Marine protected area

1111:. This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transshipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors. On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in the Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations. Establishment of the Ross Sea MPA required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in December 2017. However, due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal, the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years. 844:—Community-managed MPAs empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of the governmental jurisdictions they occupy. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, recreation, tourism businesses, youths and others. Mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there, and needs to be addressed. Recent evidence from regions like Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal or Canada reveals success stories based on the tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves. 2042: 1104:. In so doing, it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to advance these aims through protection, scientific study, and rational use, such as harvesting, of those marine resources. Though separate, the Antarctic Treaty and CCAMLR, make up part the broader system of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System. Since 1982, the CCAMLR meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of 'protected areas' at the suggestion of the convention's scientific committee. 52: 8646: 937:, such as France and USA (>11 million km), and Australia, Russia, UK, and Indonesia (>6 million km). Some states have very small land areas but extremely large EEZ's such as Kiribati, the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Cook Islands who have individual EEZ areas of between 1.9 and 3.5 million km. The national EEZ's are the ones where governance is easier, and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions, such as is the case with Marae Moana and the Cook Islands. 333: 4160: 3886: 8346: 4132: 1006: 8900: 7192:

Rand, Matt; Villagomez, Angelo; Ban, Natalie C.; Gurney, Georgina G.; Spalding, Ana K.; Bennett, Nathan J.; Briggs, Johnny; Morgan, Lance E.; Moffitt, Russell; Deguignet, Marine; Pikitch, Ellen K.; Darling, Emily S.; Jessen, Sabine; Hameed, Sarah O.; Di Carlo, Giuseppe; Guidetti, Paolo; Harris, Jean M.; Torre, Jorge; Kizilkaya, Zafer; Agardy, Tundi; Cury, Philippe; Shah, Nirmal J.; Sack, Karen; Cao, Ling; Fernandez, Miriam; Lubchenco, Jane (2021).

1615: 143: 8371: 822: 8378: 4146: 1635: 8357: 8108: 1771: 631: 129:. In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of the global ocean area falls under a conservation designation. This area is equivalent to 27 million square kilometres, equivalent to the land areas of Russia and Canada combined, although some argue that the effective conservation zones (ones with the strictest regulations) occupy only 5% of the ocean area (about equivalent to the land area of Russia alone). 6431: 1017:"The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of 838:—These are the most common and arguably the most effective. These areas employ two or more protections. The most important sections get the highest protection, such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections. Multiple-use MPAs can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection. 3955:– enables coherent evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and serve as a guide for improving, planning and monitoring these such as in efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal adopted as part of the Convention on Biological Diversity's "Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework" in December 2022, the "Global Deal For Nature" and the UN's 3983:. The general concept is to create overpopulation within the MPA. The fish expand into the surrounding areas to reduce crowding, increasing the population of unprotected areas. This helps support local fisheries in the surrounding area, while maintaining a healthy population within the MPA. Such MPAs are most commonly used for coral reef ecosystems. 1711:

conflicts caused by MNRs (such as the survival of coastal fishermen) and greater matching of national economic development strategies. Depending on local ecological considerations, SMPAs will subdivide into different functional zones. Areas with rare and endangered species or damaged and fragile environments are strict no-take areas and

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fishing techniques yet only 0.01% of the ocean's area is designated as a "no take zone". This coverage is far below the projected goal of 20%-30% Those targets have been questioned mainly due to the cost of managing protected areas and the conflict that protections have generated with human demand for marine goods and services.

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Grorud-Colvert, Kirsten; Sullivan-Stack, Jenna; Roberts, Callum; Constant, Vanessa; Horta e Costa, Barbara; Pike, Elizabeth P.; Kingston, Naomi; Laffoley, Dan; Sala, Enric; Claudet, Joachim; Friedlander, Alan M.; Gill, David A.; Lester, Sarah E.; Day, Jon C.; Gonçalves, Emanuel J.; Ahmadia, Gabby N.;

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Many fisheries scientists and managers have argued that no-take MPAs may not benefit biodiversity because they displace fishing effort outside the MPA. However, work accounting for displaced fishing effort has suggested that even when the same total amount of fish are caught across the seascape, MPAs

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Near half of England's seas are MPAs. Those MPAs only ban in specific places some of the most damaging activities. In 2020, Greenpeace revealed that in 2019 the UK legally allowed industrial boats to fish in the Marine protected area. This point is related to the concern of overfishing, while fishing

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There are a total of 42 marine protected areas in the South African EEZ, after consolidation, with a total area of 15.5% of its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The target was to have 10% of the oceanic waters protected by 2020. All but one of the MPAs are in the exclusive economic zone off continental

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that is protected in terms of specific legislation for the benefit of the environment and the people who live in and use it. An MPA is a place where marine life can thrive under less pressure than unprotected areas. They are like underwater parks, and this healthy environment can benefit neighbouring

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The marine protected area network is still in its infancy. As of October 2010, approximately 6,800 MPAs had been established, covering 1.17% of global ocean area. Protected areas covered 2.86% of exclusive economic zones (EEZs). MPAs covered 6.3% of territorial seas. Many prohibit the use of harmful

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are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or

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Another unexpected result of MPAs is their impact on predatory marine species, which in some conditions can increase in population. When this occurs, prey populations decrease. One study showed that in 21 out of 39 cases, "trophic cascades", caused a decrease in herbivores, which led to an increase

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has many stakeholders within its governance structure, including a variety of Government Ministries, NGOs, traditional landowners, and society representatives. The Marae Moana conservation area is managed through a spatial zoning principle, whereby specific designations are given to specific zones,

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MNRs are the no-take areas under comprehensive protection that prohibit any kind of resource exploitation. Unlike such traditional MPAs, SMPAs have been established in China since 2002. SMPAs allow the use of marine resources in a supervised and sustainable way, aiming at reducing local development

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The prevalent practice of area-based targets was criticized in 2019 by a group of environmental scientists because politicians tended to protect parts of the oceans where little fishing happened to meet the goals. The lack of fishing in these areas made them easy to protect, but it also had little

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These networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups. "MPA networks are, from the perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio-economic needs, complementary ecological and

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zones, as with their terrestrial equivalents, vary in terms of rules and regulations. Few zones rule out completely any sort of human activity within their area, as activities such as fishing, tourism, and transport of essential goods and services by ship, are part of the fabric of nation states.

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The "North Pacific network" covers the western coasts of Mexico, Canada, and the U.S. The "Antigua Convention" and an action plan for the north Pacific region were adapted in 2002. Participant nations manage their own national systems. In 2010–2011, the State of California completed hearings and

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host one of the most highly biodiverse regions, with 464 reef-building coral species. Due to overfishing, destructive fishing techniques, and rapid coastal development, these are in rapid decline. The country has established some 600 MPAs. However, the majority are poorly enforced and are highly

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One example is at Goat Island Bay in New Zealand, established in 1977. Research gathered at Goat Bay documented the spillover effect. "Spillover and larval export—the drifting of millions of eggs and larvae beyond the reserve—have become central concepts of marine conservation". This positively

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This definition is intended to make it more difficult to claim MPA status for regions where exploitation of marine resources occurs. If there is no defined long-term goal for conservation and ecological recovery and extraction of marine resources occurs, a region is not a marine protected area.

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When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries, as of April 2023 there are more than 16,615 MPAs, encompassing 7.2% of the world's oceans (26,146,645 km), with less than half of that area – encompassing 2.9% of the world's oceans – assessed to be fully or highly

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increase, oxygen reduction, and other marine environmental issues remains questionable. Despite differences in species adaptations, warming has affected the habitats of some marine species, such as corals, to move from lower to higher latitudes. If MPA assumes a relatively stable ecological

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aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. In that 2017 conference, it was clear that just between 3.6 and 5.7% of the world's oceans were protected, meaning another 6.4 to 4.3% of the world's oceans needed to be protected within 3 years. The 10%

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Southeast Asia is a global epicenter for marine diversity. 12% of its coral reefs are in MPAs. The Philippines have some the world's best coral reefs and protect them to attract international tourism. Most of the Philippines' MPAs are established to secure protection for its coral reef and

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Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal

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Yamahara, Kevan M.; Preston, Christina M.; Birch, James; Walz, Kristine; Marin, Roman; Jensen, Scott; Pargett, Douglas; Roman, Brent; Ussler, William; Zhang, Yanwu; Ryan, John; Hobson, Brett; Kieft, Brian; Raanan, Ben; Goodwin, Kelly D.; Chavez, Francisco P.; Scholin, Christopher (2019).

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China has developed its unique MPA management system, which divides MPAs into two main categories: Marine Natural Reserves (MNRs) and Special Marine Protected Areas (SMPAs). As of 2016, China has designated 267 MPAs, including 160 MNRs and 107 SMPAs, covering nearly 4% of the sea area.

641:(NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions. For example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000 sq mi) 1119:

Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified the need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans. Some national targets are listed in the table below

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can lead to a net biodiversity gain, if sensitive species are present, even when the bycatch species do not fully overlap the distribution of the fished species. However, there are other potential undesirable impacts of displaced fishing effort such as increased cost to fishers.

3971:. As of 2013 30% of the world's reefs were severely damaged. Approximately 60% will be lost by 2030 without enhanced protection. Marine reserves with "no take zones" are the most effective form of protection. Only about 0.01% of the world's coral reefs are inside effective MPAs. 2007:

in the Indian Ocean was established in 2010 as a "no-take-zone". With a total surface area of 640,000 square kilometres (250,000 sq mi), it was the world's largest contiguous marine reserve. In March 2015, the UK announced the creation of a marine reserve around the

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MPAs have been cited as the ocean's single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors. Well-designed and managed MPAs developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore

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Dinerstein, E.; Vynne, C.; Sala, E.; Joshi, A. R.; Fernando, S.; Lovejoy, T. E.; Mayorga, J.; Olson, D.; Asner, G. P.; Baillie, J. E. M.; Burgess, N. D.; Burkart, K.; Noss, R. F.; Zhang, Y. P.; Baccini, A.; Birch, T.; Hahn, N.; Joppa, L. N.; Wikramanayake, E. (2019).

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in the Southern Pacific Ocean to protect its special biodiversity. The area of 830,000 square kilometres (320,000 sq mi) surpassed the Chagos Marine Protected Area as the world's largest contiguous marine reserve, until the August 2016 expansion of the

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Andradi-Brown, Dominic A.; Veverka, Laura; Amkieltiela; Crane, Nicole L.; Estradivari; Fox, Helen E.; Gill, David; Goetze, Jordan; Gough, Charlotte; Krueck, Nils C.; Lester, Sarah E.; Mahajan, Shauna L.; Rulmal, John; Teoh, Marianne; Ahmadia, Gabby N. (2023).

561:". Under article 4, biosphere reserves must "encompass a mosaic of ecological systems", and thus combine terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems. In structure they are similar to Multiple-use MPAs, with a core area ringed by different degrees of protection. 2000:. The UK is responsible for 6.8 million square kilometres of ocean around the world, larger than all but four other countries. In 2016 the UK government established the Blue Belt Programme to enhance the protection and management of the marine environment. 896:

parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains, as these, in turn, influence the biosphere around them. As time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as

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and action plan in 1981. An MPA-specific protocol was ratified in 1989. The permanent commission on the exploitation and conservation on the marine resources of the South Pacific promotes the exchange of studies and information among participants.

4579: 1988:, stated that nearly 50 areas around the UK coastline should become Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs). This would see the banning of dredging, sewage dumping, drilling, offshore wind-turbine construction and catch-and-release sea fishing. 777:

Ship transit can also be restricted or banned, either as a preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in

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Roberts, Callum M.; O’Leary, Bethan C.; McCauley, Douglas J.; Cury, Philippe Maurice; Duarte, Carlos M.; Lubchenco, Jane; Pauly, Daniel; Sáenz-Arroyo, Andrea; Sumaila, Ussif Rashid; Wilson, Rod W.; Worm, Boris; Castilla, Juan Carlos (2017).

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Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed

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The region is currently running one comprehensive cross-national program, the Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network, signed in April 2004. The network covers about 211,000,000 square kilometres (81,000,000 sq mi).

