Mapping of Venus - Knowledge

1275: 138: 257: 949: 167: 274: 1222: 1117: 1105: 1294:. Compared to the above units, this unit seems to cover a high proportion of the Venusian surface at around 79.3 x 10 km. Although the distribution of psh is widely spread and homogeneous, there are also some regions with no psh units, including the Lakshmi Planum and some lowland of regional plains, The shield plains are formed from shield domes over time and suggested that psh may be associated as volcanic plains with small sources of volcanic materials and mildly deformed by tectonics. 1267: 939: 1538:(2) Then, it came to Guinevere Period, which firstly, there was formation of Atropos (dense lineated plains, pdl), Lavinia (Ridged plains, pr), Akna (Mountain belts, mb), and Agrona (groove belt, gb). Later, there was global emplacement of Accruva (shied plains, psh), Rusalka (lower regional plains, rp1), and Ituana (upper regional plains, rp2) Formations. There are events of wrinkle ridges formed around the global. Mostly of the surface of Venus was resurfaced in this period 1958: 1697: 1473: 4112: 3927: 1183: 959: 80: 3937: 1968: 350: 1354: 1337: 1160: 969: 212: 1036: 388: 228: 358: 1541:(3) In the Altlian period, there are limited formations of smooth plains (ps), Gunda Formation, and shield clusters (sc), Boala Formation, possibly due to Atlian volcanism. There was significant reduction in the rate of volcanism and tectonism. However, these proposed events, and formation of units are not yet fully explained by a complete Venus geological model, such as resurfacing of Venus or heat-pipe hypothesis. 1524: 1850: 24: 253:. In cycle 2 (right-looking), 54.5% of the surface was mapped, mainly the south pole regions and gaps from cycle 1 during May 15, 1991 to January 14, 1992. Combining cycle 1 and 2 results in a total coverage of 96% of Venusian surface mapped. Cycle 3 (left looking) filled remaining gaps and collected stereo imagery of approximately 21.3% of the surface, increasing the total coverage to 98%. 384:. Compared to the SAR images, the topographic images have a significantly lower resolution of around 3–5 km/pixel. These images show lower elevations with darker pixels with higher elevations are shown with brighter pixels. Despite the low resolution, it is useful to study the regional feature of Venus, including initial evidence for the existence of rift zones. 1325:, Ituana Formation) with also smooth surface, but higher radar albedo. Wrinkle ridges heavily deform the lower unit while moderately deforming the upper unit. The lower unit is heavily tectonized and embayed by lava plains and flows. The younger upper unit is lacking in large heavily tectonized tessera regions. 1438:

structures. This unit appears to be sets of subparallel lineaments of fractures or grabens. This deformation unit makes up to around 37.1 x 10 km of the Venusian surface. These fractures are the most obvious and are very abundant on the surface of Venus, and crosses different units on the surface. It

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The Smooth plains unit (ps) belongs to Gunda Formation, which is a smooth and featureless surface without tectonic marks. It only makes up about 10.3 x 10 km of Venusian surface. These plains are usually do not have impact craters, which is tectonic undeformed. These plains are rarely with low domes.

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The Shield clusters unit (sc) is similar to shield plains, but tectonically undeformed. Based on the analysis by Crumpler and Aubele (2000), 10% of this unit shows evidence that it is younger than regional plains (rp). Some of the small shield clusters are founded embaying the regional plains of both

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There are embayment relationships, showing that this unit is younger than the above highly tectonized units (t and pdl) at a global scale. However, the absence of the unit in some regions makes this unit difficult to fit into the strata, especially between the highly tectonized units mentioned above,

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After collection of the images of the Venusian surface, scientists started to map and identify different geologic materials and units according to distinctive surface features. Different groups of scientists analyzed different mapping areas, schemes and interpretation of features observed, to produce

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defines sixty-two cartographic quadrangles for the surface of Venus, with V-1 as the north pole region and V-62 as the south pole region. Base on the FMAPs, different groups of Venus researchers are mapping different quadrangles for the surface of Venus, resulting in different type of units defined.

