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stock performance, a measure that can be an indication of future firm growth or technological direction, has substantially increased for both predominantly medical device and biotechnology producers. Contributing factors to this growth are thought to be less rigorous FDA approval requirements for devices as opposed to drugs, lower cost of trials, lower pricing and profitability of products and predictable influence of new technology due to a limited number of competitors. Another visible shift during the era was a shift in focus to late stage research trials; formerly dispersed, since 1994 an increasingly large portion of industry-sponsored research was late phase trials rather than early-experimental phases now accounting for the majority of industry sponsored research. This shift is attributable to a lower risk investment and a shorter development to market schedule. The low risk preference is also reflected in the trend of large pharmaceutical firms acquiring smaller companies that hold patents to newly developed drug or device discoveries which have not yet passed federal regulation (large companies are mitigating their risk by purchasing technology created by smaller companies in early-phase high-risk studies). Medical research support from universities increased from $ 22 billion in 2003 to $ 27.7 billion in 2007, a 7.8% increase (adjusted for inflation). In 2007 the most heavily funded institutions received 20% of HIN medical research funding, and the top 50 institutions received 58% of NIH medical research funding, the percent of funding allocated to the largest institutions is a trend which has increased only slightly over data from 1994. Relative to federal and private funding, health policy and service research accounted for a nominal amount of sponsored research; health policy and service research was funded $ 1.8 billion in 2003, which increased to $ 2.2 billion in 2008.
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informing the public of negative effects to better promote their product. A list of studies shows that public fear of the conflicts of interest that exist when biomedical research is funded by industry can be considered valid after a 2003 publication of "Scope and Impact of
Financial Conflicts of Interest in Biomedical Research" in The Journal of American Association of Medicine. This publication included 37 different studies that met specific criteria to determine whether or not an academic institution or scientific investigator funded by industry had engaged in behavior that could be deduced to be a conflict of interest in the field of biomedical research. Survey results from one study concluded that 43% of scientific investigators employed by a participating academic institution had received research related gifts and discretionary funds from industry sponsors. Another participating institution surveyed showed that 7.6% of investigators were financially tied to research sponsors, including paid speaking engagements (34%), consulting arrangements (33%), advisory board positions (32%) and equity (14%). A 1994 study concluded that 58% out of 210 life science companies indicated that investigators were required to withhold information pertaining to their research as to extend the life of the interested companies' patents. Rules and regulations regarding conflict of interest disclosures are being studied by experts in the biomedical research field to eliminate conflicts of interest that could possibly affect the outcomes of biomedical research.
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opposition from industry due to the requirement of lengthier clinical trial periods that would lessen the period of time in which the investor is able to see return on their money. In the pharmaceutical industry patents are typically granted for a 20-year period of time, and most patent applications are submitted during the early stages of the product development. According to Ariel Katz on average after a patent application is submitted it takes an additional 8 years before the FDA approves a drug for marketing. As such this would leave a company with only 12 years to market the drug to see a return on their investments. After a sharp decline of new drugs entering the US market following the 1962 Kefauver-Harris amendments economist Sam
Petlzman concluded that cost of loss of innovation was greater than the savings recognized by consumers no longer purchasing ineffective drugs. In 1984 the Hatch-Waxman Act or the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 was passed by congress. The Hatch-Waxman Act was passed with the idea that giving brand manufacturers the ability to extend their patent by an additional 5 years would create greater incentives for innovation and private sector funding for investment.
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Transparency Act mandates that all entities receiving over $ 25,000 in federal funds must report annual spending reports, including disclosure of executive salaries. The 2010 amendment to the act mandates that progress reports be submitted along with financial reporting. Data from the federal mandate is managed and made publicly available on usaspending.gov. Aside from the main source, usaspending.gov, other reporting mechanisms exist: Data specifically on biomedical research funding from federal sources is made publicly available by the
National Health Expenditure Accounts (NHEA), data on health services research, approximately 0.1% of federal funding on biomedical research, is available through the Coalition of Health Services Research, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, and the Veterans Health Administration.