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People can take part in a wide range of non-consumptive activities in all of South Africa's MPAs, and some parts of some MPAs are zoned for limited consumptive activities. Some of these activities require a permit, which is a form of

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to map and analyze MPAs. NOAA Coastal Services Center compiled an "Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs". The report focuses on GIS tools with the highest utility for MPA processes. Remote sensing uses advances in

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recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system. They advocated that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes" in a network of protected areas. The following are the most common management systems:

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Some existing and proposed MPAs have been criticized by indigenous populations and their supporters, as impinging on land usage rights. For example, the proposed Chagos Protected Area in the Chagos Islands is contested by

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Misconceptions about MPAs include the belief that all MPAs are no-take or no-fishing areas. Less than 1 percent of US waters are no-take areas. MPA activities can include consumption fishing, diving and other activities.

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environment within the area as before, it may become ineffective when the range of species distribution changes or becomes extensive. Hence, there's need to incorporate the climate change adaptation to the framework.

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ineffective. However, some have positively impacted reef health, increased fish biomass, decreased coral bleaching and increased yields in adjacent fisheries. One notable example is the MPA surrounding Apo Island.

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Despite all the efforts, as China constructs MPA based on administrative hierarchy (national, provincial, municipal, and county), there exist problems of fragmentized division and inconsistent enforcement of MPAs.

6621: 82:. These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities. MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources. Such 7453:"A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated, and managed, through legal or effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem service and cultural value." 3932:. Mathematical models that seek to reflect the complexity of the natural setting may assist in planning harvesting strategies and sustaining fishing grounds. Other techniques such as on-site monitoring sensors, 1095:

by commercial fisheries. The Convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon Antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of the region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the

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Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources

921:, which occupy half the earth's surface. Another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership. Who owns the world's oceans? Approximately 64% of the world's oceans are " 106:, occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers. The area is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds. In 2017 the 114:, which has an area of 1.9 million square kilometers as a zone with the purpose of protecting and conserving the "ecological, biodiversity and heritage values of the Cook Islands marine environment". Other 3991:

in the quantity of plant life. This occurred in the Malindi Kisite and Watamu Marian National Parks in Kenya; the Leigh Marine Reserve in New Zealand; and Brackett's Landing Conservation Area in the US.

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and have been greatly affected by global warming, especially in recent years. The ability of existing MPA designs to cope with changes in marine biodiversity due to ocean acidification, sea level rise,

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Ten countries in the Western Indian Ocean have launched the "Great Blue Wall" initiative, which seeks to create a network of linked MPAs throughout the region. These are generally expected to be under

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in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional

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Other critiques include: their cost (higher than that of passive management), conflicts with human development goals, inadequate scope to address factors such as climate change and invasive species.

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Another misconception is that a federal mandate dedicates a set percentage of ocean to MPAs. Instead the mandate requires an evaluation of current MPAs and creates a public resource on current MPAs.

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Another misconception is that most MPAs are federally managed. Instead, MPAs are managed under hundreds of laws and jurisdictions. They can exist in state, commonwealth, territory and tribal waters.

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Filipino communities connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating a larger network through the social communities' support. Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in

95:), MPAs also provide revenue for countries, potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish. The value of MPA to mobile species is unknown. 4650: 603:

A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve.

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to become part of a global system. These sites do not necessarily receive protection, but are indexed by importance for later recommendation to an agency that could designate it a protected area.

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proposed the creation of eight large, international, MPAs ("CIESM Marine Peace Parks") with the dual benefits of protecting unique oceanographic features and mitigating trans-frontier conflicts

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On 7 April 1982, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then-current

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emphasize the protection of ecosystems but allow light human use. A marine park may prohibit fishing or extraction of resources, but allow recreation. Some marine parks, such as those in

269: 6673: 4078:, the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint UK/US military base on 5287: 738:. They can be self-financed through a surrounding "conservation finance area" in which a limited number licenses are granted to benefit from the spillover of the marine protected area. 4818: 4891:

Laffoley, D. d'A., (ed.) 2008. Towards Networks of Marine Protected Areas. The MPA Plan of Action for IUCN's World Commission on Protected Areas. IUCN WCPA, Gland, Switzerland. 28 pp.

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was declared the world's largest marine reserve in April 2010 with an area of 250,000 square miles until March 2015 when It was declared illegal by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

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Lowry, G. K.; White, A. T.; Christie, P. (2009). "Scaling Up to Networks of Marine Protected Areas in the Philippines: Biophysical, Legal, Institutional, and Social Considerations".

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A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated

1877:) to produce large colonies in shallow water of less than 50 metres (160 ft). Shallow-water colonies outside these decades-old MPAs are typically very small. The MPAs are 1666:(better known as the Cartagena Convention) was established in 1983. A protocol involving protected areas was ratified in 1990. As of 2008, the region hosted about 500 MPAs. 797:

Most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where the appropriate government can enforce them. However, MPAs have been established in exclusive economic zones and in

2024:. The protected area will be 234,291 square kilometres (90,460 sq mi), half of which will be closed to fishing. The eventual marine park covered 100% of the EEZ. 8889: 774:), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include "no-take" zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1% of US MPAs are no-take. 6625: 6490: 2031:

and neighboring islands will become a Marine Protection Zone. The move will make the zone the largest no-take zone in the Atlantic and the fourth largest on the planet.

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Two assessments, conducted thirty years apart, of three Mediterranean MPAs, demonstrate that proper protection allows commercially valuable and slow-growing red coral (

832:—Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily, e.g., to protect spawning/nursing grounds or to let a rapidly reducing species recover. 351:

An area containing both marine and terrestrial components, which can vary between two extremes; those that are predominantly maritime with little land (for example, an

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The form of marine protected areas trace the origins to the World Congress on National Parks in 1962. In 1976, a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every

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Bruno, John F.; Bates, Amanda E.; Cacciapaglia, Chris; Pike, Elizabeth P.; Amstrup, Steven C.; van Hooidonk, Ruben; Henson, Stephanie A.; Aronson, Richard B. (2018).

5652:"Ongoing global biodiversity loss and the need to move beyond protected areas: A review of the technical and practical shortcoming of protected areas on land and sea" 5541: 1650:

subdivision encompasses an area of about 5,700,000 square kilometres (2,200,000 sq mi) of ocean and 38 nations. The area includes island countries like the

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announced the creation of 2 national marine parks in size of 740,000 square kilometers. With those parks 45% of the Australian marine territory will be protected.

4651:"Nomination of Existing Marine Protected Areas to the National System of Marine Protected Areas and Updates to the List of National System Marine Protected Areas" 1923: 1914:

found that trawling is more intense inside official EU marine sanctuaries and that endangered fish species such as sharks and rays are more common outside them.

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UNEP-Nairobi Convention and WIOMSA. 2021. Western Indian Ocean Marine Protected Areas Outlook: Towards achievement of the Global Biodiversity Framework Targets.

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Does displacement of fishing effort from marine protected areas impact the wider environment? A review and case study for displacement within the Hauraki Gulf

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the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.

933:. The remaining 36% of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). Some individual national EEZ's 4209: 1042: 985: 6571: 6360: 984:

considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them. The

547:(WHS) – an area exhibiting extensive natural or cultural history. Maritime areas are poorly represented, however, with only 46 out of over 800 sites. 6155:"California's Marine Life Protection Act Initiative: Supporting implementation of legislation establishing a statewide network of marine protected areas" 8040:. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (22nd Annual Scientific Diving Symposium). Archived from the original on September 29, 2008 7076: 806: 9371: 7465: 6379: 1936:) were in an MPA. Only 3% of US waters are no-take MPAs. Almost all of the no-take zones are located in two large MPAs in the remote Pacific Ocean, 8411: 8171: 4314: 1743:

has designated one large MPA system. As of 2008, 0.5% of its marine environment was protected, mostly through the use of small, multiple-use MPAs.

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Over the next two decades, a scientific body of evidence marked the utility in the designation of marine protected areas. In the aftermath of the

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that provides information on the world's protected areas and global MPA campaigns. Information comes from a variety of sources, including the

6283: 5291: 960:, California, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The 8919: 5011: 4757: 2165:

The following shows a list of countries and their marine protected areas as percentage of their territorial waters (click "show" to expand).

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though these designations may change over time. For example, some areas may allow fishing, whilst fishing may be prohibited in other areas.

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protection goal is described as a "baby step" as 30% is the real amount of ocean protection scientists agree on that should be implemented.

308:, with major (990,000 square kilometres (380,000 sq mi) or larger) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012—such as 8266: 8251: 6448: 5586:

Christie, Patrick, and A.T. White. "Best practices for improved governance of coral reef marine protected areas." (2007): 1048-1056. Print.

1590:. Without the large Prince Edward Islands MPA, South Africa has 41 MPAs covering 5.4% of its continental EEZ. This achieves United Nations 317: 9022: 8867: 7415: 4441: 1954: 297: 6847: 5886: 4277:

In the U.S., MPAs span a range of habitats, including the open ocean, coastal areas, inter-tidal zones, estuaries, and the Great Lakes.

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would contain no open sea or ocean marine environment, but its river-like marine ecosystem nevertheless complies with the definition.

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This article is about marine protected areas specifically. For protected regions of environmental or cultural value in general, see

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Engaging marine scientists and fishers to share knowledge and perceptions – An overview. Briand, F., Gourguet, S. et al. Dec. 2018.

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Asinara, Italy is listed by WDPA as both a marine reserve and a national marine park, and as such could be labelled 'multiple-use'.

6717: 3922: 9155: 8363: 8219: 8142:, an online interactive search engine hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Center ( 8112: 6647: 4214: 1927: 1904:(Mediterranean Network of Marine Protected Areas Managers) which aims to protect 10% of the surface of the Mediterranean by 2020. 731: 2027:

On 13 November 2020 it was announced that the 687,247 square kilometres (265,348 sq mi) of the waters surrounding the

8224: 4868: 2149: 1815:, covering about 210,000 square kilometres (81,000 sq mi). It is the result of a financial deal, brokered in 2016 by 1566: 1548: 17: 3947:-quality and -extents. In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, 623:

is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, but carries no authority or mandate, leaving all activity within the "

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Wells, Sue; Sheppard, V.; van Lavieren, H.; Barnard, N.; Kershaw, F.; Corrigan, C.; Teleki, K.; Stock, P.; Adler, E. (2008).

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Mora C.; Andrèfouët, S; Costello, M. J.; Kranenburg, C; Rollo, A; Veron, J; Gaston, K. J.; Myers, R. A.; et al. (2006).

5901: 4490: 4417:"National monument in Hawaii becomes world's largest marine protected area | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration" 722:

made protected one quarter of their reef, allowing fish to recover, jump-starting their economy. This was shown in the film,

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areas, while other areas will be considered sustainable resource use zone for current use and reserved zone for future use.

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In 2009, the CCAMLR created the first 'high-seas' MPA entirely within international waters over the southern shelf of the

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Ma, Chun; Zhang, Xiaochun; Chen, Weiping; Zhang, Guangyu; Duan, Huihui; Ju, Meiting; Li, Hongyuan; Yang, Zhihong (2013).

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Kirlin, John; Caldwell, Meg; Gleason, Mary; Weber, Mike; Ugoretz, John; Fox, Evan; Miller-Henson, Melissa (2013-03-01).

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By 2008 address the less represented marine ecosystems, accounting for those beyond national jurisdiction in accordance.

8234: 8083: 8070: 5305:

Sala, Enric; Lubchenco, Jane; Grorud-Colvert, Kirsten; Novelli, Catherine; Roberts, Callum; Sumaila, U. Rashid (2018).

4603: 4000: 1978: 1595: 1055: 981: 810: 608: 276:

and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in the

257:, an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world's marine protected areas. 214: 9251: 8984: 8979: 8212: 8132: 8016: 5205: 7012:"In situ Autonomous Acquisition and Preservation of Marine Environmental DNA Using an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle" 4573:"Towards Networks of Marine Protected Areas - The MPA Plan of Action for IUCN's World Commission on Protected Areas" 988:

agreed to the terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets;

9357: 8460: 8207: 4120:

In Scotland, environmental groups have criticised the government for failing to enforce fishing rules around MPAs.

1894: 1674: 1627: 865:

have been defined as "A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and/or socially form a network".

305: 4910:

Christie, P.; White, A. T. (2007). "Best Practices for Improved Governance of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas".

1021:

at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of

934: 472:

Established to protect historical sites such as shipwrecks and cultural sites such as aboriginal fishing grounds.