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The shield plains units (psh) refers to plains with volcanic edifices of shield-like features. In most of the psh regions. the plains are concentrated and forms a group. It is the oldest unit in the strata showing no widespread deformation, in which only little tectonic deformation is observed, such

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The quadrangles mapping and classification of geological units by different groups of researchers are mainly based on regional units mapped locally. Different groups have their own grouping of units, which are not fully coherent with others work and the proposed global stratigraphy. Also, there are

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are regions of heavily deformed terrain, mostly located on highland areas (greater than 2 km in elevation) on Venus. This tectonic feature -or uni— is thought to be the oldest material on Venusian surface with highest level of tectonic deformation. It is of high topography and seen in white on

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or orientation. For SAR imaging, spacecraft do not point directly downward (nadir) but slightly to the side—anywhere from about 10° to 45°. If the surface being mapped is smooth, the incident radar pulse will be reflected away from the spacecraft, resulting in a weak echo, which is represented by

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The study of impact craters on Venus is important to discover its geological history. In testing the model of catastrophic and equilibrium Model (another hypothesis other than global stratigraphy) on Venus, it is found that the older regional plains (rp) are embaying only around 3% of the impact

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There is evidence in places showing that pr unit is embaying the t and pdl unit. Also, the deformation of pr took place after the formation of t and pdl units. Thus, pr unit is possibly younger than both unit t and pdl. As most of the deformation features on pr is far away from that on t and pdl

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For treating tessera terrain as the oldest global unit in the Stratigraphic Classification Scheme, it is questioned under Hansen (2005)'s mapping scheme. Although it is commonly the oldest unit mapped in different Venusian areas, it may not be the case for everywhere. The assumption of all the

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The USGS Branch of Astrogeology has produced full resolution radar maps (also known as FMAPs) of Venus from the SAR data collected from the mission, called the Magellan F-BIDRs (Full resolution Basic Image Data Records). The maps have a coverage of around 92% (combination of the 2 left-looking

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SAR images do not provide the color of surface, only the intensity of reflection of radar waves on the surface at a particular incidence angle. For example, when there is a light source shining on the blue cap on the left (left-looking), there will be shadows on the other side of the cap where

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The regional plains unit (rp) is the most widespread unit on the Venusian surface of about 182.8 x 10 km. It is defined as smooth and homogeneous plains, which are deformed into networks of linear subparallel or intersecting ridges. This unit is interpreted as having volcanic origin with

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When looking at the cross-cutting relationship, the inner ridges of the belts seems to be embayed by the material of regional plains (pr), which covered the plateau surface. There is later deformation in terms of tilting towards the belts and wrinkle ridges parallel to the belt. It suggested

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By cross-cutting relationships, the plains embay the wrinkle ridges containing regional plains, which suggested that lobate plains are younger. However, as the lobate plains, smooth plains, shield cluster and rift zones are often seen as small fractures, it is difficult to tell their time

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There are a major difference in terminology between the Stratigraphic Classification Scheme and Hansen (2005)'s mapping scheme, which Hansen (2005) suggested that "fold material" should be used instead of "plains with different surface features". It can be explained by three reasons:

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One way to do mapping on Venus and characterization on the geological units on Venus is by the stratigraphic classification scheme. Mikhail A. Ivano and James W. Head (2011) mapped the area of geotraverses at 30°N and 0°N. They traced and discussed the global spatial distribution of

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The densely lineated plains unit (pdl) is defined by the dense and parallel lineaments packed on the unit. They make up a small area on Venus's global surface of around 7.2 x 10 km. The lineament is the pattern of deformation, which make it a typical structural–material unit.

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on Venus in the area surrounding Lakshmi Planum, which covers only 1.3 x 10 km of the Venusian global surface, while involves structural deformation of different materials in their formation. There are in total four major mountain belts mapped on Venus, including the belts of

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In SAR images, pr units have noticeably higher radar backscatter than surrounding regional plains, but lower than tessera (t) and densely lineated plains (pdl) units. Ridges planes have older ages compared to surrounding regional plains (pr) due to the difference in

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Here is an example of geological map in quadrangle V-20. The units are classified as (1) tessera material, (2) plains materials, (3) materials of coronae and (4) materials of domes and miscellaneous flows, with structures like ridges, wrinkle ridge and lineations.

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Kryuchkov, V.P., 1992. Ridge belts on plains. In: Barsukov, V.L., Basilevsky, A.T., Volkov, V.P., Zharkov, V.N. (Eds.), Venus Geology, Geochemistry, and Geophysics (Research Results from the USSR). University Arizona Press, Tucson, London, pp.

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Crumpler, L.S., Aubele, J., 2000. Volcanismon Venus. In: Sigurdson, H., Houghton, B., Rymer, H., Stix, J., McNutt, S. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press, San Diego, San Francisco, New York, Boston, London, Sydney, Toronto, pp.

