1566:
821:
these mammals that have diminished below that level, and efforts should be made to protect essential habitats; there is inadequate knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of these mammals; negotiations should be undertaken immediately to encourage international arrangements for research and conservation of these mammals. Congress declared that marine mammals are resources of great international significance (aesthetic, recreational and economic), and should be protected and encouraged to develop to the greatest extent feasible commensurate with sound policies of resource management. The primary management objective should be to maintain the health and stability of the marine ecosystem. The goal is to obtain an optimum sustainable population within the
45:
433:
assessments are the geographic range of the stock being studied, current trends and productivity rates for the stock, potential biological removal levels which is defined under the MMPA as âthe maximum number of animals, not including natural mortalities, that may be removed from a marine mammal stock while allowing that stock to reach or maintain its optimum sustainable populationâ, an estimation of mortality and injury rate caused by humans, potential threats to conservation efforts and current status of the stock and a minimum population estimation. These stock assessments are created through research conducted by programs at
775:(ABWC) was founded in 1988 to manage beluga subsistence hunting in Alaska. After the MMPA amended, ABWC starts to develop a co-management plan with National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) aiming to become an "umbrella organization concerned with statewide, national and international affairs." With the founding from NMFS, ABWC focus on facilitating scientific communication for the public, harvest monitoring, beluga tracking, aerial survey, genetics-based stock studies. The regional groups of ABWC are designate to "develop local management plans, hunting guide-lines and means of enforcement."
267:
451:, the Whaling Convention Act of 1949, the Interim Convention on the Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals, and the Fur Seal Act of 1966.â The MMC is also responsible for the review of the research programs conducted for the purpose of the MMPA as well as authorizing permits for the purpose of research, conservation or public display. If the MMC finds that the current conservation efforts are shown to be ineffective in protecting species identified under the MMPA, they are responsible for effectively communicating with federal officials such as the
318:, killing, capture, and/or harassment of any marine mammal; or, the attempt at such." The MMPA defines harassment as "any act of pursuit, torment or annoyance which has the potential to either: a. injure a marine mammal in the wild, or b. disturb a marine mammal by causing disruption of behavioral patterns, which includes, but is not limited to, migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering." The MMPA provides for enforcement of its prohibitions, and for the issuance of regulations to implement its legislative goals.
1557:
851:
746:. This allows indigenous tribal government can engage in their territorial marine mammal protection and subsistence taking issues through individual co-management agreements which can be established with NOAA, USFWS, MMC, or other MMPA-affiliated agencies. Co-management is viewed as the practice of indigenous sovereignty and self-determination. Co-management under Section 119 includes the following activities:
518:'s Office of Protected Resources are incidental and directed. Incidental permits, which allow for some unintentional taking of small numbers of marine mammal, are granted to U.S. citizens who engage in a specified activity other than commercial fishing in a specified geographic area. Directed permits are required for any proposed marine mammal scientific research activity that involves taking marine mammals.
837:
337:(NOAA). Subsequently, a third federal agency, the Marine Mammal Commission (MMC), was established to review existing policies and make recommendations to the Service and the NOAA better implement the MMPA. Coordination between these three federal agencies is necessary in order to provide the best management practices for marine mammals.
820:
Congress found that: all species and population stocks of marine mammals are, or may be, in danger of extinction or depletion due to human activities; these mammals should not be permitted to diminish below their optimum sustainable population; measures should be taken immediately to replenish any of
783:
The Marine Mammal
Protection Act has conservation benefits beyond US boundaries. The Act requires imported fisheries products to minimize incidental mortality and severe injury of marine mammals aligning to the US domestic standards. Yet it is difficult to expect this comparability from all exporting
808:
The plan is developed with a team involving representatives from fishing industry, management councils, governmental agencies, scientific community, and conservation organization. The consensus from the representatives is then submitted to NOAA for review then through the public comment. As the Plan
432:
reports serve to identify trends in marine mammal populations, identify potential threats to said population, and whether current conservation efforts are effective and if adjustments need to be made to ensure effective enforcement of the MMPA. The specific information that is included in all stock
513:
The MMPA prohibits the take and exploitation of any marine mammal without appropriate authorization, which may only be given by the
Service. Permits may be issued for scientific research, public display, and the importation/exportation of marine mammal parts and products upon determination by the
787:
The Act emphasizes the recovery and prevention of the depletion of strategic marine mammal stocks. Under
Section 118, Take Reduction Plan aims within six months of implementation to reduce incidental mortality and severe injury from fishery and approach zero mortality rate in five years. The Plan
648:
established conditions for permits to be granted to take marine mammals "incidentally" in the course of commercial fishing. In addition, the amendments provided additional conditions and procedures for transferring management authority to the States, and authorized appropriations through FY 1984.
