36:
480:, some exaggerated claims circulated in the absence of any verifiable information from the Soviet Union. People "grew hysterical with fear with the incidence of unknown 'mysterious' diseases breaking out. Victims were seen with skin 'sloughing off' their faces, hands and other exposed parts of their bodies." As Zhores wrote, "Hundreds of square miles were left barren and unusable for decades and maybe centuries. Hundreds of people died, thousands were injured and surrounding areas were evacuated." Professor Leo Tumerman, former head of the Biophysics Laboratory at the Institute of Molecular Biology in Moscow, disclosed what he knew of the accident around the same time. Russian documents gradually declassified from 1989 onward show the true events were less severe than rumoured.
531:-106 spread across Europe in September and October. Such a release had not been seen on a continental scale since the Chernobyl accident. In January 2018, the French Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear Security (IRSN) reported that the source of the contamination is located in the Volga – Southern Ural region between 25 and 28 September for a duration of less than 24 hours. The report excludes the possibility of an accidental release from a nuclear reactor, stating that it seems related with irradiated fuels processing or the production of sources from fission products solution. It may point to Mayak's aborted attempt to manufacture a capsule of highly radioactive component cerium-144, for the
97:
555:. Mayak continues to dump low-level radioactive waste directly into the Techa River today. Medium level waste is discharged into the Karachay Lake. According to the data of the Department of Natural Resources in the Ural Region, in the year 2000, more than 250 million cubic metres (8.8 billion cubic feet) of water containing thousands of curies of tritium, strontium, and cesium-137 were discharged into the Techa River. The tritium concentration alone in the river near the village of Muslyumovo exceeds the permissible limit by 30 times.
427:
299:
218:/hr or 10–14 μGy/s). At that rate, people would get the equivalent of a lifetime exposure to radiation in less than a week. During the following decade, ten additional communities were resettled from the river, but the largest community, Muslumovo, remained. Researchers investigated residents of Muslumovo annually in what has become a four-generation living experiment of people living among chronic, low doses of radioactivity. Blood samples showed its villagers took in
513:
too compact, reducing the amount of plutonium needed to achieve a critical mass to less than the amount present. After most of the solution had been poured out, there was a flash of light and heat. After the complex had been evacuated, the shift supervisor and radiation control supervisor re-entered the building. The shift supervisor then entered the room of the incident, caused another, larger nuclear reaction and irradiated himself with a deadly dose of radiation.
234:, internally and externally. These isotopes had deposited in organs, flesh and bone marrow. Villagers complained of various illnesses and symptoms—chronic fatigue, sleep and fertility problems, weight loss, and increased hypertension. The frequency of congenital disabilities and complications at birth was three times greater than normal. In 1953, doctors examined 587 of 28,000 exposed people and found that 200 had clear cases of radiation poisoning.
573:
505:
307:
399:, too small to provide sufficient cooling water, was used as a dumping ground for large quantities of high-level radioactive waste too "hot" to store in the facility's underground storage vats. The original plan was to use the lake to store highly radioactive material until it could be returned to the Mayak facility's underground concrete storage vats, but this proved impossible due to the lethal levels of radioactivity (see
767:. Russia confirms 'extremely high' readings of radioactive pollution in Argayash, a village in the Chelyabinsk region of the southern Urals. Argayash is located 10 miles south of the Mayak plant. In January 2018, the French Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear Security (IRSN) reported that Mayak could be the cause of the contamination. The radioactivity was due to
392:. Little to no consideration was paid to worker safety or responsible disposal of waste materials, and the reactors were all optimised for plutonium production, producing many tons of contaminated materials and utilising primitive open-cycle cooling systems which directly contaminated the thousands of gallons of cooling water the reactors used every day.