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Pronin, A.A., 1992. The Lakshmi phenomenon. In: Barsukov, V.L., Basilevsky, A.T., Volkov, V.P., Zharkov, V.N. (Eds.), Venus Geology, Geochemistry, and Geophysics (Research Results from the USSR). University Arizona Press, Tucson, London, pp.

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units, it is difficult to tell the age relationship of deformation directly. However, there are some tessera-like deformations additional to the ridge belts, it suggests there are some possible overlapping of formation time in unit t and pr.

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orbiter during 1990–1991 with 50 km spatial and 100 m vertical resolution. During three orbit regimes, the surface images were transmitted back to the Earth. These three orbiting motions of the spacecraft are called mapping cycle 1, 2 and 3.

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Here are some examples of quadrangle mapping and their ways of classifying and grouping observed geological units. Some of them are having a similar time sequence as the global stratigraphy mentioned above and will be highlighted below.

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The major occurrence of this unit is located among Vinmara, Atalanta, Ganiki, and Vellamo Planitiae, shich in a broad fan-shape, and also appears between Ovda and Thetis Regiones and in the southern hemisphere within Lavinia Planitis.

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Ivanov, M.A., Head, J.W., 2004b. Stratigraphy of small shield volcanoes on Venus: criteria for determining stratigraphic relationships and assessment of relative age and temporal abundance. J. Geophys. Res. 109, NE10001. doi:10.1029/

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Campbell, D.B., Stacy, N.J.S., Newman, W.I., Arvidson, R.E., Jones, E.M., Musser, G.S., Roper, A.Y., Schaller, C., 1992. Magellan observations of extended impact crater related features on the surface of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 97,

1498:, impact craters on Venus include central peaks, rims, floors, walls, ejected deposits and outflows from the craters. There are two groups of materials, including undivided crater materials (c) and impact crater flow material (cf). 1549:

The mapping scheme applied by Vicki L. Hansen is mainly regional based, instead of using global stratigraphy as Mikhail A. Ivano and James W. Head did. This mapping scheme focuses on the regional origin of geological materials.

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The intersecting of material and tectonic structures are the defined characteristic of tessera, but the sets are not always seen in the images. Due to the heavy tectonic deformation, it contains both contractional features of

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Head, J.W., Crumpler, L.S., Aubele, J.C., Guest, J.E., Saunders, R.S., 1992. Venus volcanism: classification of volcanic features and structures, associations, and global distribution from Magellan data. J. Geophys. Res. 97,

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darker regions SAR images. On the other hand, if the surface is rougher, then more of the radar wave will be backscattered, and the intensity of echo will be stronger, which are represented by brighter areas in SAR images.

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There are some common features mapped, such as linear fractures, ridge and wrinkled ridge identified in many regions, and other local features only found in some regions, such as dome, belt fractures, ribbon, graben, etc.

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The relatively low-lying plains are mapped as flows from different origins locally. These materials are thought to be thick young sediments deposited rapidly. In SAR images, the flows material can be radar-dark or bright.

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It is very important to map these fractures, as sometimes the rock unit may be too deformed and is not recognizable, which it can be mapped as "fractured plains materials" according to the guidelines of Wilhelms (1990).

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Under the Global stratigraphic Classification Scheme, by correlating the units mentioned above (Mikhail A. Ivano and James W. Head, 2011), the researchers suggested three phases of Venusian geological history:

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Barsukov, V.L., Basilevsky, A.T., Burba, G.A., et al. (24 others), 1986. The geology and geomorphology of the Venus surface as revealed by the radar images obtained by Venera 15 and 16. J. Geophys. Res. 91,

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Senske, D. A., Saunders, R. S., & Stofan, E. R. (1994, March). The global geology of Venus: Classification of landforms and geologic history. In Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (Vol. 25, p. 1245).

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Tectonic units are formations due to large-scale crustal processes. In this mapping scheme, these surface units are grouped into possible same set of geological materials, shown by similar surface features.

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Masursky, H., Eliason, E., Ford, P.G., McGill, G.E., Pettengill, G.H., Schaber, G.G., Schubert, G., 1980. Pioneer-Venus radar results: geology from the images and altimetry. J. Geophys. Res. 85, 8232–8260.