369:(PPI). Public involvement involves a working partnership between patients, caregivers, people with lived experience, and researchers to shape and influence what is researcher and how. PPI can improve the quality of research and make it more relevant and accessible. People with current or past experience of illness can provide a different perspective than professionals and complement their knowledge. Through their personal knowledge they can identify research topics that are relevant and important to those living with an illness or using a service. They can also help to make the research more grounded in the needs of the specific communities they are part of. Public contributors can also ensure that the research is presented in
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accomplished its prerogative: the youths who ate only beans and water were noticeably healthier. Scientific curiosity to understand health outcomes from varying treatments has been present for centuries, but it was not until the mid-19th century when an organizational platform was created to support and regulate this curiosity. In 1945, Vannevar Bush said that biomedical scientific research was "the pacemaker of technological progress", an idea which contributed to the initiative to found the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1948, a historical benchmark that marked the beginning of a near century substantial investment in biomedical research.
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investment has been made in research ethics and standards, yet trial results remain inconsistent. Federal agencies have called upon greater regulation to address these problems; a spokesman from the
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, an agency of the NIH, stated that there is "widespread poor reporting of experimental design in articles and grant applications, that animal research should follow a core set of research parameters, and that a concerted effort by all stakeholders is needed to disseminate best reporting practices and put them into practice".
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Other consequences of today's highly pressured environment for research appear to be a substantial number of research publications whose results cannot be replicated, and perverse incentives in research funding that encourage grantee institutions to grow without making sufficient investments in their own faculty and facilities. Other risky trends include a decline in the share of key research grants going to younger scientists, as well as a steady rise in the age at which investigators receive their first funding.
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state and federal funding spending combined accounted for an increase in funding from $ 75.5 billion in 2003 to $ 101.1 billion in 2007. Due to the immediacy of federal financing priorities and stagnant corporate spending during the recession, biomedical research spending decreased 2% in real terms in 2008. Despite an overall increase of investment in biomedical research, there has been stagnation, and in some areas a marked decline in the number of drug and device approvals over the same time period.
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as the polio vaccine, antibiotics and antipsychotic agents, developed in the early years of the NIH lead to social and political support of the agency. Political initiatives in the early 1990s lead to a doubling of NIH funding, spurring an era of great scientific progress. There have been dramatic changes in the era since the turn of the 21st century to date; roughly around the start of the century, the cost of trials dramatically increased while the rate of scientific discoveries did not keep pace.
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of government financial support levels through the era (the 0.7% four-year increase). Spending from industry-initiated research increased 25% (adjusted for inflation) over the same time period of time, from 2003 to 2007, an increase from $ 40 billion in 2003, to $ 58.6 billion in 2007. Industry sourced expenditures from 1994 to 2003 showed industry sponsored research funding increased 8.1%, a stark contrast to 25% increase in recent years.
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increased from $ 8.877 billion to $ 9.366 billion, years which represented the start of what is considered the "doubling period" of rapid NIH support. The second notable period started in 1997 and ended in 2010, a period where the NIH moved to organize research spending for engagement with the scientific community.