521:
Applications for such permits are reviewed and issued the
Service's Division of Management Authority, through the International Affairs office. This office also houses the Division of International Conservation, which is directly responsible for coordinating international activities for marine
463:
the recommended measures needed to be taken to ensure the effectiveness of the MMPA and the protection of marine mammals under this act. These recommendations can come in the form of implementation of international agreements, revisions to the endangered and threatened species list as deemed
768:
represents tribes for polar bears management with USFWS. In this partnership, the subsistence take of polar bear is legal according to MMPA, yet the prohibition is placed on taking females with cubs and harassment. Along with the co-management, Alaska
Scientific Review Group is set up, with
566:
In efforts to conserve and manage marine mammal species, the
Service has appointed field staff dedicated to working with partners to conduct population censuses, assess population health, develop and implement conservation plans, promulgate regulations, and create cooperative relationships
446:
The Marine Mammal
Commission (MMC) was created in 1972 through the MMPA to serve as an organization that provides oversight over conservation policies, regulations and programs being carried out to ensure they are carried out effectively by the federal agencies responsible for them. Their
695:
the establishment of conditions and procedures for the
Secretaries of Commerce and Interior to review the status of populations to determine if they should be listed as "depleted" (below optimal, sustainable population numbers or listed as threatened or
702:
the listing of conditions under which permits may be issued to take marine mammals for the protection and welfare of the animals, including importation, public display, scientific research, and enhancing the survival or recovery of a species;
480:
are responsible for managing the take through the use of permits and other authorization as well as financially supporting efforts to help marine mammals that fall victim to stranding and relevant research efforts. Similar to the
437:
research science centers which are located in Hawaii, Massachusetts, Alaska, Florida, Washington, and
California. Research contributions are also made by researchers not affiliated with the previously mentioned programs as well.
505:. They are also responsible for the creation and implementation of conservation plans which often occur in collaboration with industries which can potentially impact marine mammal populations of particular concern.
796:
Estimate of the total number and, if possible, age and gender, of animals from the stock that is incidentally killed or seriously injured each year during the course of commercial fishing operations, by
400:
does this through the identification of violations of the MMPA, coordinating efforts to aid stranded and entangled mammals, and conduct proper rehabilitation and release of injured marine mammals. The
812:
Yet, the Plans are uneven or unstandardized in practice to meet its statutory requirement. Successful plans are often based upon mandated, quantitative metrics, and consistent monitoring programs.
699:
the preparation of conservation plans for any species listed as depleted, including a requirement that such plans be modeled after recovery plans developed pursuant to the
Endangered Species Act;
1587:
743:
2744:
1766:
522:
mammal species found in both U.S. and International waters, or are absent from U.S. waters. Marine mammal species inhabiting both U.S. and International waters include the
396:
enforces the Marine Mammal Protection Act through the implementation and enforcement of various policies and regulations to properly manage marine mammal populations. The
447:
responsibilities also include ensuring the United States adhere to international agreements that relate to marine mammal conservation âincluding, but not limited to, the
2070:
1982:
2464:
1318:"Will unilateral action improve the global conservation status of marine mammals? A first analysis of the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act's Import Provisions Rule"
706:
a reward system under which the Secretary of the Treasury can pay up to $ 2500 to individuals providing information leading to convictions for violations of the Act.