1390:, which sometimes appear with large dome-shaped rises. One possible origin of this unit is from massive and multiple eruptions from large and localized volcanoes with little later extensional deformation. 2506:

Guest, J.E., Bulmer, M.H., Aubele, J., Beratan, K., Greeley, R., Head, J.W., Michaels, G., Weitz, C., Wiles, C., 1992. Small volcanic edifices and volcanism in the plains of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 97,

1365:(1) Many fields of smooth plains are near to the regions with young volcanism (such as Bell Regio) with the lobate plains (pl). However, the relationship of smooth and lobate plains is uncertain. 2387:

Squyres, S.W., Jankowski, D.G., Simons, M., Solomon, S.C., Hager, B.H., McGill, G.E., 1992. Plains tectonism on Venus: the deformation belts of Lavinia Planitia. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13579–13599

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appears to be a younger unit on the surface. However, some vast plains units are found embaying the grooves in some areas. It suggests the formation of gb unit before the formation of plains.

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Different missions have mapped different cartographic quadrangles of the surface of Venus. They applied different mapping schemes and came up with different classifications of Venusian units.

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deformed by ridges. They have a smooth surface with relatively higher elevation than the surroundings. The ridges are usually symmetrical in cross-section and collected into prominent belts.

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craters and the younger lobate plains (pl) are embaying around 33% of the impact crater on Venus. It suggested that there are likely to have been at least two geological periods on Venus:

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Geological Survey (US), Leslie F. Bleamaster, III, and Vicki L. Hansen. Geologic map of the Ovda Regio Quadrangle (V-35), Venus. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 2005.

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The boundaries of tessera shows embayment by other materials of other units. By this cross-cutting relationship, it provides evidence of tessera being the oldest unit within the strata.

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Head, J.W., 1990. Formation of mountain belts on Venus: evidence for large-scale convergence, underthrusting, and crustal imbrication in Freya Montes, Ishtar Terra. Geology 18, 99–102.

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Pettengill, G.H., Eliason, E., Ford, P.G., Loriot, G.B., Masursky, H., McGill, G.E., 1980. Pioneer Venus radar results: altimetry and surface properties. J. Geophys. Res. 85, 8261–8270

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Ivanov, M. A., and J. W. Head. "Volcanically embayed craters on Venus: testing the catastrophic and equilibrium resurfacing models." Planetary and Space Science 106 (2015): 116–121.

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Herrick, R. R., & Sharpton, V. L. (2000). Implications from stereo‐derived topography of Venusian impact craters. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 105(E8), 20245–20262.

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The Rift zones unit (rz) belongs to the Devana Formation, which is also made up of dense extensional structures with defined numbers of fissures and troughs containing flat-floors.

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Position of Venera landing sites and the radar topography obtained. Red points denote sites returning images from the surface, black central dots sites of surface sample analysis.

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science team (1994), it carries confusions. Ridges can be also understood as fold, which is a contractional feature. However, not all tessera deformation are due to contraction.

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Gilmore, M.S., Head, J.W., 2000. Sequential deformation of plains at the margins of Alpha Regio, Venus: implications for tessera formation. Meteoritics Planet. Sci. 35, 667–687.

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Ivanov, Mikhail A., and James W. Head. "Geology of Venus: Mapping of a global geotraverse at 30 N latitude." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 106.E8 (2001): 17515–17566.

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The classification of impact crater-forming materials are (1) crater materials and (2) flooded crater materials, which is similar to the stratigraphic classification scheme.

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Bindschadler, Duane; Head, James (1991). "Tessera Terrain, Venus: Characterization and Models for Origin and Evolution". Journal of Geophysical Research. 96 (B4): 5889–5907.

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showing the mountain belt (mb) units with Akna Montes and Freyja Montes along the western and northwestern edge of Lakshmi Planum, and Maxwell Montes along its eastern edge

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McGill, G.E., Campbell, B.A., 2006. Radar properties as clues to relative ages of ridge belts and plains on Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 111, E12006. doi:10.1029/ 2006JE002705.

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Also, according to fundamental geological mapping principles, secondary structure (such as lineated, ridged and wrinkled) should not be used to define geological units.

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are blocked by the cap and no reflection occurs. If the looking direction is changed to the right, the shadowing (dark on SAR image) part will be at the opposite side.

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Hansen, Vicki; Willis, James (1998). "Ribbon Terrain Formation, Southwestern Fortuna Tessera, Venus: Implications for Lithosphere Evolution". Icarus. 132 (2): 321–343.

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science team (1994), Vicki L. Hansen (2005) and Mikhail A. Ivano and James W. Head (2011). The possible matching of the above units are in accordance with their radar

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Basilevsky, Alexander T., and James W. Head. "The geologic history of Venus: A stratigraphic view." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 103.E4 (1998): 8531–8544.