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A significant flaw in biomedical research is the toxic culture that particularly impacts medical students and early career researchers. They face challenges such as bullying, harassment, and unethical authorship practices. Intense competition for funding and publication pressures fosters a climate of
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Biomedical research spending increased substantially faster than GDP growth over the past decade in the US, between the years of 2003 and 2007 spending increased 14% per year, while GDP growth increased 1% over the same period (both measures adjusted for inflation). Industry, not-for-profit entities,
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The NIH provides more financial support for medical research than any other agency in the world to date and claims responsibility for numerous innovations that have improved global health. The historical funding of biomedical research has undergone many changes over the past century. Innovations such
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made it so that before a drug was marketed in the United States the FDA must first approve that the drug was safe. The
Kefauver-Harris amendments also mandated that more stringent clinical trials must be performed before a drug is brought to the market. The Kefauver-Harris amendments were met with
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Stagnant rates of investment from the US government over the past decade may be in part attributable to challenges that plague the field. To date, only two-thirds of published drug trial findings have results that can be re-produced, which raises concerns from a US regulatory standpoint where great
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Of industry sponsored research, pharmaceutical firm spending was the greatest contributor from all industry sponsored biomedical research spending, but only increased 15% (adjusted for inflation) from 2003 to 2007, while device and biotechnology firms accounted for the majority of the spending. The
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The NIH manages the majority, over 85%, of federal biomedical research expenditures. NIH support for biomedical research decreased from $ 31.8 billion in 2003, to $ 29.0 billion in 2007, a 25% decline (in real terms adjusted for inflation), while non-NIH federal funding allowed for the maintenance
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Currently, there are not any funding reporting requirements for industry sponsored research, but there has been voluntary movement toward this goal. In 2014, major pharmaceutical stakeholders such as Roche and
Johnson and Johnson have made financial information publicly available and Pharmaceutical
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Since 1980 the share of biomedical research funding from industry sources has grown from 32% to 62%, which has resulted in the development of numerous life-saving medical advances. The relationship between industry and government-funded research in the US has seen great movement over the years. The
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A major flaw and vulnerability in biomedical research appears to be the hypercompetition for the resources and positions that are required to conduct science. The competition seems to suppress the creativity, cooperation, risk-taking, and original thinking required to make fundamental discoveries.
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As of 2010, industry sponsored research accounts for 58% of expenditures, NIH for 27% of expenditures, state governments for 5% of expenditures, non NIH-federal sources for 5% of expenditures and not-for-profit entities accounted for 4% of support. Federally funded biomedical research expenditures
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Two laws which are both still in effect, one passed in 2006 and the other in 2010, were instrumental in defining funding reporting standards for biomedical research, and defining for the first time reporting regulations that were previously not required. The 2006 Federal
Funding Accountability and
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The
National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the agency that is responsible for management of the lion's share of federal funding of biomedical research. It funds over 280 areas directly related to health. Over the past century there were two notable periods of NIH support. From 1995 to 1996 funding
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in many countries derives from research bodies and private organizations which distribute money for equipment, salaries, and research expenses. United States, Europe, Asia, Canada, and
Australia combined spent $ 265.0 billion in 2011, which reflected growth of 3.5% annually from $ 208.8 billion in
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Since the establishment of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the mid-1940s, the main source of U.S. federal support of biomedical research, investment priorities and levels of funding have fluctuated. From 1995 to 2010, NIH support of biomedical research increased from 11 billion to 27
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ordered youths of royal blood to eat only red meat and wine for three years, while another group of youths ate only beans and water. The experiment was intended to determine if a diet of vegetables and water was healthier than a diet of wine and red meat. At the experiment endpoint, the trial
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The relationship that exists with industry funded biomedical research is that of which industry is the financier for academic institutions which in turn employ scientific investigators to conduct research. A fear that exists wherein a project is funded by industry is that firms might negate
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the technology. Both government and industry research funding increased rapidly from between the years of 1994–2003; industry saw a compound average annual growth rate of 8.1% a year and slowed only slightly to a compound average annual growth rate of 5.8% from 2003 to 2008.
651:" in the field of medical research has been defined as "a set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning a primary interest (such as a person's welfare or the validity of research) tends to be unduly influenced by a secondary interest (such as financial gain)."
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billion Despite the jump in federal spending, advancements measured by citations to publications and the number of drugs passed by the FDA remained stagnant over the same time span. Financial projections indicate federal spending will remain constant in the near future.
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secrecy and self-protection, stifling creativity and collaboration. The power imbalance in academic hierarchies exacerbates these issues, with junior researchers often subjected to exploitative practices and denied proper recognition for their contributions.
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Medical research is highly regulated. National regulatory authorities are appointed in most countries to oversee and monitor medical research, such as for the development and distribution of new drugs. In the United States, the
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increased nominally, 0.7% (adjusted for inflation), from 2003 to 2007. Previous reports showed a stark contrast in federal investment, from 1994 to 2003, federal funding increased 100% (adjusted for inflation).