2734:
2531:
2328:
933:
2377:
448:
2229:
1614:
247:
1759:
17:
306:
MMPA was signed into law on October 21, 1972, by President Richard Nixon and took effect 60 days later on December 21, 1972. It prohibits the "taking" of
2450:
2349:
2098:
772:
2222:
2005:
1777:
176:
2779:
1736:
1722:
1750:
1680:
2494:
2356:
869:
482:
434:
401:
397:
393:
334:
1448:
2609:
2178:
1316:
Bering, Janet; Gargan, Henry; Kuesel, Jess; Morrison, Maria; Mullaney, Claire; Read, Andrew J.; Roady, Stephen E.; Rowe, Addyson (2022-01-01).
2637:
2429:
2236:
1943:
757:
Participating in marine mammal research conducted by federal and state governments, academic institutions, and private organizations; and,
2121:
2063:
2028:
242:
1511:
310:, and enacts a moratorium on the import, export, and sale of any marine mammal, along with any marine mammal part or product within the
2784:
2296:
1920:
633:
The polar bear, southern sea otter, marine otter, all three species of manatees, and the dugong are also concurrently listed under the
452:
2670:
2395:
1786:
1607:
874:
2663:
2035:
1641:
1632:
958:
784:
countries due to lack of fisheries records on bycatches and standardized protective measures which is causing unintentional harms.
322:
2559:
2384:
2273:
2252:
486:
477:
460:
1523:
1369:
1159:
2457:
2135:
1743:
1474:"Evaluating the efficacy of environmental legislation: A case study from the US marine mammal Take Reduction Planning process"
2764:
2679:
2413:
2185:
793:
Review of the final stock assessment report for each marine mammal addressed by the Plan and any substantial new information.
1975:
1862:
1666:
1600:
1582:
330:
678:
established conditions to be satisfied as a basis for importing fish and fish products from nations engaged in harvesting
2282:
2266:
1989:
1648:
983:
456:
570:
Various Marine Mammal Management offices are located on either coast. The Service's Marine Mammal Management office in
2370:
2289:
2206:
2128:
230:
134:
121:
2579:
2485:
2420:
1083:
879:
686:
and other commercial fishing technology, as well as authorized appropriations for agency activities through FY 1988.
515:
2749:
2471:
2406:
162:
2702:
2508:
2192:
2107:
2091:
2049:
1906:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1694:
1687:
661:
These species or stocks must not be permitted to fall below their optimum sustainable population level (depleted)
658:
Some marine mammal species or stocks may be in danger of extinction or depletion as a result of human activities.
102:
94:
1187:
738:
Under the MMPA amended in 1994, in Section 119, NMFS and FWS was authorized to form the cooperative agreements (
2545:
2538:
2142:
465:
326:
1878:
2739:
2436:
2363:
2114:
1899:
31:
723:
A program to authorize and control the taking of marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations;
514:
Service that the issuance is consistent with the MMPA's regulations. The two types of permits issued by the
2759:
2754:
2517:
2056:
1998:
800:
Recommended regulatory or voluntary measures for the reduction of incidental mortality and serious injury.
2769:
2501:
2259:
1623:
1528:
1248:
64:
2774:
2243:
2021:
2711:
2552:
2171:
1968:
1927:
87:
1539:
726:
Preparation of stock assessments for all marine mammal stocks in waters under U.S. jurisdiction; and
2335:
1913:
1839:
1267:
Frost, Kathryn J.; Gray, Tom; Willie Goodwin, Sr; Schaeffer, Roswell; Suydam, Robert (2021-11-19).
1008:
55:
An Act to protect marine mammals; to establish a Marine Mammal Commission; and for other purposes.
2686:
2646:
2630:
2600:
2342:
2312:
1395:"Evaluating alternatives to reduce whale entanglements in commercial Dungeness Crab fishing gear"
884:
905:
2654:
2305:
1961:
864:
634:
295:
1869:
1268:
489:
conduct stock assessments of marine mammal populations under their jurisdiction which include
2213:
1209:
266:
251:
44:
2616:
1892:
769:
indigenous entities involved, to advise stock assessment and revise method for assessment.