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on Venus which are present on different quadrangles. These stratigraphic units and landforms are listed below in terms of mechanism from the oldest to the youngest.

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or tectonic movements. By performing the radar mapping at two separated times (before and after an event) over the same area, the terrain changes could be revealed.

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There is evidence showing the embayment of tessera by pdl's material in some tessera margins. Thus, it is possible that this unit is younger than the tessera unit.

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Rosenberg, Elizabeth, and George E. McGill. Geologic map of the Pandrosos Dorsa quadrangle (V-5), Venus. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 2001.

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Bannister, Roger A., and Vicki L. Hansen. Geologic map of the Artemis Chasma Quadrangle (V-48), Venus. US Department, of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 2010.

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Real life example on difference in looking direction in SAR images. Same object with difference looking direction shows completely different result in SAR image.

1505:(1) Earlier global volcanic regime stage (Formation of older regional plains), when the high rate of volcanic activities overwrote the marks of impact cratering 1652:

Hansen (2005) suggested that the tessera terrain should not be named as "complex ridged terrain (CRT)". For the term "complex ridged terrain (CRT)" used by the

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During the mapping cycle 1 (left-looking) radar surface mapping on Venus (September 15, 1990 to May 15, 1991), around 70% of the Venusian surface was mapped by

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Ivanov, Mikhail A., and James W. Head. Geologic Map of the Nemesis Tesserae Quadrangle, V-13, Venus. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 2005.

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A simple Venus global strata base on Ivanov and Head's model (2011) (Note that it is just a simple global strata, not every region on Venus has this strata.)

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and reach to the surface. Different surface features reflect waves with different strengths of signal, producing images from which the maps are constructed.

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Meyer, Franz J., and David T. Sandwell. "SAR interferometry at Venus for topography and change detection." Planetary and Space Science 73.1 (2012): 130–144.

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channels, which give clues to estimate the surface age, possible global resurfacing events, tectonic activities, internal structure and surface processes.

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Left (left-looking) and right (right-looking) images showing the difference in SAR images on the same location on Venus. (Venus images extracted from USGS)

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In SAR images, the psh unit shows a higher radar backscatter compared to surrounding overlaying regional plains, still lower than units of t, pdl and pr.

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Graff, Jamie R. MAPPING AND ANALYSIS OF THE TECTONO-MAGMATIC FEATURES ALONG THE HECATE CHASMA RIFT SYSTEM, VENUS. Diss. Carleton University Ottawa, 2014.

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Plains materials of dense lineated plains (pdl), ridged and grooved plains (prg), shield plains (psh), wrinkle ridged plains (pwr) and smooth plains (ps)

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Similar to the global stratigraphic mapping scheme with the oldest tessera, followed by dense lineated materials, up to other younger plains materials.

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are usually related to the lobate plains, which may indicate that the rifting is related to the young volcanism and also young volcanic plains formed.

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on Venus (also the first for another planetary object). The probe operated for about 23 minutes before being destroyed by the Venusian atmosphere. The

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Hansen, V. L., & Willis, J. A. (1996). Structural analysis of a sampling of tesserae: Implications for Venus geodynamics. Icarus, 123(2), 296–312.

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Johnson, J.R., Komatsu, G., Baker, V.R., 1999. Geologic map of the Barrymore Quadrangle (V-59), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map I-2610

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mission (1990–1991). Instead of identifying different geological materials, it basically grouped the global surface units with different radar

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Basilevsky, A. T. "Geologic mapping of V17 Beta Regio quadrangle: Preliminary results." Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Vol. 27. 1996.

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The SAR images are black and white images, which show the surface features using the intensity of radar return (echo), either due to surface

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Ivanov, M.A., Head, J.W., 2001a. Geologic map of the Lavinia Planitia Quadrangle (V-55), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map I-2684.

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Before the development of radar-based observation, the thick yellow Venusian atmosphere hid surface features. In the 1920s, the first Venus

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The radar units are the high backscatter radar facies marked by penetratively developed, and it does not represent single geological units.

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Campbell, B.A., Campbell, P.G., 2002. Geologic map of the Bell Regio Quadrangle (V-9), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map I-2743.

1386:. These features make up to around 37.8 x 10 km, which is significant. The origin of lobate plains is thought to be associated with large 3973: 2564:

Wilhelms, D.E., 1990. Geologic mapping. In: Greeley, R., Batson, R.M. (Eds.), Planetary Mapping. Cambridge University Press, pp. 208–260.