759:
In 2008, a repair worker was injured during a "pneumatic" incident, involving a quantity of alpha emitter release. The worker's hand was injured and the wound contaminated. The worker's finger was amputated in an attempt to minimize spread of alpha-particle emitters throughout his body and subsequent
512:
In
December 1968, the facility was experimenting with plutonium purification techniques. Two operators were using an "unfavourable geometry vessel in an improvised and unapproved operation as a temporary vessel for storing plutonium organic solution." "Unfavourable geometry" means that the vessel was
189:
Once production began, engineers quickly ran out of underground space to store high-level radioactive waste. Rather than cease production of plutonium until new underground waste storage tanks could be built, between 1949 and 1951, Soviet managers dumped 76 million cubic metres (2.7 billion
623:
2 January 1958 – Criticality accident in SCR plant. Plant workers conducted experiments to determine the critical mass of enriched uranium in a cylindrical container with different concentrations of uranium in solution. Personnel received doses from 7600 to 13,000 rem, resulting in three deaths and
407:
in 1957, in which the underground vats exploded due to a faulty cooling system. This incident caused widespread contamination of the entire Mayak area (as well as a large swath of territory to the northeast). This led to greater caution among the administration, fearing international attention, and
339:
Mayak's nuclear facility plant covers about 90 square kilometres (35 sq mi). The site borders
Ozyorsk, in which a majority of the staff of Mayak live. Mayak itself was not shown on Soviet public maps. The location of the site together with the plant city was chosen to minimise the effects
682:
31 August 1994 – Registered an increased release of radionuclides to the atmospheric pipe building reprocessing plant (238.8 mCi, with the share of Cs-137 was 4.36% of the annual emission limit of this radionuclide). The reason for the release of radionuclides was depressurisation of VVER-440 fuel
201:
As many as 40 villages, with a combined population of about 28,000, lined the river at the time. For 24 of them, the Techa was a major source of water; 23 of them were eventually evacuated. In the 45 years afterwards, about half a million people in the region have been irradiated in one or more of
563:
and other downstream areas. Residents report no problems with their health and the health of Mayak plant workers. However, these claims lack verification, and many who worked at the plant in 1950s and 1960s subsequently died from the effects of radiation. The administration of the Mayak plant has
458:
did not release news of the accident and denied it happened for nearly 30 years. Residents of
Chelyabinsk district in the Southern Urals reported observing "polar-lights" in the sky near the plant, and American aerial spy photos had documented the destruction caused by the disaster by 1960. This
434:
Working conditions at Mayak resulted in severe health hazards and many accidents. The most notable accident occurred on 29 September 1957, when the failure of the cooling system for a tank storing tens of thousands of tons of dissolved nuclear waste resulted in a chemical (non-nuclear) explosion
664:
8 February 1993 – Depressurisation of a pipeline caused 2 cubic metres (71 cu ft) of radioactive slurry (about 100 square metres (1,100 sq ft) of contaminated surface) to leak to the surface of the pulp radioactive activity of about 0.3 Ci. Radioactive trace was localised,
495:
surmised that the information had not been released because of the reluctance of the CIA to highlight a nuclear accident in the USSR, that could cause concern among people living near nuclear facilities in the USA." Only in 1992, shortly after the fall of the USSR, did the
Russians officially
719:
23 September 1998 – While increasing power output of reactor P-2 ("Lyudmila") after engaging automatic protection allowable power level was exceeded by 10%. As a result, the three channels of the fuel rod seal failed, resulting in the contamination of equipment and pipelines of the first
443:). This released 740 PBq (20 MCi) of fission products, of which 74 PBq (2 MCi) drifted off the site, creating a contaminated region of 15,000–20,000 square kilometres (5,800–7,700 sq mi) called the East Urals Radioactive trace. Subsequently, an estimated 49 to 55 people died of
643:
11 February 1976 – Unsafe actions of staff development at the radiochemical plant caused an autocatalytic reaction of concentrated nitric acid and organic liquid complex composition. The device exploded, contaminating the repair zone and areas around the plant. The incident merited an
1728:
Azizova, Tamara V.; Muirhead, Colin R.; Moseeva, Maria B.; Grigoryeva, Evgenia S.; Sumina, Margarita V.; O’Hagan, Jacqueline; Zhang, Wei; Haylock, Richard J. G. E.; Hunter, Nezahat (2011). "Cerebrovascular diseases in nuclear workers first employed at the Mayak PA in 1948–1972".
701:
22 October 1996 – Depressurisation occurred in a coil while channeling cooling water from one storage tanks of high-level waste. The result was contaminated pipe cooling system repositories. As a result of this incident, 10 people were exposed to radiation dose of 2.23 to 48
584:, a dried-up radioactively polluted lake (used as a dumping basin for Mayak's radioactive waste since 1951), to release radioactive material into surrounding waters. The second occurred in 1967 when wind spread dust from the bottom of Lake Karachay over parts of
639:
10 December 1968 – Criticality accident. Plutonium solution was poured into a cylindrical container with dangerous geometry. One person died, another took a high dose of radiation and radiation sickness, after which he had both legs and his right arm
675:
30 March 1994 – Recorded excess daily release of Cs-137 in 3, β-activity – 1,7, α-activity – by 1.9 times. In May 1994 the ventilation system of the building of the plant spewed activity 10.4 mCi β-aerosols. Emission of Cs-137 was 83% of the control
558:
Rosatom, a state-owned nuclear operations corporation, began to resettle residents of
Muslyumovo in 2006. However, only half of the residents of the village were moved. People continue to live in the immediate area of the plant, including
876:
331:, is the central administrative territorial district. As part of the Russian (formerly Soviet) nuclear weapons program, Mayak was formerly known as Chelyabinsk-40 and later as Chelyabinsk-65, referring to the postal codes of the site.