9801: 9181: 9037: 8397: 8350: 8157: 5064:"Diversity in marine protected area regulations: Protection approaches for locally appropriate marine management" 3956: 2072: 1970: 1517:

29 MPAs covering 18% of state marine area with 243 square kilometres (94 sq mi) at maximum protection.

1059: 1051: 409:

usually connotes "maximum protection", where all resource removals are strictly prohibited. In countries such as

115: 5609: 5475: 8515: 8194: 6238: 4071: 2105: 2061: 1830: 1478: 1365:

10% of Manx waters as 'effectively managed, ecologically representative and well-connected protected areas and

980:.It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The 930: 735: 355:

would have a tiny island with a significant maritime population surrounding it), or that is mostly terrestrial.

92: 6052:"China's special marine protected area policy: Trade-off between economic development and marine conservation" 5566: 9720: 9150: 9140: 9047: 8545: 8128: 8058: 6260: 4843: 3906: 2041: 853: 309: 7909:"Marine protected areas can benefit biodiversity even when bycatch species only partially overlap fisheries" 5831: 4984: 9776: 9740: 9725: 9221: 9130: 8625: 8580: 7051: 6799: 4184: 2127: 2004: 1997: 654: 301: 8635: 7908: 4954: 4946: 4014:—ensuring that the sites have the size, shape, and distribution to ensure the success of selected species. 3952: 1681:

that borders the coast of much of Central America), and the "Islands in the Stream" program (covering the

7472: 7242:

Pandolfi, J.M.; et al. (2003). "Global trajectories of long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems".

3937: 645:, the world's largest MPA (and largest protected area of any type, land or sea), is a 100% no take zone. 4743: 9791: 9176: 9065: 8293: 7482: 2083: 941: 7293:

Hughes, T.P.; et al. (2003). "Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs".

6051: 5995: 5937: 9330: 9325: 9302: 9211: 9042: 9017: 8241: 6597: 5727: 5596:

Halpern, B. (2003). "The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does reserve size matter?".

5158: 1664:

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region

6772: 6220: 5630: 5406: 2020:

In January 2016, the UK government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around

1698:

habitats. Indonesia has MPAs designed for tourism and relies on tourism as a main source of income.

9781: 9771: 9614: 9216: 8949: 8924: 8595: 8570: 8229: 5696:"Assessing Progress Towards Global Marine Protection Targets: Shortfalls in Information and Action" 4477:, Sustainable Development Goals Series, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 339–367, 1974: 1418: 691: 5454: 9564: 9471: 9307: 8969: 8862: 8540: 8495: 8480: 8199: 7907:

Erm, Philip; Balmford, Andrew; Krueck, Nils C.; Takashina, Nao; Holden, Matthew H. (2024-02-04).

6935: 6308: 4469:

Petterson, Michael G.; Kim, Hyeon-Ju; Gill, Joel C. (2021), Gill, Joel C.; Smith, Martin (eds.),

4204: 4199: 4096: 2153: 1958: 1865: 1570: 1225: 1022: 783: 293: 118:

include those around Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension Island, and Brazil.

111: 1981:

in Scotland. They are to be found in inshore and offshore waters. In June 2020, a review led by

801:. For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established a cetacean sanctuary in the 9796: 9411: 9396: 9231: 9091: 8764: 6097: 5777: 5433:"Chile es el país con el mayor porcentaje de sus costas con algún tipo de protección del mundo" 4333: 2054: 1816: 1712: 51: 8645: 7428: 6960:

Berezansky, L.; Idels, L.; Kipnis, M. (2011). "Mathematical model of marine protected areas".

1001:

By 2012 complete the establishment of a comprehensive and ecologically representative network.

9786: 9629: 9544: 9494: 8989: 8615: 8510: 8052: 7345: 6848:"Conservation International – World's Largest Marine Protected Area Created in Pacific Ocean" 6548:

Webster, Ben (8 June 2020). "Sea fishing banned under plan to protect nation's marine life".

6361:"The Mediterranean needs more marine reserves – they are an antidote to the crisis, says WWF" 3967:

Coral reef systems have been in decline worldwide. Causes include overfishing, pollution and

2065: 1583: 1370: 1097: 1009: 977: 675: 550: 7489: 7394: 5015: 4173: 9539: 9534: 9509: 8974: 8954: 8914: 8884: 8831: 7920: 7871: 7816: 7749: 7685: 7588: 7530: 7302: 7251: 7122: 6166: 6063: 6007: 5949: 5770: 5666: 5318: 5124: 4919: 4380: 3936:

via local people, research and sampling endeavors, autonomous ships and underwater robots (

1985: 1108: 957: 922: 798: 6703: 5936:

Hu, Wenjia; Liu, Jie; Ma, Zhiyuan; Wang, Yuyu; Zhang, Dian; Yu, Weiwei; Chen, Bin (2020).

8: 9735: 9436: 9135: 9125: 9058: 9027: 9012: 8839: 8835: 8799: 8555: 8525: 8314: 7955: 6888: 6680:. World’s Largest Single Marine Reserve Created in Pacific. 18 March 2015. Archived from 5802: 4470: 4007:

have criteria for setting up and maintaining MPA networks, which emphasize four factors:

3968: 1350: 1101: 893: 683: 544: 130: 126: 122: 39: 8118: 7924: 7875: 7820: 7753: 7689: 7673: 7592: 7534: 7306: 7255: 7193: 7166: 7126: 6170: 6067: 6011: 5953: 5670: 5322: 5128: 4923: 4384: 714:

MPAs can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism. For example,

9649: 9644: 9401: 9320: 9096: 8939: 8719: 7780: 7737: 7717: 7654: 7554: 7376: 7326: 7275: 7224: 7143: 7110: 5973: 5518: 5493: 5375:. Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. 29 October 2016 5140: 4935: 4696:. Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. 28 October 2016 4496: 4165: 3915: 1845: 1274: 1203: 779: 337: 185: 173: 7971: 6913: 6651: 6239:"New Australian Marine Parks Protect an Area Twice the Size of the Great Barrier Reef" 5825: 5823: 5651: 125:

expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving

9639: 9579: 9559: 9514: 9456: 9201: 9186: 8669: 8590: 8520: 8465: 8450: 8434: 8079: 8012: 8002: 7936: 7889: 7840: 7832: 7785: 7767: 7721: 7709: 7701: 7646: 7604: 7546: 7368: 7318: 7267: 7228: 7216: 7148: 7084: 7033: 6987: 6553: 6389: 6334: 6184: 6079: 6023: 5977: 5965: 5897: 5523: 5201: 5195: 5103: 5085: 4500: 4486: 4398: 4393: 4368: 4308: 3948: 3944: 3925: 3890: 1910: 1857: 1018: 1012:, Indonesia is officially listed as both a marine reserve and a national marine park. 961: 564: 493: 250: 7658: 7558: 7518: 7380: 7279: 6179: 6154: 6075: 5878: 5494:"Quantifying biases in marine-protected-area placement relative to abatable threats" 5144: 4939: 204:

United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as:

9745: 9524: 9421: 9388: 9380: 9282: 9086: 9081: 8789: 8709: 8505: 8490: 8485: 8321: 7928: 7879: 7824: 7775: 7757: 7693: 7638: 7596: 7577:"Designing marine protected area networks to address the impacts of climate change" 7538: 7360: 7330: 7310: 7259: 7208: 7138: 7130: 7023: 6977: 6969: 6824:"UK Overseas Territory becomes one of the world's biggest sanctuaries for wildlife" 6202: 6174: 6071: 6015: 5957: 5820: 5707: 5674: 5605: 5513: 5505: 5326: 5221: 5132: 5075: 4927: 4478: 4388: 3980: 2028: 2021: 2009: 1873: 1398: 1088: 940:

One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through the use of

679: 83: 5849: 5492:

Kuempel, Caitlin; Jones, Kendall; Watson, James; Possingham, James (27 May 2017).

1833:

protection, which allows for local fishing but prohibits industrial exploitation.

9504: 9441: 9431: 9406: 9287: 9145: 8934: 8724: 8679: 8664: 8565: 7884: 7860:"The biodiversity benefits of marine protected areas in well-regulated fisheries" 7859: 6453: 6019: 5961: 5331: 5306: 4482: 3898: 1804: 1659: 1148: 914: 898: 363: 243: 8072:

Growing up strong: The first 10 years of Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia

7343: 5938:"China's marine protected area system: Evolution, challenges, and new prospects" 4797:"Establishing Resilient Marine Protected Area Networks — Making It Happen, 2008" 1369:' by 2020. As of June 2016, approximately 3% of Manx waters were protected as a 1058:) and which sets this 10% goal to a later date (2020). In 2017, the UN held the 1038:

Effective conservation of 10% of each of the world's ecological regions by 2010.

9674: 9594: 9584: 9554: 9484: 9416: 9277: 9206: 9120: 8769: 8749: 8729: 8704: 8654: 8585: 8575: 8535: 8475: 8438: 8331: 6346: 5346: 5080: 5063: 4989: 4782: 4328: 4290: 4261: 4189: 4151: 4067: 3910: 2050: 2017:

in the United States to 1,510,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi).

1982: 1882: 1853: 1849: 1682: 1639: 1623: 1587: 1498: 1134: 926: 902: 751: 687: 537: 406: 332: 289: 254: 165: 152: 63: 45: 31: 8826: 7672:

Wilson, Kristen L.; Tittensor, Derek P.; Worm, Boris; Lotze, Heike K. (2020).

7642: 7542: 5712: 5695: 5197:

National and Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas: A Review of Progress

5136: 4931: 4740:"Foreign and Commonwealth Office, New Protection for Marine Life, April, 2010" 4519: 4026:—the resistance of the system to natural disaster, such as a tsunami or flood. 1503:

Establish an ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas by 2012.

98:

There are a number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The

9765: 9669: 9549: 9529: 9519: 9297: 9292: 9196: 8959: 8857: 8827: 8714: 8699: 8684: 8560: 8004:

National and Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas:A Review of Progress

7940: 7893: 7836: 7771: 7705: 7674:"Incorporating climate change adaptation into marine protected area planning" 7650: 7608: 7550: 7088: 7037: 7028: 7011: 6991: 6557: 6435: 6393: 6188: 6083: 6027: 5969: 5795: 5089: 4847: 4402: 4369:"Reassessing the value of nursery areas to shark conservation and management" 4289:

Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric.

4159: 4137: 3929: 3918: 2160: 1996:

The United Kingdom is also creating marine protected reserves around several

1740: 1508: 992:

By 2006 complete an area system gap analysis at national and regional levels.

918: 444: 285: 146: 7932: 7762: 7490:"WikiLeaks reveals U.S., British use marine reserves as tool of imperialism" 7364: 7314: 7263: 7212: 6973: 6284:"'Great Blue Wall' aims to ward off looming threats to western Indian Ocean" 5476:"Managing our Natural Wealth: The Isle of Man's First Biodiversity Strategy" 5263: 5242: 4955:"Joint-Value Creation Between Marine Protected Areas and the Private Sector" 417:, marine reserves allow for low-risk removals to sustain local communities. 9609: 9569: 9499: 8779: 8694: 8674: 8620: 8530: 8500: 8309: 7844: 7789: 7713: 7372: 7322: 7271: 7220: 7190: 7152: 7134: 6384: 5527: 4672: 4079: 3933: 2131: 2087: 1812: 1787: 1574: 1468: 892:

To be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources,

881: 809:. This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the 802: 281: 189: 107: 7804: 7627:"The potential impacts of global climate change on marine protected areas" 7626: 998:

By 2009 designate the protected areas identified through the gap analysis.

734:

system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through

9699: 9684: 9654: 9426: 9032: 8944: 8794: 8774: 8759: 8744: 8739: 8689: 8470: 8389: 8149: 5288:"The World Has Two Years to Meet Marine Protection Goal. Can It Be Done?" 4194: 4091: 4063: 1933: 1842: 1795:

actions via the state Department of Fish and Game to establish new MPAs.

1783: 1728: 1448: 1408: 1360: 763: 755: 719: 456:, are zoned and allow activities such as fishing only in low risk areas. 449: 184:"Marine protected area (MPA)" is a term for protected areas that include 110:

passed the Marae Moana Act designating the whole of the country's marine

88: 79: 35: 8067:

Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Water Resources

7575:

McLeod, Elizabeth; Salm, Rodney; Green, Alison; Almany, Jeanine (2009).