1592:
8:
2586:
2321:
1814:
599:
523:
1059:
138:
2593:
1424:
1347:
1298:
1229:
591:
587:
583:
128:
195:
185:
2570:
2478:
2077:
1656:
1552:
1495:
1428:
1416:
1351:
1339:
1302:
1290:
1233:
822:
627:
571:
543:
254:
2164:
1846:
1822:
1570:
1561:
1543:
1485:
1406:
1329:
1280:
1221:
934:"Marine Mammal Protection Act Policies, Guidance, and Regulations | NOAA Fisheries"
429:
405:
271:
2623:
2443:
1936:
1855:
1673:
1334:
1317:
623:
622:(the Antillean subspecies). The Service's Jacksonville Field Office manages the
551:
539:
291:
1548:
1490:
1473:
1411:
1394:
1830:
1807:
1793:
1225:
842:
717:
679:
670:
Marine mammals have proven to be resources of great international significance.
579:
535:
158:
2728:
2042:
1577:
1499:
1420:
1343:
1294:
1131:
1107:
856:
809:
is finalized, NOAA has the duty to monitor its implementation with the team.
739:
683:
611:
311:
307:
219:
1285:
1032:
2084:
607:
555:
340:
Under the MMPA, the Service is responsible for ensuring the protection of
2199:
1800:
1729:
619:
275:
106:
2155:
595:
575:
531:
508:
502:
349:
298:
to call specifically for an ecosystem approach to wildlife management.
1885:
1472:
McDonald, Sara L.; Lewison, Rebecca L.; Read, Andrew J. (2016-01-01).
1188:"Co-management of marine mammals in Alaska: A case study-based review"
850:
1210:"Understanding Arctic Co-Management: The U.S. Marine Mammal Approach"
527:
498:
341:
141:§§ 1361â1362, 1371-1389, 1401-1407, 1411-1418, 1421-1421h, 1423-1423h
803:
Recommended dates for achieving the specific objectives of the plan.
760:
Developing co-management structures with federal and state agencies.
667:
There is inadequate knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics
2012:
720:
subsistence and permits and authorizations for scientific research;
471:
425:
421:
417:
373:
369:
365:
361:
166:
408:
reports on marine mammals under their jurisdiction which includes
615:
494:
413:
381:
353:
315:
1266:
1512:
US Fish and Wildlife Service: Habitat and Resource Conservation
1269:"Alaska Beluga Whale Committeeâa unique model of co-management"
1208:
Mengerink, Kathryn; Roche, David; Swanson, Greta (2017-02-08).
547:
490:
357:
345:
468:, and provisions that may need to be made to the MMPA.
664:
Measures should be taken to replenish these species or stocks
603:
409:
377:
733:
441:
1622:
1132:"Marine Mammals Program | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service"
1108:"Marine Mammals Program | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service"
2745:
Animal welfare and rights legislation in the United States
1315:
751:
Collecting and analyzing data on marine mammal populations
590:
are managed by the Western Washington Field Office, while
561:
2465:
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
984:"Glossary: Marine Mammal Protection Act | NOAA Fisheries"
836:
716:
Certain exceptions to the take prohibitions, such as for
2532:
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972
2329:
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
360:. NOAA was given responsibility to conserve and manage
2378:
Emergency Daylight Saving Time Energy Conservation Act
765:
574:
is responsible for the management and conservation of
449:
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
2230:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
1207:
321:
Authority to manage the MMPA was divided between the
832:
754:
Monitoring the subsistence harvest of marine mammals
509:
Marine mammal permits and international coordination
2350:
Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1972
2006:
Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants
1471:
1575:
1250:A Case Study of Polar Bear Co-Management in Alaska
959:"Marine Mammal Stock Assessments | NOAA Fisheries"
538:. Species not present in U.S. waters include the
1534:
2726:
1393:Lebon, Kaitlin M.; Kelly, Ryan P. (2019-04-01).
472:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services Responsibilities
2735:United States federal environmental legislation
2495:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2357:Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973
1160:"Marine Mammal Protection Act | NOAA Fisheries"
870:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
614:; however, this species is most prevalent near
335:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2179:National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
1558:Works by or about Marine Mammal Protection Act
1449:"Marine Mammal Take Reduction Plans and Teams"
626:, while the Boqueron Field Office manages the
2237:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
1608:
1054:
1052:
208:on October 10, 1972 (Agreed) and by the
1185:
2451:Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act
2064:Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973
2029:Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
927:
925:
906:"Marine Mammal Protection | NOAA Fisheries"
586:in Alaska. Northern sea otters present in
243:Winter v. Natural Resources Defense Council
2297:Securities Investor Protection Corporation
1615:
1601:
1567:Works by or about Marine Mammal Commission
1392:
1049:
598:are managed by the Ventura Field Office.
202:Reported by the joint conference committee
2267:Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act
1489:
1446:
1410:
1367:
1333:
1284:
1246:
1157:
1006:
981:
956:
931:
903:
875:Society for Animal Protective Legislation
734:Co-management With Indigenous Communities
729:Studies of pinniped-fishery interactions.
442:Marine Mammal Commission Responsibilities
27:Act of the United States Congress in 1972
2780:Nature conservation in the United States
2036:Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972
1586:) is being considered for deletion. See
922:
387:
314:. The Act defines "take" as "the act of
265:
2560:Water Resources Development Act of 1974
2385:Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act
2274:Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970
2253:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
562:Marine mammal conservation in the field
14:
2727:
2458:National Ambient Air Quality Standards
2136:Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970
1531:- regulations that implement the MMPA.
1262:
1260:
1195:Final Report, Marine Mammal Commission
1181:
1179:
1153:
1151:
274:- this haul rests on rocks located on
2414:Environmental Quality Improvement Act
2186:Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1970
2071:Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act
1596:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1363:
1361:
1976:Minority Business Development Agency
1247:Kanayurak, Nicole Lynn (June 2016).
18:Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972
2518:Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
2283:Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act
1990:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act
1921:Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement
1257:
1186:Malek, J.C.; Cornish, V.R. (2019).
1176:
1148:
177:House Merchant Marine and Fisheries
157:in the House as H.R. 10420 by
24:
2371:Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act
2290:Securities Investor Protection Act
2223:Occupational Safety and Health Act
2207:Economic Stabilization Act of 1970
2129:District of Columbia Home Rule Act
1435:
1358:
1009:"Science Centers | NOAA Fisheries"
744:Alaska Native Organizations (ANOs)
404:is also responsible for providing
270:One species of marine mammal: the
25:
2796:
2785:Wildlife law in the United States
2486:Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970
2421:National Environmental Policy Act
1590:to help reach a consensus. âș
1549:Works by Marine Mammal Commission
1517:
880:Tuna-Dolphin GATT Case (I and II)
516:National Marine Fisheries Service
212:on October 11, 1972 (Agreed)
2472:New Source Performance Standards
2407:Council on Environmental Quality
1214:The Yearbook of Polar Law Online
849:
835:
778:
43:
2509:Coastal Zone Management Program
2430:Environmental Protection Agency
2193:Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1973
2108:Federal Contested Elections Act
2092:Drug Enforcement Administration
2050:End Stage Renal Disease Program
1478:Global Ecology and Conservation
1465:
1399:Global Ecology and Conservation
1386:
1309:
1240:
1201:
1124:
487:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services
478:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services
2546:Endangered Species Act of 1973
2539:Endangered Species Act of 1969
2143:Congressional Research Service
1723:VP confirmation of Gerald Ford
1447:Fisheries, NOAA (2022-07-22).
1370:"Marine Mammal Protection Act"
1368:Fisheries, NOAA (2022-08-09).
1158:Fisheries, NOAA (2022-08-09).
1100:
1084:"Marine Mammal Protection Act"
1076:
1025:
1007:Fisheries, NOAA (2021-10-12).
1000:
982:Fisheries, NOAA (2021-10-14).
975:
957:Fisheries, NOAA (2022-04-11).
950:
932:Fisheries, NOAA (2021-05-26).
904:Fisheries, NOAA (2022-05-04).