668:
27 December 1993 – Incident at radioisotope plant where the replacement of a filter resulted in the release into the atmosphere of radioactive aerosols. Emissions were on the α-activity of 0.033 Ci, and β-activity of 0.36
209:
Investigators in 1951 found communities along the river highly contaminated. On discovery, soldiers immediately evacuated the first downriver village of
Metlino, population 1,200, where radiation levels measured 3.5–5
310:
Fissile
Material Storage Facility (FMSF). Looking at the administration building of the storage facility to include all the support facilities. Excavator is one of the pieces of construction equipment procured by the
174:. Over 40,000 Gulag prisoners and POWs built the factory and the closed nuclear city of Ozyorsk, called at the time by its classified postal code "Forty". Five (today closed) nuclear reactors were built to produce
709:
20 November 1996 – A chemical-metallurgical plant in the works on the electrical exhaust fan caused aerosol release of radionuclides into the atmosphere, which made up 10% of the allowed annual emissions of the
340:
that harmful emissions could potentially have on populated areas. Mayak is surrounded by a ~250 square kilometres (97 sq mi) exclusion zone. Nearby is the site of the South Urals nuclear power plant.
1918:
253:. The resulting radioactive cloud contaminated an expansive territory of more than 750 km (290 sq mi) (a nine-mile radius) in the eastern Urals, causing sickness and death from
1780:
613:
21 April 1957 – Criticality accident. One operator died from receiving over 3000 rad. Five others received doses of 300 to 1,000 rem and temporarily became sick with radiation poisoning.
713:
27 August 1997 – In building RT-1 in one of the rooms was found to be contaminated floor area of 1 to 2 m, the dose rate of gamma radiation from the spot was between 40 and 200 mR / s.
166:
led the Soviet atomic bomb project. He directed the construction of the Mayak
Plutonium plant in the Southern Urals between 1945 and 1948, in a great hurry and secrecy as part of the
2160:
35:
679:
7 July 1994 – The control plant detected a radioactive spot area of several square decimetres. Exposure dose was 500 millirems per second. The spot was formed by leaking sewage.
535:
in Italy. Both the
Russian government and Rosatom denied at the time that another accidental leak took place at Mayak. The release of a cloud of ruthenium-106 is similar to the
576:
Fissile
Material Storage Facility (FMSF). The building is the ventilation center of the storage facility. The ventilation tunnel showing in the north of the ventilation centre.
1802:
1448:
1583:
689:
15 September 1995 – High-level liquid radioactive waste (LRW) was found in flow of cooling water. Operation of a furnace into the regulatory regime has been discontinued.
1690:
Koshurnikova, N.A.; Shilnikova, N.S.; Sokolnikov, M.E.; Bolotnikova, M.G.; Okatenko, P.V.; Kuznetsova, I.S.; Vasilenko, E.K.; Khokhryakov, V.F.; Kreslov, V.V. (2006).
750:
In 2003, the plant's operating licence was revoked temporarily due to liquid radioactive waste handling procedures resulting in waste being disposed into open water.
764:
522:
287:
672:
4 February 1994 – Recorded increased release of radioactive aerosols: the β-activity of 2-day levels of Cs-137 subsistence levels, the total activity of 7.15 mCi.
395:
Lake Kyzyltash was the largest natural lake capable of providing cooling water to the reactors; it was rapidly contaminated via the open-cycle system. The closer
2264:
657:
17 July 1993 – Accident at radioisotope plant, resulting in the destruction of the absorption column and release into the environment of a small amount of α-
1611:
2279:
1113:
1909:
547:
In the early years of its operation, the Mayak plant directly discharged high-level nuclear waste into several small lakes near the plant, and into the
241:, which at the time was the worst nuclear accident in history. During this catastrophe, a poorly maintained storage tank exploded, releasing 20 million
1785:
527:
Abnormally high levels of radiation were reported in the area of the facility in November 2017. Simultaneously, traces of radioactive manmade isotope
430:
Fissile Material Storage Facility (FMSF). Looking at the south side of the main Administration Building and security building of the storage facility.