7167:"Improving ocean protection with the first marine protected areas guide" 5264:"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Decision VII/15" 5243:"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Decision VII/28" 3885: 1163:

20% of the marine ecosystem protected for fishery replenishment by 2010.

9689: 9624: 9466: 9451: 9256: 8964: 8754: 8734: 7972:"Fines to rogue fishermen fall and illegal fishing escapes prosecution" 7738:"Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change" 7111:"A Global Deal For Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets" 6743: 6572:"Conservationists call for UK to create world's largest marine reserve" 6414:"Marine Protected Areas 2020: Building Effective Conservation Networks" 5509: 4836:"Papahānaumokuākea (Expansion) Marine National Monument, United States" 4178: 2138: 2120: 1861: 1808: 1678: 1667: 1512: 1388: 1284: 1257: 1228:

to be marine conservation or protected areas by 2025, and 30% by 2030.

1182: 906: 715: 359: 273: 226:

biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings.

8899: 7697: 7576: 6982: 5694:

Wooda, Louisa J.; Fisha, Lucy; Laughrena, Josh; Pauly, Daniel (2008).

5679: 5353:. Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 4131: 1746:

Mexico designed a Marine Strategy that goes from the years 2018–2021.

1642:

region (in 3D) is encompassed by the "Islands in the Stream" proposal.

1005: 557:

program that promotes "a balanced relationship between humans and the

9704: 9619: 9461: 9226: 9191: 8804: 8784: 8143: 7052:"COP15: Final text of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework" 6526: 5887:

Marine & Coastal Areas under Protection: Republic of South Africa

4471:"Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas, and Marine Resources" 4442:"Obama's Hawaii marine conservation area is just a drop in the ocean" 2142: 1823: 1695: 1647: 1619: 1614: 1373:, with additional areas subject to seasonal or temporary protection. 1337: 1176: 1144: 787: 771: 703: 558: 265: 142: 9349: 8034:"Safe Harbors for our Future: An Overview of Marine Protected Areas" 7828: 6468: 5060: 1864:. The member states had to define NATURA 2000 areas at sea in their 1312:

38% of water managed by the marine protected network. (no set date)

869:

social goals and designs need greater research and policy support".

575:

While "area" refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as "

270:

Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

9694: 9664: 9076: 8610: 8600: 8550: 7600: 6995: 6512: 5996:"Marine protected area networks in China: Challenges and prospects" 4020:—protection for all of the local environment's biological processes 3894: 2109: 1488: 910: 821: 453: 277: 8377: 8139: 7194:"The MPA Guide: A framework to achieve global goals for the ocean" 6380:"Marine life worse off inside 'protected' areas, analysis reveals" 5830:

Mann-Lang, Judy; Mann, Bruce; Sink, Kerry, eds. (September 2018).

5542:"Global Ocean Protection: Present Status and Future Possibilities" 5304: 4606:. International Union for Conservation of Nature. 8 September 2012 1947: 1071: 1034:

The UN later endorsed another decision, Decision VII/15, in 2006:

374:, based on management objectives and four broad governance types. 318:

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area

9679: 9634: 9604: 9574: 9272: 9241: 9171: 9071: 8605: 8420: 6434:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

1886: 1878: 1651: 1634: 1458: 1378: 1317: 1307: 1265: 1196: 1158: 877: 759: 747: 489: 234:

to refer to protected areas on the Great Lakes of North America.

75: 8000: 7858:

Erm, Philip; Balmford, Andrew; Holden, Matthew H. (2023-08-01).

7439: 6124: 5916: 5393: 5181: 5159:"Ocean Governance: Who Owns the Ocean? | Heinrich Böll Stiftung" 4673:"Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Marine Protected Areas, 2010" 4604:"When is a Marine Protected Area really a Marine Protected Area" 4174:

Eco hotels as funding vehicles for marine protection initiatives

3979:

MPAs can be an effective tool to maintain fish populations; see

246:

to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles.

9659: 8107: 7077:"Cop15: historic deal struck to halt biodiversity loss by 2030" 6718:"Pitcairn Islands to get world's largest single marine reserve" 2098: 2076: 1901: 1755: 1219: 1189: 1170: 554: 414: 261: 103: 55:

Marine protected areas as of November 2022 (data from MPAtlas).

7346:"Coral reefs and the global network of Marine Protected Areas" 5282: 5280: 3893:

are a marine protected area, roughly six miles from Road Bay,

1770: 7519:"Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas" 5896:(Report). Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP and WIOMSA. pp. 133–166. 4985:"How Marine Protected Areas Can Pay for Their Own Protection" 4812:"Marine Protected Areas and the Concept of Fisheries Refugia" 1759: 1428: 1233: 1210: 1092: 767: 630: 591:" is more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas " 410: 352: 71: 5491: 5307:"Assessing real progress towards effective ocean protection" 4670: 348:

A totally marine area with no significant terrestrial parts.

5610:

10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0117:TIOMRD]2.0.CO;2

5277: 4004: 1655: 1438: 1327: 1294: 1243: 814: 497: 383: 231: 7906: 7734: 7516: 6674:"World's Largest Single Marine Reserve Created in Pacific" 6333:

Marine Peace Parks in the Mediterranean. 2011. Briand, F.

6152: 5563:"UN (2010) Millennium Development Goals Report – Addendum" 4548: 4367:

Kinney, Michael John; Simpfendorfer, Colin Ashley (2009).

2161:

Marine protected areas as percentage of territorial waters

1900:

WWF together with other partners proposed the creation of

6491:"Protecting and sustainably using the marine environment" 6449:"Supertrawlers 'making a mockery' of UK's protected seas" 6309:"Marine Protected Areas Conserve Mediterranean Red Coral" 1754:

Governments in the "South Pacific network" (ranging from

516:

Limited active management, as with protected landscapes.

230:

An apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by

67: 27:

Protected areas of seas, oceans, estuaries or large lakes

8433: 7805:"Policy: Marine biodiversity needs more than protection" 7671: 7107: 7008: 6861: 5857:"Marine Protected Areas and South Africa: Key takeaways" 5693: 5373:"CCAMLR to create world's largest Marine Protected Area" 4694:"CCAMLR to create world's largest Marine Protected Area" 4520:"Goal 14 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform" 1969:

There are a number of marine protected areas around the

1301:

30% of water managed by marine protected areas by 2020.

587:" that group MPAs are not always consistently employed." 8124: 6622:"Chagos Marine Reserve, British Indian Ocean Territory" 6419:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2020 5347:"Protection of the South Orkney Islands southern shelf" 4715: 4234: 1924:

United States National System of Marine Protected Areas

973: 6939: 1594:

for conservation of marine and coastal areas, and the

8065: 7574: 6959: 6914:"Marine protected areas % of territorial waters" 4210:

Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance

1043:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

986:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

666:(ASC) etc. which each provide specific restrictions. 488:

Established to protect a certain species, to benefit

344:

Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished:

8032:

Smith, D.; Miller, K.A. (2003). Norton, S.F. (ed.).

6879: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4549:"How Much of the Ocean Is Really Protected in 2020?" 4127: 3987:

impacted commercial fishermen in surrounding areas.

