the colonial fate of its neighbors on the Asian continent.
537:
Although the government was not opposed to parliamentary rule, confronted with the drive for "people's rights," it continued to try to control the political situation. New laws in 1875 prohibited
125:-based educational background which stressed loyalty and service to society. Finally, most either had first-hand experience in travel overseas, or second-hand experience through contacts with
521:
proposals that provided for constitutional guarantees had been drafted. The oligarchy, however, while acknowledging the realities of political pressure, was determined to keep control. The
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and Saionji. The alternating of political power was an indication of the two sides' ability to cooperate and share power and helped foster the continued development of party politics.
568:
as "too liberal" and the British system as too unwieldy and having a parliament with too much control over the monarchy; the French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward
835:
were unable to find a solution. Public outrage over the military manipulation of the cabinet and the recall of Katsura for a third term led to still more demands for an end to
641:
When finally granted by the Emperor as a sign of his sharing his authority and giving rights and liberties to his subjects, the 1889 Constitution of the Empire of Japan (the
754:(Constitutional Party) was invited to form a cabinet under the leadership of Åkuma and Itagaki, a major achievement in the opposition parties' competition with the
309:
were forced to do the same, and all were reappointed as âgovernorsâ to their respective domains, which were now treated as sub-divisions of the central government.
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account for the revolutionary energy of the Meiji insurgents and their far-reaching program of reformâ. most were in their mid-40s, and most were from the four
407:
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were summoned to the Emperor, and he issued a decree converting the domains to prefectures headed by a bureaucratic appointee from the central government. The
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was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution and to advise the emperor. To further strengthen the authority of the state, the
594:
ItÅ was put in charge of the new Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems in 1884, and the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a
470:
482:(Society of Patriots) to push for representative government in 1878. In 1881, in an action for which he is best known, Itagaki helped found the
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of Satsuma felt strong enough to effect further centralization. After merging the armies of Satsuma and ChÅshÅ« into a combined force, Åkubo and
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legislation, they provided an important safety valve, without the ability to challenge the authority of the central government.
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leverage the Diet had was in its approval or disapproval of the budget, and it successfully wielded its authority henceforth.
734:
After the bitter political rivalries between the inception of the Diet in 1890 and 1894, when the nation was unified for the
610:, which had existed since the seventh century as advisory positions to the emperor, were all abolished. In their place, the
229:
A separate Justice Ministry was established to create a form of separation of powers in imitation of the western countries.
176:
was promulgated to establish the new administrative basis for the Meiji government. This administrative code was drafted by
377:
560:, one of the Meiji oligarchy and a ChÅshÅ« native long involved in government affairs, was charged with drafting Japan's
457:
in 1873. Itagaki sought peaceful rather than rebellious means to gain a voice in government. Such movements were called
653:
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Legislative (divided into an Upper Assembly of appointed bureaucrats, and a Lower Assembly of domain representatives)
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17:
843:(Constitutional Association of Allies), a party that won a majority in the House over the Seiyūkai in late 1914.
564:. He led a Constitutional Study Mission abroad in 1882, spending most of his time in Germany. He rejected the
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502:. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the
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in 1867, with no official centralized government, the country was a collection of largely semi-independent
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politics. Despite old guard opposition, the conservative forces formed a party of their own in 1913, the
758:. This success was short-lived: the KenseitÅ split into two parties, the KenseitÅ led by Itagaki and the
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families, they had risen to military leadership roles in their respective domains, and came from a
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and Iwakura held a secret meeting during which it was decided to proceed with abolition of the
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716:(elder statesmen). Collectively, the genrÅ made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the
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resulted in the reorganization of government with an independent judiciary and an appointed
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In 1911, Japan ended all unequal treaties. The Meiji period ended with the death of the
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still uncertain, the new Meiji government summoned delegates from all of the domains to
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KenseitÅ, the alliance ended in 1900, beginning a new phase of political development.
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Griffin, Edward G.; "The Universal Suffrage Issue in Japanese Politics, 1918â25";
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On ItÅ's return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish the
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set out the broad general outlines for Japan's development and modernization.
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to establish a provisional consultative national assembly. In April 1868, the
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controlling feudal domains, held together by the military strength of the
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a ChÅshÅ« native who has been credited with the founding of the modern
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498:(Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British-style
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forces who had resigned from his Council of State position over the
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in the 1860s. The Meiji government was the early government of the
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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criticism of the government or discussion of national laws. The
236:, dividing territory into urban prefectures or municipalities (
766:, an expansion of the House to 369 members, and provisions for
587:
817:(1912â1926) as Crown Prince Yoshihito became the new emperor (
862:
A modern history of Japan: from Tokugawa times to the present
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Decision-making in the government was restricted to a closed
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256:
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114:
689:. Voting was restricted to males over twenty-five who paid
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362:(which met only once), an appointive Council of Advisors (
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In early 1869, the national capital was transferred from
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was the government that was formed by politicians of the
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finally succeeded in forming a progovernment partyâthe
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was held in 1890, and 300 members were elected to the
72:
Politicians of the Meiji government were known as the
490:), which favored French political doctrines. In 1882
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445:A major proponent of representative government was
29:
Historical government during Japan's centralization
552:and other conservatives borrowed heavily from the
336:domains entirely. Later that year, all of the ex-
305:to surrender their domains to the emperor. Other
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461:. He started a movement aimed at establishing a
534:(League for Establishing a National Assembly).