1387:
716:
6 October 1997 – Recorded increasing radioactivity in the assembly building, the RT-1. Measurement of the exposure dose indicated up to 300 mR / s.
1857:
692:
21 December 1995 – Cutting of a thermometric channel exposed four workers (1.69, 0.59, 0.45, 0.34 rem) when operators violated process procedures.
2254:
912:
491:(CIA) files, the CIA knew of the 1957 Mayak accident, but kept it secret to prevent adverse consequences for the fledgling US nuclear industry. "
1022:
CHELYABINSK "The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet" - a documentary film by Slawomir Grunberg - Log In Productions - distributed by LogTV LTD
2284:
1691:
798:
156:'lighthouse') is one of the largest nuclear facilities in the Russian Federation, housing a reprocessing plant. The closest settlements are
2304:
2294:
2274:
1561:
1883:
737:
All of the above list transferred directly from the Russian Knowledge entry for "Mayak". Translated and some grammatical errors corrected
636:
16 December 1965 – Criticality accident. Seventeen individuals received exposure to small amounts of radiation over a period of 14 hours.
508:
Looking at storage facility processing materials, controls, accountability, and fissile material container storage from south-west angle.
283:, not plutonium. In recent years, proposals that the plant reprocess waste from foreign nuclear reactors have given rise to controversy.
1090:
2150:
1418:
484:
1831:
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24 March 1995 – Recorded excess of 19% of normal loading apparatus plutonium, which can be regarded as a dangerous nuclear incident.
389:
1806:
1528:
1309:
1440:
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been repeatedly criticized in recent years by Greenpeace and other environmental advocates for environmentally unsound practices.
939:
2299:
2155:
1942:"Airborne concentrations and chemical considerations of radioactive ruthenium from an undeclared major nuclear release in 2017"
1226:
1412:
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24 July 1995 – Cs-137 aerosols released, the value of which amounted to 0.27% of the annual value of MPE for the enterprise.
698:
14 September 1995 – Replacement covers and lubrication step manipulators registered a sharp increase in airborne α-nuclides.
580:
The Mayak plant is associated with two other major nuclear accidents. The first occurred as a result of heavy rains causing
2210:
1330:"Overview of Dose Assessment Developments and the Health of Riverside Residents Close to the "Mayak" PA Facilities, Russia"
388:, it was the utmost priority to produce enough weapons-grade material to match the U.S. nuclear superiority following the
2249:
756:
In October 2007, a valve failure during transport of a radioactive liquid resulted in spilling of a radioactive material.
771:
indicating release from a late stage in the reprocessing (i.e. after the Ru-106 had been separated from other isotopes).
844:
793:
788:
464:
269:
1255:
356:
This section copied and translated from the German Knowledge entry for "Mayak", with some grammatical errors corrected
2036:
1659:
1512:
1042:
885:
645:
275:
Mayak is still active as of 2020, and it serves as a reprocessing site for spent nuclear fuel. Today the plant makes
261:
2259:
2181:
1169:
49:
683:
elements during the operation segments idle all SFA (spent fuel assemblies) as a result of an uncontrollable arc.
2196:
1772:
1141:
1000:
1858:"UPDATE: Accident at Mayak leads to apparently contained radiation leak, and seriously injures one worker"
2191:
803:
585:
560:
488:
328:
157:
76:
260:
The Soviet government kept this accident secret for about 30 years. It is rated at 6 on the seven-level
1910:"Mysterious radioactive leak that swept Europe came from Russia, study confirms despite Kremlin denial"
1861:
448:
400:
373:
171:
1638:
808:
408:
caused the dumping grounds to be spread out over a variety of areas (including several lakes and the
1212:
916:
1612:"Mishandling of spent nuclear fuel in Russia may have caused radioactivity to spread across Europe"
1544:
444:
368:
Built in total secrecy between 1945 and 1948, the Mayak plant was the first reactor used to create
96:
2269:
1035:
Plutopia: nuclear families, atomic cities, and the great Soviet and American plutonium disasters
877:
Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters
1502:
451:, 10,000 people were evacuated from their homes, and 470,000 people were exposed to radiation.
178:
which was refined and machined for weapons. Later the plant came to specialise in reprocessing
20:
2029:
1402:
1381:
1199:
1082:
630:
26 February 1962 – Destruction of equipment. An explosion occurred in the absorption column.
2089:
1953:
1835:
604:
8:
1525:
1401:
Gusev, Igor A.; Gusʹkova, Angelina Konstantinovna; Mettler, Fred Albert (28 March 2001).