5741:(10177). Pretoria: Government Printer. 23 May 2019. 4366: 1932:As of June 2020, 26% of U.S. waters (including the 674:Stressors that affect oceans include the impact of 102:, is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around 7075:Greenfield, Patrick; Weston, Phoebe (2022-12-19). 6335:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239940856 6281: 5645: 5643: 5114: 5104:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329810761 1774:Cliffs in Hawaii overlooking central Pacific Ocean 1622:region; the UNEP–defined region also includes the 1443:Marine protected area system established by 2015. 807:Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals 8135:(WDPA), and many regional and national databases. 7857: 5829: 4894: 4475:Geosciences and the Sustainable Development Goals 4032:—maintaining population links across nearby MPAs. 2034: 1811:designates two new marine protected areas in the 847: 9763: 7337: 7074: 6049: 4468: 1598:(CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 1569:are in an area of coastline or ocean within the 1527: 1367:other effective area-based conservation measures 569:certain criteria for the definition of "Wetland" 324:protected according to the MPA Guide Framework. 9247:International Seafood Sustainability Foundation 8873:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 7742:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6767: 6765: 6221:"Seychelles designates huge new marine reserve" 5640: 5407:"Reaching Canada's marine conservation targets" 4339:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1991: 1948:United Kingdom and British Overseas Territories 1942:Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument 1078:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1072:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 634:Hawaiian waves crashing against rocks on shore. 314:Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument 8289:International Union for Conservation of Nature 7444:International Union for Conservation of Nature 6666: 1082: 954:International Union for Conservation of Nature 195:Other definitions by the IUCN include (2010): 162:International Union for Conservation of Nature 9365: 8405: 8165: 6120: 6118: 6116: 6114: 4909: 1977:in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and 1957:. Result of those negotiations might replace 6800:"Tristan's Marine Protection Zone Announced" 6762: 6098:"Summary Report for MPAs in the Philippines" 4598: 4596: 4313:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4066:deported from their homeland in 1965 by the 2174:MPA in % of territorial waters in 2017 1955:trade negotiations between the EU and the UK 1165:20% of coastal and marine habitats by 2015. 929:and the governance of UN bodies such as the 842:Community involvement and related approaches 316:, Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and 9023:List of commercially important fish species 8868:Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 8031: 7171:Institut de Recherche pour le Développement 6936:"Marine Protected Areas Government Website" 6867: 6744:"Ascension Island to become marine reserve" 6650:. Chagos Conservation Trust. Archived from 6624:. Marine Reserves Coalition. Archived from 6203:"Seychelles starts 'Britain-sized' reserve" 5935: 4671:Marine Protected Areas (MPA) (2010-10-15). 4103: 1050:The 10% conservation goal is also found in 9372: 9358: 8419: 8412: 8398: 8370: 8179: 8172: 8158: 6704:"Pitcairn Islands get huge marine reserve" 6377: 6111: 5993: 4357:National Geographic Magazine, January 2011 4288: 2095:Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 2015:Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 1938:Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 770:(which may confuse the guidance system of 762:. Other restrictions may limit the use of 643:Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 100:Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 7883: 7779: 7761: 7142: 7027: 6981: 6178: 5711: 5678: 5517: 5330: 5079: 4593: 4392: 3943:Such data can then be used for assessing 2145:in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark. 2117:Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary 1493:10% of marine area by 2010; 20% by 2020. 925:" and subject to regulations such as the 296:of Australia and overseas territories of 8995:Regional fishery management organisation 7960:(Thesis thesis). ResearchSpace@Auckland. 7953: 7581:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7433: 7241: 6928: 6773:"Ascension Island Marine Protected Area" 5994:Li, Yunzhou; Fluharty, David L. (2017). 5884: 5649: 5534: 4626:"Marine protected areas, why have them?" 3884: 2040: 1769: 1673:Two networks are under development, the 1633: 1613: 1433:30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. 1423:30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. 1403:30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. 1332:30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. 1322:25% of nearby marine resources by 2020. 1004: 947: 820: 724:Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef 682:, and changes to the ocean's chemistry ( 629: 358:Marine ecosystems that contain land and 331: 141: 50: 8007:. Master Evaluation for the UN Effort. 7802: 7620: 7618: 7570: 7568: 7512: 7510: 6547: 5910: 5595: 5387: 5175: 5014:. Unep-Wcmc. 2011-01-18. Archived from 4512: 4215:United States National Marine Sanctuary 1928:United States National Marine Sanctuary 1473:10% of exclusive economic zone by 2020 1463:Creation of MPA network. (no set date) 962:World Summit on Sustainable Development 732:United States National Marine Sanctuary 91:. In some situations (such as with the 14: 9764: 8138:Marine protected areas - viewable via 7466:"Clarifying misconceptions about MPAs" 7292: 6469:"Marine Protected Areas around the UK" 6261:"Global launch of the Great Blue Wall" 5931: 5929: 5927: 5925: 5832:"Fact sheet 3: Marine Protected Areas" 5413:. Government of Canada. 20 August 2019 4779:"Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands" 4653:. Federalregister.gov. 3 February 2011 2152:, which encompasses 100% the island's 2150:Ascension Island Marine Protected Area 1630:proposal, and the Caribbean challenge. 1567:marine protected areas of South Africa 1560:Marine protected areas of South Africa 1549:Marine protected areas of South Africa 619:for national and regional levels. The 9379: 9353: 8825: 8432: 8393: 8153: 7631:Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 6938:. Mpa.gov. 2012-05-07. Archived from 6529:. Joint Nature Conservation Committee 6282:Malavika Vyawahare (6 January 2022). 6045: 6043: 6041: 6039: 6037: 5989: 5987: 5193: 5039:. Protectedplanet.net. Archived from 4982: 4964:. Center for Development and Strategy 4887: 4885: 4464: 4462: 4256: 4254: 1355:14% of territorial waters as of 2009 1289:30% of shoreline ecosystems by 2020. 1139:20% of reefs to be protected by 2010 1091:to limit large-scale exploitation of 8878:United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement 8356: 8009:World Conservation Monitoring Centre 7624: 7615: 7565: 7507: 6406: 4809: 3940:) could also be used and developed. 2051:Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area 1836: 1626:. This region is encompassed by the 1609: 887: 615:" on a global level, while adopting 597:World Conservation Monitoring Centre 529:Sustainable use of natural resources 387:Protected Area Management Categories 9447:Oceanic physical-biological process 9053:Future of Marine Animal Populations 8930:Fishery Resources Monitoring System 8920:Monitoring control and surveillance 8078:. Canberra: Australian Government. 5922: 4181:: marine areas rich in biodiversity 3994: 1413:20% of marine environment by 2010. 1279:20% of marine and coastal by 2020. 1114: 728:Center for Development and Strategy 696:effects of climate change on oceans 500:, or to protect entire ecosystems. 24: 7056:Convention on Biological Diversity 6962:IMA Journal of Applied Mathematics 6797: 6527:"Marine Protected Areas in the UK" 6515:. UK Marine Protected Areas Centre 6301: 6137:"Mexico Marine Strategy 2018-2021" 6034: 5984: 4952: 4882: 4628:. IUCN. 2010-02-01. Archived from 4578:. IUCN. 2008-11-04. Archived from 4459: 4262:"What is a marine protected area?" 4251: 4112: 3921:, pop-up archival satellite tags, 1596:Convention on Biological Diversity 1153:19 marine protected areas by 2010 1066: 1056:Convention on Biological Diversity 982:Convention on Biological Diversity 609:Convention on Biological Diversity 540:categories include the following; 496:, as spawning/nursing grounds for 327: 215:Convention on Biological Diversity 25: 9813: 9252:Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 8985:National Marine Fisheries Service 8980:European Fisheries Control Agency 8133:World Database on Protected Areas 8100: 6882:"Managing Marine Protected Areas" 6378:Carrington, Damian (2018-12-20). 6241:. Mongabay. Ecowatch. 14 May 2021 4758:"Man and the Biosphere Programme" 4085: 4056: 4036: 1964: 1592:Sustainable Development Goal 14.5 1582:South Africa, and one is off the 830:Seasonal and temporary management 219:marine and coastal protected area 8898: 8644: 8461:Population dynamics of fisheries 8376: 8369: 8355: 8345: 8344: 8188:Marine protected areas by nation 8106: 7964: 7947: 7900: 7851: 7796: 7728: 7665: 7458: 7421: 7418:National Geographic. April 2007. 7408: 7395:"Marine Protected Areas (Innri)" 7387: 7286: 7235: 7184: 7159: 7101: 7068: 7044: 7002: 6996:http://hdl.handle.net/10613/2741 6953: 6906: 6873: 6493:. UK Government. 30 January 2015 6429: 5037:"Asinara Natural Marine Reserve" 5012:"Marine Protected Area Networks" 4983:Noone, Greg (22 December 2021). 4394:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00046.x 4158: 4144: 4130: 1917: 1895:Mediterranean Science Commission 1885:and Scandola, off the island of 1749: 1735: 1675:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System 1628:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System 1547:This section is an excerpt from 1383:20% of marine habitats by 2020. 1248:22% of land habitat, including: 362:components only. For example, a 9182:Aquaculture Stewardship Council 9038:Environmental impact of fishing 6840: 6816: 6791: 6736: 6696: 6640: 6614: 6590: 6564: 6552:. No. 73, 180. p. 6. 6541: 6505: 6483: 6461: 6441: 6371: 6353: 6339: 6327: 6275: 6253: 6231: 6213: 6195: 6180:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2012.08.015 6146: 6129: 6090: 6076:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.02.007 5782:www.marineprotectedareas.org.za 5745: 5720: 5687: 5616: 5589: 5580: 5555: 5485: 5468: 5447: 5425: 5399: 5365: 5339: 5298: 5256: 5235: 5214: 5187: 5151: 5108: 5096: 5054: 5029: 5004: 4976: 4861: 4828: 4803: 4789: 4771: 4750: 4732: 4708: 4686: 4664: 4643: 4618: 4565: 4541: 4530:from the original on 2019-04-12 4070:as part of the creation of the 3957:Sustainable Development Goal 14 3619:St. Vincent and the Grenadines 2073:Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary 1971:coastline of the United Kingdom 1798: 1541: 1060:United Nations Ocean Conference 1052:Sustainable Development Goal 14 1029: 972:The Evian agreement, signed by 485:Habitat/species management area 116:large marine conservation areas 9156:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 8516:Otolith microchemical analysis 8195:List of marine protected areas 6159:Ocean & Coastal Management 6056:Ocean & Coastal Management 5659:Marine Ecology Progress Series 5455:"Irish marine protected areas" 4434: 4409: 4360: 4351: 4321: 4282: 4227: 4072:British Indian Ocean Territory 3962: 3907:geographic information systems 2106:Phoenix Islands Protected Area 2062:Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 2035:Notable marine protected areas 1722: 1479:St. Vincent and the Grenadines 944:, such as those in Australia. 931:International Seabed Authority 859:Marine Protected Area Networks 848:Marine Protected Area Networks 280:. Other large MPAs are in the 272:agreed to establish the first 137: 93:Phoenix Islands Protected Area 13: 1: 9721:Ecological values of mangrove 9151:European Environmental Agency 9141:Grey nurse shark conservation 9048:Destructive fishing practices 8546:Pop-up satellite archival tag 8129:Marine Conservation Institute 6779:. Ascension Island Government 5757:dffeportal.environment.gov.za 5565:. Mdgs.un.org. Archived from 5210:– via Internet Archive. 4844:Marine Conservation Institute 4524:sustainabledevelopment.un.org 4220: 3880: 1528:Regional and national efforts 1483:20% of marine areas by 2020. 1453:10% fully protected by 2020. 1238:29% of marine areas by 2017. 854:Marine Protected Area Network 741: 730:found that programs like the 469:Natural monuments or features 310:Natural Park of the Coral Sea 9741:Marine conservation activism 9726:Fisheries and climate change 9131:Marine conservation activism 8581:Climate change and fisheries 7885:10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110049 6020:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.001 5962:10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103780 5735:Regulation Gazette No. 42478 5332:10.1016/j.marpol.2018.02.004 4483:10.1007/978-3-030-38815-7_14 4185:Important marine mammal area 4051: 3905:Managers and scientists use 2128:Chagos Marine Protected Area 2005:Chagos Marine Protected Area 1998:British Overseas Territories 1992:British Overseas Territories 1953:is an object to the ongoing 1803:In exchange for some of its 709: 669: 664:area of special conservation 658:(SAC), the United Kingdom's 655:Special Area of Conservation 611:, the agency agreed to use " 372:categories of protected area 217:defined the broader term of 7: 7016:Frontiers in Marine Science 6916:. The World Bank. 2016–2017 5435:. Codex Verde. 25 June 2023 5068:Frontiers in Marine Science 4869:"Marine Conservation Zones" 4291:"What is a marine protect?" 4123: 1083:The Antarctic Treaty System 956:(IUCN) General Assembly in 736:Public–private partnerships 10: 9818: 9177:Marine Stewardship Council 8970:EU Common Fisheries Policy 8294:World Wide Fund for Nature 8127:- an online tool from the 7993: 7954:Van Dort, Rebekah (2023). 7913:Journal of Applied Ecology 7803:Hilborn, Ray (July 2016). 7625:Soto, Cristina G. (2002). 6880:North Sea Marine Cluster. 6347:"The association – MedPAN" 5753:"Protected Areas Register" 5081:10.3389/fmars.2023.1099579 3529:Sint Maarten (Dutch part) 3029:Korea, Dem. People's Rep. 2084:Dry Tortugas National Park 1921: 1908:A 2018 study published in 1670:are the best represented. 1546: 1204:American crocodile nesting 1075: 942:Indigenous Protected Areas 851: 686:) resulting from elevated 237: 43: 29: 9713: 9593: 9483: 9387: 9331:Glossary of fishery terms 9326:Index of fishing articles 9316: 9265: 9164: 9108: 9043:Fishing down the food web 9018:Maximum sustainable yield 9005: 8907: 8896: 8850: 8846: 8821: 8653: 8642: 8576:Match/mismatch hypothesis 8449: 8445: 8428: 8340: 8302: 8277: 8187: 8057:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 7543:10.1038/s41558-018-0149-2 7416:"Saving the Sea's Bounty" 6598:"The Blue Belt programme" 5864:www.nairobiconvention.org 5713:10.1017/S003060530800046X 5650:Mora, C; Sale, P (2011). 