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Hansen, V.L., DeShon, H.R., 2002. Geologic map of the Diana Chasma Quadrangle (V-37), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map I-2752

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Goldstein, R. M.; Carpenter, R. L. (1963). "Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements". Science. 139 (3558): 910–911.

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Ivanov, M.A., Head, J.W., 2001b. Geology of Venus: mapping of a global geotraverse at 30N latitude. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 17515–17566.

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Izenberg, N.R., Arvidson, R.E., Phillips, R.J., 1994. Impact crater degradation on Venusian plains. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 289–292.

3797: 1535:(1) The earliest period, Fortunian Period, involved intensive formation of tessera (t) (building of thick crust at the same time). 1442:

The major difference between grooves unit and dense lineated plains are that the former is belt-like and the latter is patch-like.

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Due to the usual higher elevation of smooth plains, it is possible that the volcanic material of smooth plains is a younger unit.

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lower and upper layers, while in some regions, this unit is found on top of the rp unit and deformed together by wrinkled ridges.

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McGill, G.E., 2004. Geologic map of the Bereghinya Planitia Quadrangle (V-8), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map I-2794.

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Ivers, Carol; McGill, George. "Kinematics of a Tessera Block in the Vellamo Planitia Quadrangle". Lunar and Planetary Science. 29

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Campbell, B.A., Clark, D.A., 2006. Geologic map of the Mead Quadrangle (V-21), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map 2897.

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Mapping of Venus crater based on 3 units: (1) crater material; (2) radar-bright diffuse deposits; and (3) dark diffuse deposits

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Instead of surface mapping by SAR as done by previous missions, InSAR would measure the terrain motions during events such as

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Ivanov, Mikhail A., and James W. Head. "Global geological map of Venus." Planetary and Space Science 59.13 (2011): 1559–1600.

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mission data, 3 types of images have been produced: (1) SAR images, (2) topographic images and (3) meter scale slope image.

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Basilevsky, A.T., 2008. Geologic map of the Beta Regio quadrangle (V-17), Venus. U.S. Geological Survey Sci. Inv. Map 3023

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SAR image on Venus. This map is a mosaic of the "left-looking" data collected during cycle 1, produced by the USGS of the

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Kryuchkov, V.P., 1990. Ridge belts: are they compressional or extensional structures? Earth Moon Planets 50/51, 471–491.

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Northeastern region (mainly flow materials with different origin and tessera terrain of Thetis Regio and undivided part)

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Kazuo, O. "Recent Trend and Advance of Synthetic Aperture Radar with Selected Topics: Remote Sensing." (2013): 716–807.

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South-central to southeastern region (mainly flow materials with different origin and Boszorkany Dorsa basal material)

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The units are defined by groups of structural features of commonly higher elevation area with ridges and deformations:

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Aubele, J.C., Slyuta, E.N., 1990. Small domes on Venus: characteristics and origin. Earth Moon Planets 50/51, 493–532.

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Thus, in Hansen's mapping scheme (2005), plains are defined as flow from different local origins in regional mapping.

66: 48: 1371:(3) small ps units are inside the tessera regions (such as Ovda Regio), which may associate with a volcanic origin, 1132:. The materials composed tessa terrain, which was named as unit Tt in the mapping of V-17(Basilevsky, A. T.,1996). 2090:

Howington-Kraus, E., et al. "USGS Magellan stereomapping of Venus." European Planetary Science Congress 2006. 2006.

1368:(2) Some of the unit is located as deposition around an impact crater, possibly associated with the impact events. 3966: 2658: 1714: 1508:(2) Later network-rifting and volcanic regime stage (Formation of younger lobate plains), when the intensity of 1598:

Some of the terrains have multiple deformations, but it is not essential for them to have complex deformation.

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Frank, S.L., Head, J.W., 1990. Ridge belts on Venus: morphology and origin. Earth Moon Planets 50/51, 421–470.

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Widespread units (Chasmata flow material, crater material, flooded crater material and tessera inlier terrain)

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Frank, S.L., Head, J.W., 1990. Ridge belts on Venus: morphology and origin. Earth Moon Planets 50/51, 421–470

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Hansen, Vicki L. "Venus's shield terrain." Geological Society of America Bulletin 117.5–6 (2005): 808–822.

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There are only two major units classified under this group. These two units are further classified below:

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returned radar images of the Venusian surfaces, shown as below with the landing locations of the probes.

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Here are the list of examples comparing the mapping schemes and units in quadrangles (regional mapping):

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Thus, the studying of crater distribution and randomness may give clues for Venusian geological history.