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of 1906. In 1912 Congress passed the Shirley Amendment to prohibit the wide dissemination of false information on pharmaceuticals. The Food and Drug Administration was formally created in 1930 under the
321:. Researchers, mainly in universities or government-funded research institutes, aim to establish an understanding of the cellular, molecular and physiological mechanisms of human health and disease.
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Moses, Hamilton; Matheson, David H. M.; Cairns-Smith, Sarah; George, Benjamin P.; Palisch, Chase; Dorsey, E. Ray (2015-01-13). "The Anatomy of Medical Research: US and International Comparisons".
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was approved by the FDA, but private health insurers in the United States considered it unproven or unnecessary given its high cost, although it was ultimately covered for certain cancers.
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Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), the most prominent professional association for biomedical research companies, has recently begun to provide limited public funding reports.
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The increased longevity of humans over the past century can be significantly attributed to advances resulting from medical research. Among the major benefits of medical research have been
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company. In the United States, one estimate found that in 2011, one-third of Medicare physician and outpatient hospital spending was on new technologies unavailable in the prior decade.
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legislation in some countries has increased funding available to develop drugs meant to treat rare conditions, resulting in breakthroughs that previously were uneconomical to pursue.
795:(GCP). All ideas of regulation are based on a country's ethical standards code. This is why treatment of a particular disease in one country may not be allowed, but is in another.
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Besides being participants in a clinical trial, members of the public can actively collaborate with researchers in designing and conducting medical research. This is known as
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is the UK's largest non-governmental source of funds for biomedical research and provides over £600 million per year in grants to scientists and funds for research centres.
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covers understanding of mechanisms that may lead to clinical research with people. Typically, the work requires no ethical approval, is supervised by scientists rather than
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2376:"Randomized Trials of Proton Therapy: Why They Are at Risk, Proposed Solutions, and Implications for Evaluating Advanced Technologies to Diagnose and Treat Cancer"
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351:. It is generally supervised by physicians and conducted by nurses in a medical setting, such as a hospital or research clinic, and requires ethical approval.
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collectively contribute $ 26.4 billion and $ 27 billion, which constitute 28% and 29% of the total, respectively. Other significant contributors include
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gave private corporations the option of applying for government funded grants for biomedical research which in turn allowed the private corporations to
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was passed by Congress to foster a more constructive relationship between the collaboration of government and industry funded biomedical research. The
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Bekelman JE, Li Y, Gross CP (22 January 2003). "Scope and impact of financial conflicts of interest in biomedical research: a systematic review".
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companies ($ 9.2 billion, 10% of total), other federal sources, and state and local governments. Foundations and charities, led by the
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Chakma J, Sun GH, Steinberg JD, Sammut SM, Jagsi R (January 2014). "Asia's ascent--global trends in biomedical R&D expenditures".
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with the aim to produce knowledge about human diseases, the prevention and treatment of illness, and the promotion of health.
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develops the ethical standards for medical professionals involved in medical research. The most fundamental of them is the
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clinical guidelines which do not pay for "experimental or investigational" therapies, or may require that the therapy is
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Dorsey ER, de Roulet J, Thompson JP, Reminick JI, Thai A, White-Stellato Z, Beck CA, George BP, Moses H (January 2010).
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Dorsey ER, de Roulet J, Thompson JP, Reminick JI, Thai A, White-Stellato Z, Beck CA, George BP, Moses H (January 2010).
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2253:"Transforming Toxic Research Cultures: Protecting the Future of Medical Students and Early Career Researchers – Part I"
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Medical therapies are constantly being researched, so the difference between a therapy which is investigational versus
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791:(ICH) works on the creation of rules and guidelines for the development of new medication, such as the guidelines for
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International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use
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1887:"Industry and Non-Profits Join Forces to Accelerate Discovery of Therapies for Alzheimer's, Diabetes, RA, and Lupus"
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2004. The United States contributed 49% of governmental funding from these regions in 2011 compared to 57% in 2004.