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132:However, immediately after the resignation of
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878:, Vol. 31, No. 2 (February 1972), pp. 275â290
774:
277:In March 1869, the central government led by
153:In early March 1868, with the outcome of the
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109:domains of western Japan (ChÅshÅ«, Satsuma,
630:
618:was established under the leadership of
459:The Freedom and People's Rights Movement
353:Reorganization of the central government
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188:. A central governmental structure, or
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864:. Oxford University Press. p. 62.
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427:Events leading to Okuma's resignation
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510:Establishment of a national assembly
437:Freedom and People's Rights Movement
312:In the spring of 1871, Åkubo, Kido,
172:Two months later, in June 1868, the
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25:
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930:Government of the Empire of Japan
813:in 1912 and the beginning of the
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576:Strengthening of state authority
602:. The positions of chancellor,
478:proponents into the nationwide
469:. Itagaki and others wrote the
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853:
117:). Although from lower-ranked
13:
1:
846:
677:Elections and political power
548:Rejecting the British model,
146:, and by the prestige of the
876:The Journal of Asian Studies
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269:Abolition of the han system
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10:
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775:ItÅ becomes Prime Minister
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566:United States Constitution
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232:The government instigated
165:was promulgated, in which
904:Federal Research Division
366:), and eight Ministries:
240:) and rural prefectures (
127:foreign advisors in Japan
45:
736:war effort against China
654:House of Representatives
523:Osaka Conference of 1875
500:constitutional democracy
263:Abolition of the domains
860:Gordon, Andrew (2014).
823:end of the World War II
556:constitutional system.
463:constitutional monarchy
449:, a powerful leader of
203:had seven departments:
148:Imperial Court in Kyoto
631:The Meiji Constitution
624:Imperial Japanese Army
779:ItŠand his protégé,
693:of minimally fifteen
608:minister of the right
92:, the leaders of the
795:End of the Meiji era
671:current constitution
604:minister of the left
255:, which was renamed
76:, who overthrew the
724:Political struggles
645:) provided for the
616:Supreme War Council
543:Public Assembly Law
259:(Eastern Capital).
194:, was established.
643:Meiji Constitution
637:Meiji constitution
582:Meiji Constitution
532:Kokkai Kisei DÅmei
516:Meiji Constitution
398:Imperial Household
234:Fuhanken Sanchisei
134:Tokugawa Yoshinobu
100:Tokugawa shogunate
98:who overthrew the
84:Early developments
78:Tokugawa shogunate
683:national election
598:headed by ItÅ as
527:Council of Elders
467:national assembly
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273:Meiji Restoration
178:Fukuoka Takachika
90:Meiji Restoration
16:(Redirected from
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52:Meiji seifu
919:Categories
847:References
815:TaishÅ era
805:TaishÅ era
691:income tax
681:The first
476:democratic
374:from 1873)
326:Åyama Iwao
155:Boshin War
88:After the
825:in 1945.
801:Meiji era
570:despotism
480:Aikokusha
420:oligarchy
413:Education
210:Executive
174:Seitaisho
123:Confucian
829:and the
752:KenseitÅ
554:Prussian
219:Military
200:DaijÅkan
191:DaijÅkan
662:Cabinet
596:cabinet
403:Justice
383:Finance
291:Satsuma
216:Finance
139:daimyÅs
119:samurai
95:samurai
895:.
750:, the
656:and a
606:, and
588:kazoku
484:JiyÅ«tÅ
465:and a
342:daimyÅ
338:daimyÅ
307:daimyÅ
295:ChÅshÅ«
287:daimyÅ
213:Shinto
106:tozama
910:Japan
837:genrÅ
832:genrÅ
756:genrÅ
748:genrÅ
744:genrÅ
718:genrÅ
713:genrÅ
539:press
364:Sangi
299:Hizen
257:Tokyo
249:Kyoto
159:Kyoto
115:Hizen
40:Japan
38:Meiji
803:and
451:Tosa
435:and
393:Navy
388:Army
303:Tosa
301:and
271:and
197:The
180:and
113:and
111:Tosa
61:and
46:ææ²»æ¿åº
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