5194:Wells, S. (23 May 2018). 5137:10.1080/08920750902851146 4932:10.1007/s00338-007-0235-9 4235:"Marine Protection Atlas" 3759:Turks and Caicos Islands 3609:St. Martin (French part) 3309:Northern Mariana Islands 2055:coast of British Columbia 1975:Marine Conservation Zones 1573:(EEZ) of the Republic of 1536: 1393:100,000 km by 2012. 1344:200,000 km by 2020. 1342:100,000 km by 2010. 660:marine conservation zones 9615:Coastal biogeomorphology 9217:Save Our Seas Foundation 8950:Individual fishing quota 8925:Vessel monitoring system 8571:Hydrographic containment 7029:10.3389/fmars.2019.00373 6263:. IUCN. 10 November 2021 5803:"Marine Protected Areas" 4329:"Marine Protected Areas" 4104:Displaced fishing effort 4076:leaked diplomatic cables 1701: 1251:15% of the insular shelf 794:regulates these limits. 784:exclusive economic zones 692:greenhouse gas emissions 650:specially protected area 294:exclusive economic zones 9565:Paradox of the plankton 8863:Exclusive economic zone 8541:GIS and aquatic science 8496:Standard weight in fish 8125:Marine Protection Atlas 8121:by Project Regeneration 7933:10.1111/1365-2664.14595 7864:Biological Conservation 7763:10.1073/pnas.1701262114 7643:10.1023/A:1020364409616 7429:Vol. 6 No. 1, July 2004 7365:10.1126/science.1125295 7315:10.1126/science.1085046 7264:10.1126/science.1085706 7213:10.1126/science.abf0861 6868:Smith & Miller 2003 6648:"Chagos Marine Reserve" 5598:Ecological Applications 4871:. Naturalengland.org.uk 4205:Special Protection Area 4200:Marine spatial planning 4097:sea surface temperature 4090:Oceans are the primary 3974: 2369:British Virgin Islands 2349:Bosnia and Herzegovina 2154:Exclusive Economic Zone 1959:Common Fisheries Policy 1866:Exclusive Economic Zone 1807:being written off, the 1688: 1571:exclusive economic zone 1023:sustainable development 978:environmental protocols 726:. A 2016 report by the 648:Related terms include; 112:exclusive economic zone 9802:Marine protected areas 9412:Large marine ecosystem 9092:Turtle excluder device 8765:Shoaling and schooling 8351:Marine protected areas 8181:Marine protected areas 8119:Marine Protected Areas 8113:Marine protected areas 7455: 7135:10.1126/sciadv.aaw2869 6887:. NSMC. Archived from 6142:. HP Foundation. 2018. 5866:. WIOSAP Project. 2021 5778:"Protecting the ocean" 5544:. Iucn.org. 2010-11-23 5163:Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung 4334:National Ocean Service 3902: 3859:Virgin Islands (U.S.) 3469:São Tomé and Príncipe 3189:Micronesia, Fed. Sts. 2075:in the seas of Italy, 2045: 1979:Marine Protected Areas 1846:ecological MPA network 1817:The Nature Conservancy 1775: 1713:ecological restoration 1658:, and the majority of 1643: 1631: 1299:30% of reefs by 2015. 1054:(which is part of the 1048: 1027: 1013: 970: 935:cover very large areas 826: 746:Typical MPAs restrict 635: 605: 341: 260:On 28 October 2016 in 228: 211: 202: 178: 157: 121:As areas of protected 60:Marine protected areas 56: 18:Marine protected areas 9751:Marine protected area 9545:Marine larval ecology 9495:Census of Marine Life 9116:Marine protected area 8990:Regional fishery body 8616:Census of Marine Life 8511:Catch per unit effort 8327:Marine protected area 7678:Global Change Biology 7523:Nature Climate Change 7478:on February 15, 2013. 7451: 6974:10.1093/imamat/hxq043 6777:www.ascension.gov.ac/ 6471:. The Wildlife Trusts 5885:Fielding, P. (2021). 5224:. Protectedplanet.net 5222:"Bunaken Marine Park" 4675:. Biodiversitya-z.org 4295:oceanservice.noaa.gov 4266:oceanservice.noaa.gov 4074:(BIOT). According to 3951:, clarifications and 3928:, acoustic data, and 3888: 3789:United Arab Emirates 3659:Syrian Arab Republic 2044: 1922:Further information: 1852:included MPAs in the 1786:Conservation Park in 1773: 1637: 1617: 1584:Prince Edward Islands 1419:North Mariana Islands 1371:Marine Nature Reserve 1098:Antarctic Convergence 1036: 1015: 1010:Bunaken National Park 1008: 966: 948:International efforts 824: 676:extractive industries 633: 601: 551:Man and the Biosphere 402:Strict nature reserve 335: 223: 206: 197: 170: 145: 54: 9540:Marine invertebrates 9535:Marine bacteriophage 9510:Deep sea communities 8955:Minimum landing size 8915:Fisheries management 8890:Magnuson–Stevens Act 8885:Fisheries Convention 8636:Fisheries scientists 8115:at Wikimedia Commons 6706:. BBC. 18 March 2015 5498:Conservation Biology 5200:. UNEP-WCMC / UNEP. 4373:Conservation Letters 3719:Trinidad and Tobago 3589:St. Kitts and Nevis 2219:Antigua and Barbuda 1197:Manatee distribution 1190:turtle nesting sites 1109:South Orkney Islands 923:international waters 799:international waters 595:" is defined by the 176:and cultural values. 9777:Marine conservation 9736:Marine conservation 9650:Intertidal wetlands 9437:Ocean fertilization 9232:Defying Ocean's End 9136:Salmon conservation 9126:Marine conservation 9066:The End of the Line 9059:The Sunken Billions 9028:Sustainable seafood 9013:Sustainable fishery 8626:Fisheries databases 8556:Age class structure 8526:Fisheries acoustics 8315:Marine biodiversity 8280:marine conservation 7925:2024JApEc..61..621E 7876:2023BCons.28410049E 7821:2016Natur.535..224H 7754:2017PNAS..114.6167R 7690:2020GCBio..26.3251W 7593:2009FrEE....7..362M 7535:2018NatCC...8..499B 7359:(5781): 1750–1751. 7307:2003Sci...301..929H 7256:2003Sci...301..955P 7127:2019SciA....5.2869D 6678:National Geographic 6209:. 22 February 2018. 6171:2013OCM....74....3K 6068:2013OCM....76....1M 6012:2017MarPo..85....8L 5954:2020MarPo.11503780H 5671:2011MEPS..434..251M 5323:2018MarPo..91...11S 5129:2009CoasM..37..274L 4924:2007CorRe..26.1047C 4785:on August 13, 2011. 4385:2009ConL....2...53K 3969:ocean acidification 3449:Russian Federation 2909:Iran, Islamic Rep. 2599:Dominican Republic 1351:Republic of Ireland 964:in 2002 called for 894:marine conservation 690:levels, due to our 684:ocean acidification 545:World Heritage Site 370:IUCN offered seven 149:, New Zealand is a 131:Marine conservation 123:marine biodiversity 40:marine conservation 9645:Intertidal ecology 9640:Hydrothermal vents 9402:Iron fertilization 9321:Outline of fishing 8940:Fisheries observer 8591:Aquatic ecosystems 8038:Diving for Science 7207:(6560): eabf0861. 6850:. Conservation.org 6578:. 15 February 2015 5728:"MPA Declarations" 5636:on March 24, 2012. 5510:10.1111/cobi.13340 5117:Coastal Management 4166:Environment portal 3916:aerial photography 3903: 2639:Equatorial Guinea 2379:Brunei Darussalam 2046: 1776: 1644: 1632: 1275:Dominican Republic 1014: 827: 780:territorial waters 636: 513:Protected seascape 342: 338:Chagos Archipelago 186:marine environment 174:ecosystem services 158: 78:or in the US, the 57: 9792:Fisheries science 9759: 9758: 9630:Davidson Seamount 9580:Seashore wildlife 9560:Marine vertebrate 9515:Deep sea creature 9381:Marine ecosystems 9347: 9346: 9343: 9342: 9339: 9338: 9303:Threatened sharks 9202:Ocean Conservancy 9187:Friend of the Sea 8817: 8816: 8813: 8812: 8725:Lobster fisheries 8670:Diversity of fish 8466:Shifting baseline 8435:Fisheries science 8387: 8386: 8111:Media related to 7815:(7611): 224–226. 7748:(24): 6167–6175. 7698:10.1111/gcb.15094 7442:, p. 17 The 7440:Wells et al. 2008 7301:(5635): 929–933. 7250:(5635): 955–958. 6804:www.tristandc.com 6798:Grundy, Richard. 6684:on March 21, 2015 6125:Wells et al. 2008 5917:Wells et al. 2008 5903:978-9976-5619-0-6 5807:www.saambr.org.za 5680:10.3354/meps09214 5411:www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca 5394:Wells et al. 2008 5294:on March 3, 2018. 5182:Wells et al. 2008 4492:978-3-030-38814-0 3945:marine protection 3901:of the Caribbean. 3891:Prickly Pear Cays 3878: 3877: 3369:Papua New Guinea 3149:Marshall Islands 2709:French Polynesia 2619:Egypt, Arab Rep. 2489:Congo, Dem. Rep. 1858:Mediterranean Sea 1837:Mediterranean Sea 1648:Greater Caribbean 1610:Greater Caribbean 1524:positive impact. 1521: 1520: 1046: 1019:biodiversity loss 888:Future approaches 836:Multiple-use MPAs 534: 533: 251:1992 Earth Summit 164:(IUCN) defines a 16:(Redirected from 9809: 9746:Marine pollution 9695:Seagrass meadows 9525:Deep-water coral 9422:Marine ecosystem 9374: 9367: 9360: 9351: 9350: 9283:Marine pollution 9087:Cetacean bycatch 9082:Incidental catch 8902: 8848: 8847: 8823: 8822: 8790:Humboldt current 8648: 8566:Trophic cascades 8506:Data storage tag 8491:Fish measurement 8486:Stock assessment 8447: 8446: 8430: 8429: 8414: 8407: 8400: 8391: 8390: 8380: 8373: 8372: 8359: 8358: 8348: 8347: 8322:Marine ecoregion 8174: 8167: 8160: 8151: 8150: 8140:Protected Planet 8110: 8095: 8093: 8092: 8077: 8062: 8056: 8048: 8046: 8045: 8028: 8026: 8025: 7987: 7986: 7984: 7983: 7968: 7962: 7961: 7951: 7945: 7944: 7904: 7898: 7897: 7887: 7855: 7849: 7848: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7783: 7765: 7732: 7726: 7725: 7684:(6): 3251–3267. 7669: 7663: 7662: 7622: 7613: 7612: 7572: 7563: 7562: 7514: 7505: 7504: 7502: 7501: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7477: 7471:. Archived from 7470: 7462: 7456: 7437: 7431: 7425: 7419: 7414:Warne, Kennedy. 7412: 7406: 7405: 7399: 7391: 7385: 7384: 7350: 7341: 7335: 7334: 7290: 7284: 7283: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7198: 7188: 7182: 7181: 7179: 7177: 7163: 7157: 7156: 7146: 7115:Science Advances 7105: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7095: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7063: 7062: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7031: 7006: 7000: 6999: 6985: 6957: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6947: 6932: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6921: 6910: 6904: 6903: 6901: 6899: 6893: 6886: 6877: 6871: 6865: 6859: 6858: 6856: 6855: 6844: 6838: 6837: 6835: 6834: 6820: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6810: 6795: 6789: 6788: 6786: 6784: 6769: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6750:. 3 January 2016 6740: 6734: 6733: 6731: 6729: 6715: 6713: 6711: 6700: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6670: 6664: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6644: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6633: 6618: 6612: 6611: 6609: 6608: 6594: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6568: 6562: 6561: 6545: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6534: 6524: 6522: 6520: 6509: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6498: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6465: 6459: 6458: 6445: 6439: 6433: 6432: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6418: 6410: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6400: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6357: 6351: 6350: 6343: 6337: 6331: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6320: 6305: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6279: 6273: 6272: 6270: 6268: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6235: 6229: 6228: 6217: 6211: 6210: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6182: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6133: 6127: 6122: 6109: 6108: 6102: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6047: 6032: 6031: 5991: 5982: 5981: 5933: 5920: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5891: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5871: 5861: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5836: 5827: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5813: 5799: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5788: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5732: 5724: 5718: 5717: 5715: 5691: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5656: 5647: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5629:. Archived from 5628: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5593: 5587: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5521: 5504:(6): 1350–1359. 5489: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5462: 5457:. Indexmundi.com 5451: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5440: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5290:. Archived from 5284: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5260: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5250: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5229: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5191: 5185: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5083: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5023: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4997: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4959: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4907: 4892: 4889: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4876: 4865: 4859: 4858: 4856: 4855: 4846:. Archived from 4832: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4817:. Archived from 4816: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4793: 4787: 4786: 4781:. Archived from 4775: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4765: 4754: 4748: 4747: 4746:on June 5, 2011. 4742:. Archived from 4736: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4726: 4712: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4680: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4658: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4638: 4637: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4600: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4577: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4559: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4535: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4507: 4466: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4428: 4423:. 26 August 2016 4413: 4407: 4406: 4396: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4312: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4274: 4272: 4258: 4249: 4248: 4246: 4245: 4231: 4168: 4163: 4162: 4154: 4149: 4148: 4147: 4140: 4135: 4134: 4018:Representability 3995:Success criteria 3981:refuge (ecology) 3874: 3864: 3854: 3844: 3834: 3824: 3814: 3804: 3794: 3784: 3774: 3764: 3754: 3744: 3734: 3724: 3714: 3704: 3694: 3684: 3674: 3664: 3654: 3644: 3634: 3624: 3614: 3604: 3594: 3584: 3574: 3564: 3554: 3549:Solomon Islands 3544: 3534: 3524: 3514: 3504: 3494: 3484: 3474: 3464: 3454: 3444: 3434: 3424: 3414: 3404: 3394: 3384: 3374: 3364: 3354: 3344: 3334: 3324: 3314: 3304: 3294: 3284: 3274: 3264: 3254: 3244: 3234: 3224: 3214: 3204: 3194: 3184: 3174: 3164: 3154: 3144: 3134: 3124: 3114: 3104: 3094: 3084: 3074: 3064: 3054: 3044: 3034: 3024: 3014: 3004: 2994: 2984: 2974: 2964: 2954: 2944: 2934: 2924: 2914: 2904: 2894: 2884: 2874: 2864: 2854: 2844: 2834: 2824: 2814: 2804: 2794: 2784: 2774: 2764: 2754: 2744: 2734: 2724: 2714: 2704: 2694: 2684: 2674: 2664: 2654: 2644: 2634: 2624: 2614: 2604: 2594: 2584: 2574: 2564: 2554: 2544: 2534: 2524: 2514: 2504: 2494: 2484: 2474: 2464: 2454: 2444: 2434: 2424: 2414: 2404: 2394: 2384: 2374: 2364: 2354: 2344: 2334: 2324: 2314: 2304: 2294: 2284: 2274: 2264: 2254: 2244: 2234: 2224: 2214: 2204: 2194: 2184: 2168: 2167: 2029:Tristan da Cunha 2022:Ascension Island 2010:Pitcairn Islands 1874:Corallium rubrum 1831:IUCN category IV 1399:Marshall Islands 1123: 1122: 1115:National Targets 1089:Antarctic Treaty 1040: 680:marine pollution 377: 376: 127:marine resources 84:marine resources 21: 9817: 9816: 9812: 9811: 9810: 9808: 9807: 9806: 9782:Protected areas 9772:Marine reserves 9762: 9761: 9760: 9755: 9709: 9675:Marine habitats 9596: 9589: 9505:Coral reef fish 9486: 9479: 9442:Ocean turbidity 9432:Ocean chemistry 9407:Iron Hypothesis 9383: 9378: 9348: 9335: 9312: 9308:Threatened rays 9288:Mercury in fish 9261: 9160: 9146:Shark sanctuary 9104: 9001: 8935:Catch reporting 8903: 8894: 8842: 8809: 8715:Krill fisheries 8680:Coral reef fish 8665:Ocean fisheries 8656: 8649: 8640: 8481:Condition index 8452: 8441: 8424: 8418: 8388: 8383: 8336: 8298: 8281: 8279: 8273: 8183: 8178: 8103: 8098: 8090: 8088: 8086: 8075: 8050: 8049: 8043: 8041: 8023: 8021: 8019: 7996: 7991: 7990: 7981: 7979: 7970: 7969: 7965: 7952: 7948: 7905: 7901: 7856: 7852: 7829:10.1038/535224a 7801: 7797: 7733: 7729: 7670: 7666: 7623: 7616: 7573: 7566: 7515: 7508: 7499: 7497: 7488: 7487: 7483: 7475: 7468: 7464: 7463: 7459: 7438: 7434: 7426: 7422: 7413: 7409: 7397: 7393: 7392: 7388: 7348: 7342: 7338: 7291: 7287: 7240: 7236: 7196: 7189: 7185: 7175: 7173: 7165: 7164: 7160: 7121:(4): eaaw2869. 