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554:(NSF) show that federal agencies provided only 44% of the $ 86 billion spent on basic research in 2015. The
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Biomedical research and development expenditures classified by region in 2012 in billions of U.S. dollars:
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Roundtable, Institute of Medicine (US) Clinical Research; Tunis, Sean; Korn, Allan; Ommaya, Alex (2002),
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After clinical research, medical therapies are typically commercialized by private companies such as
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derive their assets from UK tax payers, and distribute revenues to institutions by competitive
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142:. However, only part of the clinical or preclinical research is oriented towards a specific
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Frist WH (April 2002). "Federal funding for biomedical research: commitment and benefits".
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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The Role of Purchasers and Payers in the Clinical Research Enterprise: Workshop Summary
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is not always clear, particularly given cost-effectiveness considerations. Payers have
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2202:"A generation at risk: young investigators and the future of the biomedical workforce"
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that is clear to the wider society and the specific groups it is most relevant for.
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1755:"The Hatch-Waxman Act--25 Years Later: Keeping the Pharmaceutical Scales Balanced"
1471:"NIH Categorical Spending -NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools (RePORT)"
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Moses RE, Feld AD (January 2008). "Legal risks of clinical practice guidelines".
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to oversee the regulation of Food and Drugs in the United States. In 1962 the
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Regulation on industry funded biomedical research has seen great changes since
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1328:"Data check: U.S. government share of basic research funding falls below 50%"
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Thompson DF (August 1993). "Understanding financial conflicts of interest".
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245:. New, beneficial tests and treatments are expected as a result of the
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Medical research encompasses a wide array of research, extending from "
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purpose. The need for fundamental and mechanism-based understanding,
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2002:"Improving Reproducibility and Transparency in Biomedical Research"
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The earliest narrative describing a medical trial is found in the
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Rajakumar HK, Gaman MA, Puyana JC, Bonilla-Escobar FJ (2024).
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Kefauver-Harris Amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act
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Alberts B, Kirschner MW, Tilghman S, Varmus H (April 2014).
1499:"The NIH stimulus--the recovery act and biomedical research"
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2145:"Young, talented and fed-up: scientists tell their stories"
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pipelines, where the clinical phase is denoted by the term
165:, but significant contributions are made by other type of
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University of Florida Cancer and Genetics Research Complex
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2021:"Rescuing US biomedical research from its systemic flaws"
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2105:"Grant System Leads Cancer Researchers to Play It Safe"
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In the United States, data from ongoing surveys by the
1702:"Significant Dates in U.S. Food and Drug Law History"
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for treating a host of maladies, medication for high
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Bekelman JE, Denicoff A, Buchsbaum J (August 2018).
1301:"Henry Wellcome: from backwoods boy to medicine man"
1704:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from
2308:"Correcting signals for innovation in health care"
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1347:"How Do We Measure The Impact of Grand Challenges"
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839:or superior to cheaper treatments. For example,
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1199:National Institute for Health and Care Research
1174:National Institute for Health and Care Research
615:Privately (industry) funded biomedical research
533:National Institute for Health and Care Research
185:where the research is conducted. In all cases,
2080:"Advances Elusive in the Drive to Cure Cancer"
1836:"Funding of US biomedical research, 2003–2008"
1600:"Funding of US biomedical research, 2003–2008"
763:oversees new drug development; in Europe, the
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63:is an integrated medical research facility.
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1982:"Brief History of NIH Funding: Fact Sheet"
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30:For the Biomedical research journals, see
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265:
2733:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
2729:Attributable fraction for the population
2333:The American Journal of Gastroenterology
1765:
1646:
1579:
1148:Association of American Medical Colleges
1049:Biomedical research in the United States
698:Ancient to 20th century in other regions
477:
386:
324:
269:
54:
43:
2737:Preventable fraction for the population
2725:Attributable fraction among the exposed
2199:
1979:
1970:
1906:
1902:
1900:
1685:
851:Fields of biomedical research include:
281:, home to eight scientists awarded the
14:
2952:
2142:
2102:
2077:
1752:
1369:
1325:
777:Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
2422:
1434:
1415:"National Institutes of Health (NIH)"
1344:
846:
597:Government-funded biomedical research
283:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
2900:Correlation does not imply causation
2816:Animal testing on non-human primates
2130:"Why We're Losing The War On Cancer"
2127:
1897:
1252:
1250:
811:
679:
586:for medical research and treatment.