1306:
818:
610:
13 October 1955 – Rupture of process equipment and the destruction of a process building.
254:
1957:
2134:
1976:
1941:
1754:
1364:
1329:
1146:
964:
460:
265:
203:
179:
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In June 2007, an accident involving a radioactive pulp occurred over a two-day period.
1981:
1746:
1665:
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1408:
1369:
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1038:
969:
891:
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813:
426:
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1971:
1961:
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959:
951:
617:
421:
404:
250:
238:
137:
286:
An incompletely reported accident appears to have occurred in September 2017; see
2126:
2071:
1773:"Sources and Effects of Ionising Radiation – 2008 Report to the General Assembly"
1532:
1485:
1313:
471:
436:
385:
183:
163:
1832:"Radioactive material leaks during transport at Mayak - no one hurt, says plant"
2099:
2081:
2066:
2053:
1646:
782:
532:
298:
105:
1742:
2243:
2225:
2212:
2109:
2094:
1707:
1692:"Medical-dosimetry registry of workers at the 'Mayak' production association"
1669:
1355:
1170:"Review of the current status and operations at Mayak Production Association"
1052:
895:
661:. Radiation emission was localised at the manufacturing facility of the shop.
581:
476:
396:
223:
202:
the incidents, exposing them to up to 20 times the radiation suffered by the
1966:
852:
1985:
1750:
1689:
1562:"Russian nuclear facility denies it is source of high radioactivity levels"
1373:
1307:
A report on the 1957 accident and on endemic radioactive pollution at Mayak
1251:
1118:
973:
654:
16 November 1990 – Explosion. Two people received burns and one was killed.
455:
316:
280:
242:
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191:
167:
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2116:
955:
823:
548:
492:
409:
324:
219:
215:
195:
1180:
1547:
Mayak Enterprise criticality accident, 1968. Accessed 10 December 2017.
1441:"The nuclear disaster of Kyshtym 1957 and the politics of the Cold War"
231:
211:
1781:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1327:
1290:
1277:
Larin, Vladislav (September–October 1999). "Mayak's walking wounded".
1114:"Russia begins cleaning up the Soviets' top-secret nuclear waste dump"
572:
504:
306:
950:(4). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences: a162–a169.
528:
377:
369:
246:
198:, a slow-moving hydraulic system that bogs down in swamps and lakes.
175:
1884:"Russia confirms 'extremely high' readings of radioactive pollution"
2176:
2061:
1584:"Report on IRSN investigations of Ru 106 in Europe in October 2017"
552:
627:
12 May 1960 – Criticality accident. Five people were contaminated.
2161:
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics
2045:
1334:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
703:
658:
276:
110:
1727:
1535:" by Los Alamos National Laboratory (Report LA-13638), May 2000
1472:
Pollock, Richard, 1978. "Soviets Experience Nuclear Accident,"
1328:
Standring, William J.F.; Dowdall, Mark and Strand, Per (2009).
768:
82:
913:"Radioactive Contamination of the Techa River and its Effects"
440:
320:
463:, is categorised as a Level 6 "Serious Accident" on the 0–7
2104:
536:
381:
2014:
2004:
765:
airborne radioactivity increase in Europe in autumn 2017
523:
Airborne radioactivity increase in Europe in autumn 2017
288:
Airborne radioactivity increase in Europe in autumn 2017
591:
459:
nuclear accident, the Soviet Union's worst before the
190:
cubic feet) of toxic chemicals, including 3.2 million
121:
1400:
1140:
Luxmoore, Matthew; Cowell, Alan (21 November 2017).
1784:. 2011. Annex C: Radiation exposures in accidents.
624:
one case of blindness caused by radiation sickness.
1908:
302:Satellite image/map of the Mayak nuclear facility.
264:scale. It is third in severity, surpassed only by
763:In September 2017, possible association with the
2241:
1560:Devlin, Shaun Walker Hannah (21 November 2017).
1323:
1321:
1252:"Mayak Production Association | Facilities"
403:). The lake was used for this purpose until the
1639:"Sellafield (§2.1—The reprocessing plant B204)"
1142:"Russia, in Reversal, Confirms Radiation Spike"
1065:Kostyuchenko & Krestinina 1994, pp. 119–125
2265:Buildings and structures in Chelyabinsk Oblast
1826:
1824:
1545:"Mayak Enterprise criticality accident, 1968."
1167:
1139:
744:
160:to the northwest and Novogornyi to the south.