7106: 7102: 7093: 7091: 7073: 7069: 7060: 7058: 7050: 7049: 7045: 7007: 7003: 6958: 6954: 6945: 6943: 6934: 6933: 6929: 6919: 6917: 6912: 6911: 6907: 6897: 6895: 6891: 6884: 6878: 6874: 6866: 6862: 6853: 6851: 6846: 6845: 6841: 6832: 6830: 6822: 6821: 6817: 6808: 6806: 6796: 6792: 6782: 6780: 6771: 6770: 6763: 6753: 6751: 6742: 6741: 6737: 6727: 6725: 6724:. 18 March 2015 6716: 6709: 6707: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6687: 6685: 6672: 6671: 6667: 6657: 6655: 6646: 6645: 6641: 6631: 6629: 6628:on 2 April 2015 6620: 6619: 6615: 6606: 6604: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6581: 6579: 6570: 6569: 6565: 6546: 6542: 6532: 6530: 6525: 6518: 6516: 6511: 6510: 6506: 6496: 6494: 6489: 6488: 6484: 6474: 6472: 6467: 6466: 6462: 6457:. 11 June 2020. 6454:TheGuardian.com 6447: 6446: 6442: 6430: 6422: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6411: 6407: 6398: 6396: 6376: 6372: 6359: 6358: 6354: 6345: 6344: 6340: 6332: 6328: 6318: 6316: 6307: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6290: 6280: 6276: 6266: 6264: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6244: 6242: 6237: 6236: 6232: 6219: 6218: 6214: 6201: 6200: 6196: 6151: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6112: 6100: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6048: 6035: 5992: 5985: 5934: 5923: 5915: 5911: 5904: 5889: 5883: 5879: 5869: 5867: 5859: 5855: 5854: 5850: 5840: 5838: 5834: 5828: 5821: 5811: 5809: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5786: 5784: 5776: 5775: 5771: 5761: 5759: 5751: 5750: 5746: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5721: 5692: 5688: 5654: 5648: 5641: 5633: 5626: 5624:"No Take Areas" 5622: 5621: 5617: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5581: 5572: 5570: 5561: 5560: 5556: 5547: 5545: 5540: 5539: 5535: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5460: 5458: 5453: 5452: 5448: 5438: 5436: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5416: 5414: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5378: 5376: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5356: 5354: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5303: 5299: 5286: 5285: 5278: 5269: 5267: 5262: 5261: 5257: 5248: 5246: 5241: 5240: 5236: 5227: 5225: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5192: 5188: 5180: 5176: 5167: 5165: 5157: 5156: 5152: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5059: 5055: 5046: 5044: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5021: 5019: 5010: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4993: 4981: 4977: 4967: 4965: 4957: 4953:Harary, David. 4951: 4947: 4918:(4): 1047–056. 4908: 4895: 4890: 4883: 4874: 4872: 4867: 4866: 4862: 4853: 4851: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4821: 4814: 4808: 4804: 4795: 4794: 4790: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4763: 4761: 4756: 4755: 4751: 4738: 4737: 4733: 4724: 4722: 4714: 4713: 4709: 4699: 4697: 4692: 4691: 4687: 4678: 4676: 4669: 4665: 4656: 4654: 4649: 4648: 4644: 4635: 4633: 4624: 4623: 4619: 4609: 4607: 4602: 4601: 4594: 4585: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4557: 4555: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4533: 4531: 4518: 4517: 4513: 4505: 4503: 4493: 4467: 4460: 4451: 4449: 4440: 4439: 4435: 4426: 4424: 4415: 4414: 4410: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4343: 4341: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4306: 4305: 4299: 4297: 4287: 4283: 4270: 4268: 4260: 4259: 4252: 4243: 4241: 4233: 4232: 4228: 4223: 4164: 4157: 4150: 4145: 4143: 4136: 4129: 4126: 4115: 4113:Other critiques 4106: 4088: 4059: 4054: 4039: 3997: 3977: 3965: 3953:standardization 3899:Leeward Islands 3883: 3872: 3862: 3852: 3842: 3832: 3822: 3812: 3802: 3799:United Kingdom 3792: 3782: 3772: 3762: 3752: 3742: 3732: 3722: 3712: 3702: 3692: 3682: 3672: 3662: 3652: 3642: 3632: 3622: 3612: 3602: 3592: 3582: 3572: 3562: 3552: 3542: 3532: 3522: 3512: 3502: 3492: 3482: 3472: 3462: 3452: 3442: 3432: 3422: 3412: 3402: 3392: 3382: 3372: 3362: 3352: 3342: 3332: 3322: 3312: 3302: 3292: 3282: 3272: 3262: 3252: 3242: 3232: 3222: 3212: 3202: 3192: 3182: 3172: 3162: 3152: 3142: 3132: 3122: 3112: 3102: 3092: 3082: 3072: 3062: 3052: 3042: 3032: 3022: 3012: 3002: 2992: 2982: 2972: 2962: 2952: 2942: 2932: 2922: 2912: 2902: 2892: 2882: 2872: 2862: 2852: 2842: 2832: 2822: 2812: 2802: 2792: 2782: 2772: 2762: 2752: 2742: 2732: 2722: 2712: 2702: 2692: 2682: 2672: 2662: 2652: 2642: 2632: 2622: 2612: 2602: 2592: 2582: 2572: 2562: 2552: 2542: 2532: 2522: 2512: 2502: 2492: 2482: 2472: 2462: 2452: 2442: 2439:Cayman Islands 2432: 2422: 2412: 2402: 2392: 2382: 2372: 2362: 2352: 2342: 2332: 2322: 2312: 2302: 2292: 2282: 2272: 2262: 2252: 2242: 2232: 2222: 2212: 2202: 2199:American Samoa 2192: 2182: 2163: 2037: 1994: 1967: 1950: 1930: 1920: 1839: 1801: 1764:Lima convention 1752: 1738: 1725: 1704: 1691: 1660:Central America 1612: 1607: 1606: 1600:Aichi Target 11 1563: 1562: 1561: 1555: 1552: 1544: 1539: 1530: 1164: 1149:South Australia 1129:Plan of action 1117: 1085: 1080: 1074: 1069: 1067:Global treaties 1045:Decision VII/15 1039: 1032: 950: 909:systems, ocean 890: 856: 850: 744: 712: 672: 525: 515: 509: 487: 481: 471: 465: 448: 440: 430:Wilderness area 426: 404: 398: 364:mangrove forest 330: 328:Classifications 290:Atlantic Oceans 244:sovereign state 240: 140: 66:of the world's 64:protected areas 49: 42: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9815: 9805: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9757: 9756: 9754: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9738: 9733: 9728: 9723: 9717: 9715: 9711: 9710: 9708: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9601: 9599: 9591: 9590: 9588: 9587: 9585:Wild fisheries 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9555:Marine reptile 9552: 9547: 9542: 9537: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9491: 9489: 9481: 9480: 9478: 9477: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9457:Thorson's rule 9454: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9417:Marine biology 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9393: 9391: 9385: 9384: 9377: 9376: 9369: 9362: 9354: 9345: 9344: 9341: 9340: 9337: 9336: 9334: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9317: 9314: 9313: 9311: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9280: 9278:Fish slaughter 9275: 9269: 9267: 9266:Related issues 9263: 9262: 9260: 9259: 9254: 9249: 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9207:Ocean Outcomes 9204: 9199: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9179: 9174: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9161: 9159: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9138: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9121:Marine reserve 9118: 9112: 9110: 9106: 9105: 9103: 9102: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9062: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9040: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9009: 9007: 9006:Sustainability 9003: 9002: 9000: 8999: 8998: 8997: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8911: 8909: 8905: 8904: 8897: 8895: 8893: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8881: 8880: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8854: 8852: 8844: 8843: 8836:sustainability 8819: 8818: 8815: 8814: 8811: 8810: 8808: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8770:Marine habitat 8767: 8762: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8730:Shrimp fishery 8727: 8722: 8720:Kelp fisheries 8717: 8712: 8707: 8705:Crab fisheries 8702: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8661: 8659: 8651: 8650: 8643: 8641: 8639: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8586:Marine biology 8583: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8563: 8558: 8553: 8548: 8543: 8538: 8536:Coded wire tag 8533: 8528: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8478: 8476:Fish mortality 8473: 8468: 8463: 8457: 8455: 8443: 8442: 8439:wild fisheries 8426: 8425: 8423:science topics 8417: 8416: 8409: 8402: 8394: 8385: 8384: 8382: 8381: 8374: 8367: 8360: 8353: 8341: 8338: 8337: 8335: 8334: 8332:Protected area 8329: 8324: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8306: 8304: 8300: 8299: 8297: 8296: 8291: 8285: 8283: 8275: 8274: 8272: 8271: 8270: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8239: 8238: 8237: 8230:United Kingdom 8227: 8222: 8217: 8216: 8215: 8210: 8202: 8197: 8191: 8189: 8185: 8184: 8177: 8176: 8169: 8162: 8154: 8148: 8147: 8136: 8122: 8116: 8102: 8101:External links 8099: 8097: 8096: 8085:978-0642553522 8084: 8063: 8029: 8017: 8011:The Americas. 7997: 7995: 7992: 7989: 7988: 7963: 7946: 7919:(4): 621–632. 7899: 7850: 7795: 7727: 7664: 7637:(3): 181–195. 7614: 7601:10.1890/070211 7587:(7): 362–370. 7564: 7529:(6): 499–503. 7506: 7494:Embassy London 7481: 7457: 7448:protected area 7432: 7420: 7407: 7386: 7336: 7285: 7234: 7183: 7158: 7100: 7067: 7043: 7001: 6968:(2): 312–325. 6952: 6927: 6905: 6894:on 30 May 2013 6872: 6860: 6839: 6815: 6790: 6761: 6735: 6695: 6665: 6654:on 5 July 2012 6639: 6613: 6589: 6563: 6540: 6504: 6482: 6460: 6440: 6405: 6370: 6365:www.wwfmmi.org 6352: 6338: 6326: 6315:. May 11, 2010 6300: 6274: 6252: 6230: 6212: 6194: 6145: 6128: 6110: 6089: 6033: 5983: 5921: 5909: 5902: 5877: 5848: 5819: 5794: 5769: 5744: 5719: 5706:(3): 340–351. 5686: 5639: 5615: 5588: 5579: 5554: 5533: 5484: 5467: 5446: 5424: 5398: 5386: 5364: 5351:www.ccamlr.org 5338: 5297: 5276: 5255: 5234: 5213: 5206: 5186: 5174: 5150: 5107: 5095: 5053: 5028: 5003: 4990:Hakai Magazine 4975: 4945: 4893: 4881: 4860: 4827: 4824:on 2022-03-07. 4802: 4788: 4770: 4749: 4731: 4707: 4685: 4663: 4642: 4617: 4592: 4564: 4540: 4511: 4491: 4458: 4433: 4408: 4359: 4350: 4320: 4281: 4250: 4225: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4218: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4190:Law of the sea 4187: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4155: 4152:Ecology portal 4141: 4125: 4122: 4114: 4111: 4105: 4102: 4087: 4086:Climate change 4084: 4058: 4057:Land use right 4055: 4053: 4050: 4038: 4037:Misconceptions 4035: 4034: 4033: 4027: 4021: 4015: 3996: 3993: 3976: 3973: 3964: 3961: 3911:remote sensing 3882: 3879: 3876: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3846: 3845: 3840: 3839:Venezuela, RB 3836: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3810: 3809:United States 3806: 3805: 3800: 3796: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3760: 3756: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3745: 3740: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3726: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3715: 3710: 3706: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3675: 3670: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3585: 3580: 3576: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3560: 3556: 3555: 3550: 3546: 3545: 3540: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3470: 3466: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3326: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3295: 3290: 3286: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3275: 3270: 3269:New Caledonia 3266: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3236: 3235: 3230: 3226: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3205: 3200: 3196: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3045: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2945: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2920: 2916: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2840: 2839:Guinea-Bissau 2836: 2835: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2755: 2750: 2746: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2675: 2670: 2669:Faroe Islands 2666: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2605: 2600: 2596: 2595: 2590: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2525: 2520: 2519:Côte d'Ivoire 2516: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2425: 2420: 2416: 2415: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2385: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2355: 2350: 2346: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2325: 2320: 2316: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2295: 2290: 2286: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2255: 2250: 2246: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2225: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2190: 2186: 2185: 2180: 2176: 2175: 2172: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2157: 2146: 2141:bordering the 2135: 2124: 2113: 2102: 2091: 2080: 2069: 2058: 2036: 2033: 1993: 1990: 1983:Richard Benyon 1966: 1965:United Kingdom 1963: 1949: 1946: 1919: 1916: 1906: 1905: 1898: 1883:Carry-le-Rouet 1854:North Atlantic 1850:European Union 1838: 1835: 1800: 1797: 1762:) adopted the 1751: 1748: 1737: 1734: 1724: 1721: 1703: 1700: 1690: 1687: 1683:Gulf of Mexico 1640:Gulf of Mexico 1624:Gulf of Mexico 1611: 1608: 1588:Southern Ocean 1559: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1529: 1526: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1505: 1504: 1501: 1499:United Kingdom 1495: 1494: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1445: 1444: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1431: 1425: 1424: 1421: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1381: 1375: 1374: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1353: 1347: 1346: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1330: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1314: 1313: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1281: 1280: 1277: 1271: 1270: 1269: 1268: 1261: 1260: 1253: 1252: 1246: 1240: 1239: 1236: 1230: 1229: 1222: 1216: 1215: 1211:breeding areas 1173: 1167: 1166: 1161: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1141: 1140: 1137: 1135:American Samoa 1131: 1130: 1127: 1116: 1113: 1084: 1081: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1031: 1028: 1003: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 949: 946: 927:Law of the Sea 919:abyssal plains 915:ocean plateaus 903:ocean trenches 889: 886: 876:, Belize, the 852:Main article: 849: 846: 792:law of the sea 758:mining and/or 743: 740: 711: 708: 688:carbon dioxide 671: 668: 573: 572: 562: 548: 538:protected area 532: 531: 526: 521: 518: 517: 510: 505: 502: 501: 482: 477: 474: 473: 466: 461: 458: 457: 441: 436: 433: 432: 427: 422: 419: 418: 407:marine reserve 399: 394: 391: 390: 381: 368: 367: 356: 349: 329: 326: 302:United Kingdom 255:Rio de Janeiro 239: 236: 166:protected area 156:(Category Ia). 