483:
339:
1649:The New England Journal of Medicine
1503:The New England Journal of Medicine
1221:The New England Journal of Medicine
24:
1187:
1079:Medical Scientist Training Program
716:, which says that Babylonian king
347:is carried out with people as the
237:, new surgical techniques such as
25:
2971:
1247:
1162:
572:Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
285:, is an internationally renowned
78:, refers to the process of using
2345:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2007.01399.x
1727:
488:
2367:
2324:
2299:
2244:
2132:. Fortune Magazine (CNN Money).
2121:
2096:
2071:
1980:Johnson J (December 23, 2013).
1746:
1640:
1591:
1463:
1363:
1122:, National Academies Press (US)
355:Role of patients and the public
2783:Pre- and post-test probability
2505:Patient and public involvement
1338:
1319:
1293:
1212:
1132:
1107:
398:
367:patient and public involvement
361:Patient and public involvement
13:
1:
1101:
556:National Institutes of Health
531:, funding bodies such as the
275:Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
130:research phases exist in the
2910:Sex as a biological variable
2380:Journal of Clinical Oncology
1753:Rumore M (August 15, 2009).
1376:Health Policy and Technology
761:Food and Drug Administration
7:
2874:Intention-to-treat analysis
2846:Analysis of clinical trials
2775:Specificity and sensitivity
2529:Randomized controlled trial
2200:Daniels RJ (January 2015).
2078:Kolata G (April 23, 2009).
1671:10.1056/nejm199308193290812
1497:Steinbrook R (April 2009).
1031:
552:National Science Foundation
173:has to strictly follow the
10:
2976:
2103:Kolata G (June 27, 2009).
1907:Collier R (January 2009).
1388:10.1016/j.hlpt.2017.09.001
1074:Medical research scientist
754:Regulations and guidelines
701:
692:
618:
380:
376:
358:
261:Phases of medical research
225:, improved treatments for
183:institutional review board
111:. Within this spectrum is
36:
29:
2918:
2883:Interpretation of results
2882:
2844:
2793:
2743:
2717:
2679:
2649:
2640:
2616:Nested case–control study
2566:
2513:
2460:
2143:Powell K (October 2016).
1326:Mervis J (9 March 2017).
1069:Gain-of-function research
799:Flaws and vulnerabilities
781:World Medical Association
765:European Medicines Agency
606:US federal funding trends
497:This article needs to be
395:in London, United Kingdom
233:and other treatments for
192:
2485:Academic clinical trials
2392:10.1200/JCO.2018.77.7078
1449:10.1001/jama.287.13.1722
818:pharmaceutical companies
621:industry-funded research
560:pharmaceutical companies
537:Medical Research Council
391:The headquarters of the
2703:Relative risk reduction
2551:Adaptive clinical trial
2495:Evidence-based medicine
2478:Adaptive clinical trial
2219:10.1073/pnas.1418761112
2046:10.1073/pnas.1404402111
1271:10.1001/jama.2014.15939
785:Declaration of Helsinki
665:McNarey Mapes Amendment
660:Pure Food and Drugs Act
179:Declaration of Helsinki
156:pharmaceutical research
132:pharmaceutical industry
2691:Number needed to treat
2273:(inactive July 2024).
2270:10.5195/ijms.2024.2763
1852:10.1001/jama.2009.1987
1616:10.1001/jama.2009.1987
1559:10.1001/jama.289.4.454
1084:Pharmaceutical company
1044:Biomedical informatics
833:utilization management
793:Good Clinical Practice
643:Conflicts of interests
396:
295:basic medical research
290:
287:basic medical research
266:Basic medical research
117:translational research
64:
52:
27:Wide array of research
2695:Number needed to harm
2582:Cross-sectional study
2534:Scientific experiment
2490:Clinical study design
2128:Leaf C (2004-03-22).