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Tanaka, Kenneth L., et al. The Venus geologic mappers' handbook. No. 93-516. US Geological Survey, 1993.

2120:

Hansen, V. L. (2005). Venus's shield terrain. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 117(5–6), 808–822.

4115: 3959: 137: 1684:

There is no evidence that the Venusian plains are volcanic products resulted from extensive flood lava

256: 4141: 3912: 3907: 3280: 3209: 3174: 2516:

Bilotti, F., Suppe, J., 1999. The global distribution of wrinkle ridges on Venus. Icarus 139, 137–157

1382:

The Lobate plains unit (pl) is a smooth surface crossed with some extension features associated with

1075:

rock-stratigraphic units and structure, and suggested their time correlation and geological history.

527:(Further classification into 7 types, according to the features in Hansen and Willis' paper in 1996) 39: 1258:

formation formed right before the deposition of regional plains and later deformation of the belts.

3635: 3081: 2985: 2701: 1310:

deformation of wrinkle ridges superimposed. However, the source of volcanism is not obvious in the

309: 250: 405:

Lowlands (accumulation of eroded highlands) with negative elevation, cover the rest of the surface

3777: 3694: 3159: 2801: 2769: 1412: 197: 2026:"Mission Information: MAGELLAN". NASA / Planetary Data System. 1994-10-12. Retrieved 2011-02-20. 1321:, Rusalka Formation) with smooth surface and relatively low radar backscatter and upper unit (rp 4151: 3802: 3787: 3234: 3194: 155:

project captured the thick atmosphere of Venus, but provided no information about the surface.

113:

Satellite radar provides imagery of the surface morphology by using the physical properties of

1186:

The ridge belt that forms in the western part of the elevated smooth plateau of Lakshmi plain

3836: 3825: 3717: 3661: 3629: 3624: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3350: 3345: 2950: 2920: 1866:

Western regions (mainly flow materials with different origin and Ovda Regio tessera terrain )

1449:

In SAR image, these fractures are of high radar albedo, as high as that of the tessera unit.

1435: 273: 236: 166: 1665:

tessera are formed at the same time and the oldest around the global are remained untested.

1221: 948: 3751: 3668: 3270: 3254: 1174:

In SAR images, it also shows a high backscatter imagery, but lighter than that of tessera.

402:

Deposition plains with elevations around 0 to 2 km, cover more than 50% of the surface

114: 4028: 1647: 8: 4069: 3940: 3675: 3214: 3149: 2706: 2651: 170:

Venusian cloud structure captured by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter using ultraviolet in 1979.

122: 91:

refers to the process and results of human description of the geological features of the

4023: 4018: 1922:

Tectonic and fracture terrain units is the oldest unit as it is mainly the tessera unit.

1213:

Some researchers mapped ridges of the pr unit as deformed structures instead of a unit.

3998: 3219: 3164: 3154: 3134: 3008: 2900: 2807: 1898:

Mapping by grouping local formations and deformations, instead of global stratigraphic

1861:

Mapping by grouping local formations and deformations, instead of global stratigraphic

1495: 1416: 1406: 1084: 107: 103: 2035:

Grayzeck, Ed (1997-01-08). "Magellan: Mission Plan". NASA / JPL. Retrieved 2011-02-27.

1834:

Crater material of undivided crater materials (c) and impact crater flow material (cf)

1569:

It can be further classified into eight groups according to the deformation features:

698:

The details of the above mapping scheme and units will be discussed one by one below.

432:

Here is a table comparing the different mapping scheme and unit identification by the

4084: 4079: 4061: 3982: 3936: 3902: 3761: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3432: 3249: 3239: 3184: 3179: 3144: 1885:

Regionally, the tessera unit are also the oldest unit with younger flows embaying it.

1278: 366:

cycles). The resolution is 75 m/pixel, which is the highest resolution Venusian map.

334: 34: 4013: 1678:"Plains" is not used to describe geological material, but surface physical features. 732:

The stratigraphic units in this mapping scheme are classified as 6 types of plains:

4051: 4046: 4003: 3887: 3882: 3437: 3337: 3317: 3275: 3114: 3109: 2935: 2678: 375: 2835: 330:

radiation is used to penetrate the thick atmosphere and map the surface of Venus.