897:
766:Alaska Nanuuq Commission (ANC)
610:, and are also present in the
466:Endangered Species Act of 1973
327:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
13:
1:
2364:Federal Energy Administration
2115:Federal Election Campaign Act
1900:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
890:
773:Alaska Beluga Whale Committee
640:
618:(the Florida subspecies) and
32:Marine Mammals Protection Act
30:For the New Zealand act, see
2765:Whaling in the United States
2525:Marine Mammal Protection Act
2437:Clean Air Amendments of 1970
2057:Supplemental Security Income
1999:Education Amendments of 1972
1335:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104832
333:, which is delegated to the
301:
284:Marine Mammal Protection Act
38:Marine Mammal Protection Act
7:
2502:Coastal Zone Management Act
2260:Consumer Product Safety Act
2043:National Cancer Act of 1971
1681:1970 Lincoln Memorial visit
1624:Presidency of Richard Nixon
1583:Presidency of Richard Nixon
1491:10.1016/j.gecco.2015.11.009
1412:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00608
828:
815:
231:United States Supreme Court
65:92nd United States Congress
10:
2801:
2664:Senate Watergate Committee
2244:Permissible exposure limit
2022:Rehabilitation Act of 1973
1767:Presidential Proclamations
1226:10.1163/22116427_008010007
646:Amendments enacted in 1981
198:, in lieu of S. 2871)
29:
2696:
2569:
2553:Oil Pollution Act of 1973
2394:
2172:Fair Credit Reporting Act
2154:
1969:Revised Philadelphia Plan
1953:
1928:Threshold Test Ban Treaty
1776:
1631:
1524:Full text of MMPA of 1972
323:Secretary of the Interior
237:
229:
150:
145:
127:
117:
112:
93:
83:
78:
70:
59:
51:
42:
2703:â Johnson administration
2336:Agricultural Act of 1970
1879:1973 Chilean coup d'Ă©tat
1588:templates for discussion
1540:Marine Mammal Commission
1535:Marine Mammal Commission
1088:Marine Mammal Commission
1064:Marine Mammal Commission
1037:Marine Mammal Commission
653:Policies created in 1982
602:populations extend from
2750:1972 in the environment
2601:Saturday Night Massacre
2343:Farm Credit Act of 1971
2313:Alternative minimum tax
1286:10.33265/polar.v40.5611
885:Unusual mortality event
194:on July 26, 1972 (
184:on March 9, 1972 (
173:Committee consideration
122:16 U.S.C.: Conservation
2655:United States v. Nixon
2306:Tax Reform Act of 1969
1983:Native American policy
1962:Family Assistance Plan
1033:"About the Commission"
865:Endangered Species Act
806:
763:
635:Endangered Species Act
464:appropriate under the
296:United States Congress
279:
206:agreed to by the House
2712:Ford administration â
2214:Smithsonian Agreement
1737:Judicial appointments
790:
748:
388:NOAA Responsibilities
331:Secretary of Commerce
269:
169:) on December 4, 1971
2740:1972 in American law
2617:White House Plumbers
453:Secretaries of State
2760:Mammal conservation
2755:Marine conservation
2671:impeachment process
2587:Operation Sandwedge
2322:Revenue Act of 1971
2122:1970 VRA Amendments
1870:Shanghai Communiqué
1863:1972 visit to China
1815:Paris Peace Accords
1787:International trips
1667:Second inauguration
600:West Indian manatee
592:southern sea otters
584:northern sea otters
524:West Indian manatee
352:, three species of
344:and marine otters,
329:(Service), and the
222:on October 21, 1972
204:on August 1, 1972;
146:Legislative history
39:
2770:Whale conservation
2594:Operation Gemstone
1893:1972 Moscow Summit
1649:First inauguration
280:
37:
2775:Seal conservation
2722:
2721:
2647:White House tapes
2638:list of opponents
2479:Noise Control Act
2078:Shafer Commission
1944:Space exploration
1914:Washington Summit
1808:Cambodian bombing
1716:1974 SOTU Address
1709:1973 SOTU Address
1702:1972 SOTU Address
1695:1971 SOTU Address
1688:1970 SOTU Address
1657:Bring Us Together
1553:Project Gutenberg
823:carrying capacity
628:Antillean manatee
572:Anchorage, Alaska
567:internationally.
544:Amazonian manatee
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