1054:Biomedical technology
702:Further information:
619:Further information:
390:
381:Further information:
359:Further information:
349:experimental subjects
330:Pre-clinical research
325:Pre-clinical research
273:
251:antibiotic resistance
163:biomedical scientists
58:
47:
2661:Cumulative incidence
1580:Loffler A, Stern S.
1516:10.1056/NEJMp0901819
1233:10.1056/NEJMp1311068
656:Samuel Hopkins Adams
649:Conflict of interest
584:open source hardware
576:return on investment
247:Human Genome Project
2568:Observational study
2500:Real world evidence
2454:experimental design
2161:2016Natur.538..446P
2037:2014PNAS..111.5773A
1925:10.1503/cmaj.081879
1759:Generic Supplements
1708:on 4 February 2017.
1351:Impatient Optimists
1089:Preclinical imaging
1025:Palliative medicine
984:Preventive medicine
837:medically necessary
708:History of pharmacy
704:History of medicine
401:
169:. Medical research
103:understanding – to
72:biomedical research
32:Biomedical Research
2854:Risk–benefit ratio
2821:First-in-man study
2771:Case fatality rate
2612:Case–control study
2586:Longitudinal study
2109:The New York Times
2084:The New York Times
1370:Pearce JM (2017).
1000:Tissue engineering
990:Psychopharmacology
959:Neuroendocrinology
847:Fields of research
399:
397:
291:
177:sanctioned in the
126:Both clinical and
80:scientific methods
65:
53:
39:Biomedical science
2947:
2946:
2895:Survivorship bias
2859:Systematic review
2826:Multicenter trial
2789:
2788:
2779:Likelihood-ratios
2751:Clinical endpoint
2719:Population impact
2673:Period prevalence
2450:Clinical research
2386:(24): 2461–2464.
2155:(7626): 446–449.
892:Molecular biology
867:Behavioral health
812:Commercialization
680:Transparency laws
589:The enactment of
518:
517:
482:
481:
345:Clinical research
340:Clinical research
303:molecular biology
293:Example areas in
105:clinical research
74:), also known as
16:(Redirected from
2967:
2960:Medical research
2794:Trial/test types
2669:Point prevalence
2647:
2646:
2590:Ecological study
2573:EBM II-2 to II-3
2544:Open-label trial
2539:Blind experiment
2515:Controlled study
2443:
2436:
2429:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2413:
2403:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2290:
2282:
2272:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2231:
2221:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2172:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2058:
2048:
2016:
2010:
2009:
1998:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1977:
1968:
1967:
1964:scienceguide.nl/
1956:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1904:
1895:
1894:
1883:
1874:
1873:
1863:
1831:
1786:
1785:
1774:
1763:
1762:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1735:. Archived from
1734:
1725:
1710:
1709:
1698:
1683:
1682:
1664:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1627:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1542:
1529:
1528:
1518:
1494:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1432:
1423:
1422:
1411:
1400:
1399:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1307:. 9 January 2011
1297:
1291:
1290:
1254:
1245:
1244:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1111:
887:Cellular biology
829:standard of care
521:Research funding
513:
510:
504:
492:
491:
484:
402:
383:Research funding
307:medical genetics
255:obesity epidemic
136:drug development
113:applied research
68:Medical research
21:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2914:
2878:
2840:
2785:
2739:
2713:
2687:Risk difference
2675:
2636:
2570:
2562:
2517:
2509:
2473:Trial protocols
2456:
2447:
2417:
2372:
2368:
2329:
2325:
2316:
2314:
2304:
2300:
2284:
2283:
2249:
2245:
2198:
2194:
2170:10.1038/538446a
2141:
2137:
2126:
2122:
2113:
2111:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2086:
2076:
2072:
2017:
2013:
2000:
1999:
1992:
1984:
1978:
1971:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1905:
1898:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1832:
1789:
1776:
1775:
1766:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1732:
1726:
1713:
1700:
1699:
1686:
1662:10.1.1.466.1945
1645:
1641:
1596:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1543:
1532:
1509:(15): 1479–81.