153:marine reserve 139: 136: 46:protected area 32:Marine reserve 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9814: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9797:Fisheries law 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9769: 9767: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9718: 9716: 9712: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9670:Marine biomes 9668: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9610:Black smokers 9608: 9606: 9603: 9602: 9600: 9598: 9592: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9550:Marine mammal 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9531: 9530:Demersal fish 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9520:Deep sea fish 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9490: 9488: 9482: 9476: 9474: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9392: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9375: 9370: 9368: 9363: 9361: 9356: 9355: 9352: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9318: 9315: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9298:Shark finning 9296: 9294: 9293:Shark culling 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9270: 9268: 9264: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9222:Sea Around Us 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9197:Seafood Watch 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9169: 9167: 9163: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9113: 9111: 9107: 9101: 9099: 9098:Shrimp-Turtle 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9067: 9063: 9061: 9060: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9036: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9010: 9008: 9004: 8996: 8993: 8992: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8960:Pulse fishing 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8912: 8910: 8906: 8901: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8858:Fisheries law 8856: 8855: 8853: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8829: 8828:Fisheries law 8824: 8820: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8710:Eel fisheries 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8700:Cod fisheries 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8685:Demersal fish 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8660: 8658: 8652: 8647: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8561:Trophic level 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8547: 8544: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8458: 8456: 8454: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8431: 8427: 8422: 8415: 8410: 8408: 8403: 8401: 8396: 8395: 8392: 8379: 8375: 8368: 8366: 8365: 8361: 8354: 8352: 8343: 8342: 8339: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8316: 8313: 8312: 8311: 8308: 8307: 8305: 8301: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8286: 8284: 8282:organisations 8278:International 8276: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8242:United States 8240: 8236: 8233: 8232: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8205: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8192: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8175: 8170: 8168: 8163: 8161: 8156: 8155: 8152: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8123: 8120: 8117: 8114: 8109: 8105: 8104: 8087: 8081: 8074: 8073: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8054: 8039: 8035: 8030: 8020: 8018:9789280729757 8014: 8010: 8006: 8005: 7999: 7998: 7977: 7973: 7967: 7959: 7958: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7903: 7895: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7854: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7799: 7791: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7773: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7731: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7668: 7660: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7621: 7619: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7571: 7569: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7513: 7511: 7495: 7491: 7485: 7474: 7467: 7461: 7454: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7436: 7430: 7424: 7417: 7411: 7403: 7396: 7390: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7347: 7340: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7195: 7187: 7172: 7168: 7162: 7154: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7116: 7112: 7104: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7071: 7057: 7053: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6956: 6942:on 2012-06-06 6941: 6937: 6931: 6915: 6909: 6890: 6883: 6876: 6869: 6864: 6849: 6843: 6829: 6825: 6819: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6778: 6774: 6768: 6766: 6749: 6745: 6739: 6723: 6719: 6705: 6699: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6669: 6653: 6649: 6643: 6627: 6623: 6617: 6603: 6599: 6593: 6577: 6573: 6567: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6544: 6528: 6514: 6508: 6492: 6486: 6470: 6464: 6456: 6455: 6450: 6444: 6437: 6436:public domain 6415: 6409: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6386: 6381: 6374: 6366: 6362: 6356: 6348: 6342: 6336: 6330: 6314: 6313:Science Daily 6310: 6304: 6289: 6285: 6278: 6262: 6256: 6240: 6234: 6226: 6222: 6216: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6190: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6149: 6138: 6132: 6126: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6106: 6099: 6093: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6038: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 6000:Marine Policy 5997: 5990: 5988: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5942:Marine Policy 5939: 5932: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5918: 5913: 5905: 5899: 5895: 5888: 5881: 5865: 5858: 5852: 5833: 5826: 5824: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5783: 5779: 5773: 5758: 5754: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5729: 5723: 5714: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5681: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5646: 5644: 5632: 5625: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5592: 5583: 5569:on 2017-09-27 5568: 5564: 5558: 5543: 5537: 5529: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5488: 5477: 5471: 5456: 5450: 5434: 5428: 5412: 5408: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5374: 5368: 5352: 5348: 5342: 5333: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5311:Marine Policy 5308: 5301: 5293: 5289: 5283: 5281: 5265: 5259: 5244: 5238: 5223: 5217: 5209: 5207:9789280729757 5203: 5199: 5198: 5190: 5183: 5178: 5164: 5160: 5154: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5123:(3): 274–90. 5122: 5118: 5111: 5105: 5099: 5091: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5057: 5043:on 2012-06-08 5042: 5038: 5032: 5018:on 2011-12-20 5017: 5013: 5007: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4979: 4963: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4888: 4886: 4870: 4864: 4850:on 2016-09-23 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4820: 4813: 4810:UNEP (2006). 4806: 4798: 4792: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4759: 4753: 4745: 4741: 4735: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4695: 4689: 4674: 4667: 4652: 4646: 4632:on 2012-03-19 4631: 4627: 4621: 4605: 4599: 4597: 4582:on 2012-10-08 4581: 4574: 4568: 4554: 4550: 4544: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4515: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4463: 4447: 4443: 4437: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4354: 4340: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4324: 4316: 4310: 4296: 4292: 4285: 4278: 4267: 4263: 4257: 4255: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4226: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4156: 4153: 4142: 4139: 4138:Oceans portal 4133: 4128: 4121: 4118: 4110: 4101: 4098: 4093: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4049: 4046: 4043: 4031: 4028: 4025: 4022: 4019: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3982: 3972: 3970: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3930:radar imagery 3927: 3924: 3920: 3919:image capture 3917: 3912: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3861: 3858: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3838: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3827: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3811: 3808: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3791: 3788: 3787: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3757: 3751: 3749:Turkmenistan 3748: 3747: 3741: 3738: 3737: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3677: 3671: 3668: 3667: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3651: 3648: 3647: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3627: 3621: 3618: 3617: 3611: 3608: 3607: 3601: 3598: 3597: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3581: 3578: 3577: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3561: 3559:South Africa 3558: 3557: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3541: 3538: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3527: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3511: 3509:Sierra Leone 3508: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3487: 3481: 3479:Saudi Arabia 3478: 3477: 3471: 3468: 3467: 3461: 3458: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3447: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3417: 3411: 3408: 3407: 3401: 3398: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3361: 3358: 3357: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3337: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3301: 3298: 3297: 3291: 3288: 3287: 3281: 3278: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3261: 3258: 3257: 3251: 3248: 3247: 3241: 3238: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3227: 3221: 3218: 3217: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3191: 3188: 3187: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3171: 3168: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3157: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3127: 3121: 3118: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3071: 3068: 3067: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3051: 3048: 3047: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3031: 3028: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3017: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2987: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2967: 2961: 2958: 2957: 2951: 2948: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2937: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2891: 2888: 2887: 2881: 2878: 2877: 2871: 2868: 2867: 2861: 2858: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2837: 2831: 2828: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2817: 2811: 2808: 2807: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2791: 2788: 2787: 2781: 2778: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2747: 2741: 2738: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2717: 2711: 2708: 2707: 2701: 2698: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2687: 2681: 2678: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2647: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2631: 2628: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2617: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2601: 2598: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2587: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2571: 2568: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2531: 2528: 2527: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2501: 2498: 2497: 2491: 2488: 2487: 2481: 2478: 2477: 2471: 2468: 2467: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2451: 2448: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2421: 2418: 2417: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2397: 2391: 2388: 2387: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2367: 2361: 2358: 2357: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2338: 2337: 2331: 2328: 2327: 2321: 2318: 2317: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2301: 2298: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2271: 2269:Bahamas, The 2268: 2267: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2241: 2238: 2237: 2231: 2228: 2227: 2221: 2218: 2217: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2201: 2198: 2197: 2191: 2188: 2187: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2173: 2170: 2169: 2166: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2032: 2030: 2025: 2023: 2018: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1929: 1925: 1918:United States 1915: 1913: 1912: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1891: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1875: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1844: 1834: 1832: 1827: 1825: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1805:national debt 1796: 1792: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1750:Pacific Ocean 1747: 1744: 1742: 1741:Latin America 1736:Latin America 1733: 1730: 1720: 1716: 1714: 1708: 1699: 1697: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1641: 1636: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1556: 1550: 1534: 1525: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1509:United States 1507: 1506: 1502: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1348: 1345: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1282: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1272: 1267: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1178: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1168: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1143: 1142: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1112: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1102:60 S latitude 1099: 1094: 1090: 1079: 1064: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1047: 1044: 1035: 1026: 1024: 1020: 1011: 1007: 1000: 997: 994: 991: 990: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 969: 965: 963: 959: 955: 945: 943: 938: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 895: 885: 883: 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