2030:
1318:
799:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
151:
145:
93:195,000,000 United States dollar (1994)
1636:
1386:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
607:. Contamination of plant personnel occurred.
499:
315:The nuclear complex is 150 km south of
2280:Federal State Unitary Enterprises of Russia
1821:
1504:No Nukes: Everyone's Guide to Nuclear Power
1394:
1227:"Nuclear History – the forgotten disasters"
992:
186:and plutonium from decommissioned weapons.
2151:Institute of Physics and Power Engineering
2037:
2023:
1518:
539:reprocessing accident in Britain in 1973.
474:exposed the disaster in a 1976 article in
95:
34:
1975:
1965:
1702:(3/4). Inderscience Publishers: 236–242.
1404:Medical Management of Radiation Accidents
1363:
1345:
1161:
1133:
963:
516:
435:having an energy estimated at 75 tons of
390:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
323:and Tatysh, and 100 km northwest of
194:of high-level radioactive waste into the
1803:"Revoked License Grinds Mayak to a Halt"
1177:Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority
998:
931:
907:
905:
588:; over 400,000 people were irradiated..
571:
551:, whose waters ultimately flow into the
503:
425:
305:
297:
1555:
1553:
940:"Cold War, Hot Nukes: Legacy of an Era"
542:
334:
147:Proizvodstvennoye ob′yedineniye "Mayak"
2255:Nuclear technology companies of Russia
2242:
2156:Luch Scientific Production Association
1939:
1731:Radiation and Environmental Biophysics
1696:International Journal of Low Radiation
1559:
1246:
1244:
1111:
999:Zaitchik, Alexander (8 October 2007).
2285:Companies based in Chelyabinsk Oblast
2018:
1577:
1575:
1302:
1300:
1276:
1032:
902:
873:
483:According to Gyorgy, who invoked the
206:victims outside of the plant itself.
1765:
1581:
1550:
1468:
1466:
1451:from the original on 26 October 2014
1093:from the original on 26 October 2014
1077:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1015:
937:
567:
16:Nuclear reprocessing plant in Russia
2305:Waste companies established in 1948
2295:Ministry of Medium Machine Building
2275:Nuclear weapons programme of Russia
1421:from the original on 2 January 2014
1241:
880:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
633:9 July 1962 – Criticality accident.
592:Major accidents at Mayak, 1953–1998
415:
142:Производственное объединение «Маяк»
13:
1637:Martiniussen, Erik (1 June 2003).
1572:
1297:
794:List of military nuclear accidents
789:List of civilian nuclear accidents
465:International Nuclear Events Scale
412:, along which many villages lay).
237:In 1957 Mayak was the site of the
14:
2316:
1996:
1791:from the original on 31 May 2013.
1654:(8). The Bellona Foundation: 20.
1526:A Review of Criticality Accidents
1463:
1447:. Environment and Society. 2012.
1279:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1068:
944:Environmental Health Perspectives
646:International Nuclear Event Scale
2182:Krasnaya Zvezda State Enterprise
1940:Masson, O.; et al. (2019).
1921:from the original on 12 May 2022
1568:– via www.theguardian.com.
1258:from the original on 6 July 2017
1229:. Nuclear-news.net. 31 July 2012
249:) in the form of 50–100 tons of
50:Federal State Unitary Enterprise
1933:
1901:
1876:
1850:
1795:
1721:
1683:
1630:
1604:
1538:
1495:
1479:
1433:
1270:
1219:
1105:
731:
350:
2197:V. G. Khlopin Radium Institute
1059:
1026:
867:
837:
1:
2300:1948 establishments in Russia
1407:. CRC Press. pp. 15–29.
1112:Walker, Shaun (2 July 2017).
830:
651:10 February 1984 – Explosion.
40:Mayak headquarters in Ozyorsk
1737:(4). Springerlink: 539–552.
938:Clay, Rebecca (April 2001).
380:procedure and supervised by
251:high-level radioactive waste
134:Mayak Production Association
7:
2192:Mining and Chemical Combine
2044:
1033:Brown, Kate (8 July 2015).
804:Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast
775:
745:More recent major accidents
489:Central Intelligence Agency
293:
146:
77:Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast
10:
2321:
2250:Nuclear reprocessing sites
760:radiological consequences.
724:
665:contaminated soil removed.
520:
496:acknowledge the accident.
485:Freedom of Information Act
449:chronic radiation syndrome
419:
401:Pollution of Lake Karachay
374:Soviet atomic bomb project
363:
18:
2169:
2143:
2125:
2080:
2052:
1743:10.1007/s00411-011-0377-6
1531:27 September 2007 at the
1501:Gyorgy, A. et al., 1980.