1495:
1488:
1479:
1477:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1433:
1426:
1413:
1412:
1403:
1368:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1343:
1339:
1324:
1320:
1310:
1308:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1255:
1248:
1217:
1213:
1203:
1201:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1178:
1176:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1153:
1151:
1140:"Basic Science"
1138:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1123:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1064:Cancer research
1034:
1029:
849:
814:
801:
756:
727:
710:
700:
695:
682:
645:
623:
617:
608:
599:
541:research grants
535:(NIHR) and the
514:
508:
505:
502:
493:
489:
385:
379:
363:
357:
342:
327:
268:
263:
235:atherosclerosis
195:
187:research ethics
152:medical devices
109:clinical trials
89:" (also called
76:health research
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2973:
2963:
2962:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2938:List of topics
2934:
2927:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2890:Selection bias
2886:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2850:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2811:Animal testing
2808:
2803:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2763:Mortality rate
2749:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2723:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2685:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2655:
2653:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2592:
2578:
2576:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2556:Platform trial
2548:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2525:
2523:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2468:Clinical trial
2464:
2462:
2458:
2457:
2446:
2445:
2438:
2431:
2423:
2416:
2415:
2366:
2323:
2298:
2263:(2): 128–132.
2243:
2192:
2135:
2120:
2095:
2070:
2031:(16): 5773–7.
2011:
1990:
1969:
1948:
1896:
1875:
1787:
1764:
1761:. August 2009.
1745:
1742:on 2014-12-28.
1711:
1684:
1639:
1590:
1572:
1530:
1486:
1475:report.nih.gov
1462:
1443:(13): 1722–4.
1424:
1401:
1382:(4): 381–382.
1362:
1337:
1332:Science | AAAS
1318:
1292:
1246:
1211:
1186:
1161:
1131:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1097:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1039:Animal testing
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1010:Otolaryngology
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
899:Cardiovascular
896:
895:
894:
889:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
853:
848:
845:
841:proton therapy
822:medical device
813:
810:
800:
797:
755:
752:
726:
723:
718:Nebuchadnezzar
714:Book of Daniel
699:
696:
694:
691:
681:
678:
644:
641:
632:Bayh Doyle Act
616:
613:
607:
604:
598:
595:
568:medical device
545:Wellcome Trust
529:United Kingdom
516:
515:
496:
494:
487:
480:
479:
476:
472:
471:
468:
465:
462:
458:
457:
454:
451:
448:
444:
443:
440:
437:
434:
430:
429:
426:
423:
420:
419:United States
416:
415:
412:
409:
406:
393:Wellcome Trust
378:
375:
371:plain language
356:
353:
341:
338:
326:
323:
267:
264:
262:
259:
223:blood pressure
213:treatment for
194:
191:
189:are expected.
175:medical ethics
144:pharmaceutical
140:clinical trial
95:bench research
87:basic research
26:
18:Medical theory
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2972:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2869:Meta-analysis
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2836:Vaccine trial
2834:
2832:
2831:Seeding trial
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2600:Retrospective
2598:
2597:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:EBM I to II-1
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2432:
2430:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2294:
2288:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2131:
2124:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2008:. 2013-09-12.
2007:
2006:drugabuse.gov
2003:
1997:
1995:
1983:
1976:
1974:
1966:. 2012-12-06.
1965:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1901:
1892:
1891:policymed.com
1888:
1882:
1880:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1846:(2): 137–43.
1845:
1841:
1837:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1784:. 2017-04-13.
1783:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1610:(2): 137–43.
1609:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1583:
1576:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1553:(4): 454–65.
1552:
1548:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1491:
1476:
1472:
1466:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1429:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1352:
1348:
1345:Buchsbaum S.
1341:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1306:
1302:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:(2): 174–89.
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1242:
1238:
1234:
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