809:Radioactive contamination
500:1968 Criticality Incident
447:, 66 were diagnosed with
152:
141:
116:
104:
89:
71:
63:
55:
45:
33:
1708:10.1504/IJLR.2006.009516
487:to open up the relevant
445:radiation-induced cancer
343:
2260:Nuclear waste companies
1967:10.1073/pnas.1907571116
1474:Critical Mass Journal 3
1168:Will Standring (2006).
826:, the radioactive river
319:, between the towns of
1207:Cite journal requires
577:
517:2017 radiation release
509:
431:
312:
303:
21:Mayak (disambiguation)
2226:55.71250°N 60.84806°E
1582:IRSN (January 2018).
1347:10.3390/ijerph6010174
575:
507:
429:
376:. In accordance with
309:
301:
2090:ARMZ Uranium Holding
1312:14 July 2010 at the
1087:Nuclear-Heritage.net
956:10.1289/ehp.109-a162
874:Brown, Kate (2013).
616:29 September 1957 –
605:Criticality accident
543:Environmental impact
335:Design and structure
327:. The closest city,
19:For other uses, see
2222: /
2144:Research institutes
1958:2019PNAS..11616750M
1952:(34): 16750–16759.
1524:McLaughlin et al. "
819:Reprocessed uranium
255:radiation poisoning
172:atomic bomb project
30:
2231:55.71250; 60.84806
2135:Nukem Technologies
1838:on 12 October 2012
1618:. 14 February 2018
1507:. South End Press
1147:The New York Times
1089:. 6 January 2014.
1083:"Kyshtym Disaster"
578:
510:
461:Chernobyl disaster
432:
313:
304:
204:Chernobyl disaster
180:spent nuclear fuel
28:
2205:
2204:
1809:on 11 August 2011
1492:, 9 December 1976
1414:978-0-8493-7004-5
1291:10.2968/055005008
1001:"Inside the Zone"
845:"All enterprises"
814:Radioactive waste
568:List of accidents
130:
129:
2312:
2237:
2236:
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2016:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2005:Official website
1990:
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1912:
1905:
1899:
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1880:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1860:. Archived from
1854:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1834:. Archived from
1828:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1805:. Archived from
1799:
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1234:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1185:
1179:. Archived from
1174:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1109:
1103:
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1056:
1030:
1024:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1008:
996:
990:
989:
987:
985:
976:. Archived from
967:
935:
929:
928:
926:
924:
919:on 15 March 2005
915:. Archived from
909:
900:
899:
871:
865:
864:
862:
860:
855:on 21 April 2017
851:. Archived from
841:
738:
735:
618:Kyshtym disaster
603:15 March 1953 –
422:Kyshtym disaster
416:Kyshtym disaster
405:Kyshtym Disaster
357:
354:
239:Kyshtym disaster
184:nuclear reactors
155:
154:
149:
143:
126:
123:
100:
99:
38:
31:
27:
2320:
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2240:
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2230:
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2209:
2208:
2206:
2201:
2170:Other companies
2165:
2139:
2127:Atomstroyexport
2121:
2076:
2072:OKBM Afrikantov
2048:
2043:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1993:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1922:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1892:
1890:
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1877:
1867:
1865:
1864:on 25 July 2011
1856:
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1609:
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1595:
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1586:
1580:
1573:
1558:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1533:Wayback Machine
1523:
1519:
1500:
1496:
1486:Zhores Medvedev
1484:
1480:
1471:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1424:
1422:
1415:
1399:
1395:
1379:
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1326:
1319:
1314:Wayback Machine
1305:
1298:
1275:
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1242:
1232:
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1189:
1187:
1186:on 3 March 2016
1183:
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747:
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736:
732:
727:
594:
570:
545:
525:
519:
502:
472:Zhores Medvedev
424:
418:
386:Lavrentiy Beria
366:
361:
360:
355:
351:
346:
337:
296:
268:in Ukraine and
164:Lavrentiy Beria
120:
94:
85:
79:
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2270:Ural Mountains
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2100:Techsnabexport
2097:
2092:
2086:
2084:
2082:Atomenergoprom
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2067:OKB Gidropress
2064:
2058:
2056:
2054:Atomenergomash
2050:
2049:
2042:
2041:
2034:
2027:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1998:
1997:External links
1995:
1992:
1991:
1932:
1900:
1875:
1849:
1820:
1794:
1764:
1720:
1682:
1660:
1647:Bellona Report
1629:
1616:Science | AAAS
1603:
1571:
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1494:
1490:The Australian
1478:
1462:
1432:
1413:
1393:
1340:(1): 174–199.
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1209:|journal=
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980:on 2 June 2010
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1515:. pp. 13, 128
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37:
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26:
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2186:
2110:subsidiaries
2010:(in Russian)
1949:
1945:
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1914:
1903:
1891:. Retrieved
1887:
1878:
1866:. Retrieved
1862:the original
1852:
1840:. Retrieved
1836:the original
1811:. Retrieved
1807:the original
1797:
1779:
1767:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1711:. Retrieved
1699:
1695:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1651:
1645:
1632:
1620:. Retrieved
1615:
1606:
1594:. Retrieved
1590:
1566:The Guardian
1565:
1540:
1520:
1503:
1497:
1489:
1481:
1473:
1453:. Retrieved
1444:
1435:
1423:. Retrieved
1403:
1396:
1382:cite journal
1337:
1333:
1285:(5): 20–27.
1282:
1278:
1272:
1260:. Retrieved
1231:. Retrieved
1221:
1200:cite journal
1188:. Retrieved
1181:the original
1163:
1151:. Retrieved
1145:
1135:
1123:. Retrieved
1119:The Guardian
1117:
1107:
1095:. Retrieved
1086:
1061:
1034:
1028:
1017:
1007:29 September
1005:. Retrieved
994:
984:29 September
982:. Retrieved
978:the original
947:
943:
933:
923:27 September
921:. Retrieved
917:the original
875:
869:
857:. Retrieved
853:the original
848:
839:
781:
733:
648:rating of 3.
596:
595:
579:
557:
546:
526:
511:
482:
475:
469:
456:Soviet Union
453:
433:
394:
367:
352:
338:
317:Ekaterinburg
314:
285:
274:
259:
236:
228:strontium-90
208:
200:
188:
168:Soviet Union
162:
133:
131:
72:Headquarters
46:Company type
25:
2229: /
2117:Uranium One
1622:16 February
1596:16 February
1591:www.irsn.fr
1153:21 November
1003:. The Exile
824:Techa River
549:Techa River
533:SOX project
493:Ralph Nader
410:Techa River
325:Chelyabinsk
220:caesium-137
214:/hr (35–50
196:Techa River
2244:Categories
2217:60°50′53″E
2214:55°42′45″N
1915:Yahoo News
1893:3 December
1888:Yahoo News
1675:21 October
1455:25 October
1097:25 October
849:Rosatom.ru
831:References
640:amputated.
441:gigajoules
272:in Japan.
232:iodine-131
1713:6 January
1670:0806-3451
1356:1660-4601
1053:892040856
896:813540523
529:Ruthenium
378:Stalinist
370:plutonium
270:Fukushima
266:Chernobyl
176:plutonium
2177:Atomflot
2062:Atommash
1986:31350352
1919:Archived
1786:Archived
1751:21874558
1529:Archived
1449:Archived
1419:Archived
1374:19440276
1310:Archived
1256:Archived
1091:Archived
974:11335195
776:See also
720:circuit.
704:Sieverts
659:aerosols
553:Ob River
372:for the
294:Location
122:po-mayak
56:Industry
2290:Rosatom
2046:Rosatom
1977:6708381
1954:Bibcode
1925:30 July
1868:6 March
1842:6 March
1813:6 March
1759:1279837
1445:Arcadia
1425:11 June
1365:2672329
1254:. NTI.
1190:9 April
965:1240291
859:18 June
783:City 40
586:Ozyorsk
561:Ozyorsk
364:History
329:Ozyorsk
277:tritium
158:Ozyorsk
150:, from
138:Russian
117:Website
111:Rosatom
90:Revenue
64:Founded
1984:
1974:
1757:
1749:
1668:
1658:
1511:
1476:pp.7–8
1411:
1372:
1362:
1354:
1262:7 July
1233:7 July
1125:7 July
1051:
1041:
972:
962:
894:
884:
769:Ru-106
710:plant.
702:milli-
676:level.
597:Source
384:Chief
311:USACE.
243:curies
230:, and
192:curies
106:Parent
83:Russia
2187:Mayak
1789:(PDF)
1776:(PDF)
1755:S2CID
1642:(PDF)
1587:(PDF)
1184:(PDF)
1173:(PDF)
725:Notes
470:When
439:(310
344:Notes
321:Kasli
245:(740
182:from
29:Mayak
2105:TVEL
1982:PMID
1946:PNAS
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