4074: 4008: 3577: 3475: 3327: 3199: 3189: 3169: 3139: 3124: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3089: 2777: 1124: 1116: 1109: 381: 497:(defined by local formations and deformations, instead of global stratigraphic) 4136: 3930: 3322: 3244: 3229: 3119: 3046: 3041: 3018: 3013: 2955: 2915: 2895: 2845: 2830: 2644: 1251: 1234: 1104: 908:

Dense parallel linear fractures, mainly around equatorial and southern regions

399:

Highlands with elevation greater than 3 km, cover about 10% of the surface

482:(defined by difference in radar backscatter, surface texture and topographic) 4130: 3897: 3700: 3403: 3204: 3129: 3061: 3051: 2905: 2885: 2865: 2749: 1487: 1481: 986: 410: 305: 1992:

Ross, F. E. (1928). "Photographs of Venus". Astrophysical Journal. 68–92: 57

1967: 1767:

Plains materials (p, local plains and regional plains of different features)

1431:

Ridge structures are mainly discussed in the ridged plains (pr) part above.

1266: 1120:

Maxwell Montes's tessera (t) terrain seen in appearing as white in SAR image

4038: 3807: 3643: 3612: 3398: 3071: 3066: 2940: 2925: 2855: 2840: 2782: 1226: 938: 181: 2013:

Howington-Kraus, E., Kirk, R. L., Galuszka, D., & Redding, B. (2006).

1957: 1925:

All crater material and radar unit forms throughout the whole time period.

1696: 1659: 1635:

Here are some differences on the terminology and classification of units:

1281:. Evaluation Diagram of Shield plain formation from Shield Domes over time 3724: 3056: 2980: 2930: 2880: 2870: 2820: 2815: 2744: 1472: 1243: 1191: 1129: 1007: 752: 718: 437: 205: 152: 1512:

is reduced and allowed more impact cratering to be left on the surface.

1434:

Groove belts (gb) belong to the Agrona Formation, which refers to dense

1328:

In SAR images, they show as an intermediate level of radar backscatter.

227: 3604: 3530: 3505: 3290: 3285: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2945: 2875: 2825: 2787: 2759: 2754: 1668: 1182: 958: 418: 343: 293: 143: 79: 3877: 3687: 3597: 3590: 3583: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3495: 3480: 3470: 2910: 2890: 2860: 2850: 1725: 1509: 1461: 1383: 1291: 1254:(the highest mountain on Venus with elevation of around 12 km). 1206:

and embayment relationships suggested by McGill and Campbell (2006).

1145: 327: 118: 3951: 1691: 1083:

This mapping scheme suggests that there are approximately 12 global

349: 44:

Poor grammar and formatting inconsistent with the rest of Knowledge.

3892: 3756: 3746: 3535: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3500: 3490: 3485: 3450: 3385: 2960: 1353: 1336: 1159: 968: 192: 1615:

Structural deformation is treated as a feature instead of a unit.

1426: 1035: 902:

Same as CRT, but with a single direction of deformations dominate

618:(Tesserae is a geological material instead of structural features) 493:(defined to global stratigraphy with a division of geologic time) 387: 211: 3741: 3224: 1397:

The SAR image shows uneven radar back-scatter flow-like pattern.

1387: 1298:

and regional plains which will be mentioned in the next section.

414: 357: 231:

Synthetic Aperture Radar (showing right-looking in this diagram).

721:(white and dark in SAR images), topography and surface texture. 3990: 3681: 3653: 3648: 3617: 3444: 1544: 1523: 1357:

Adivar crater. Dark (Smooth plain) deposition around the crater

1287: 1203: 1141: 1137: 962:

Northern part of the Akna Montes (mountains) with a ridge belt.

186: 175: 129:

a classification of the units and comparison of their mapping.

92: 2667: 1849: 1648:

The terminology of "complex ridged terrain (CRT or tesserae)"

1491: 1476:

Dickinson Crater on Venus. The structure can be clearly seen.

1420: 724:

The mapped units and their characteristics are listed below.

99: 95: 1641:(2) Treating tessera terrain as a global stratigraphic unit 832:

Mottled textures with abundant small shields and despoites

1936: 1566:

Tessera terrain is seen locally the oldest unit on Venus.

701: 424: 776:

Abundant fractures, forming grids or orthogonal patterns

142:

Venus in ultraviolet – old versus newly processed views (

2636: 1638:(1) The term "complex ridged terrain (CRT or tesserae)" 1601: 1317:

Regional plains are divided into abundant lower unit (rp

2017:. In European Planetary Science Congress 2006 (p. 490). 1660:

Treating tessera terrain as a global stratigraphic unit

1630: 1069: 1858:

Leslie F. Bleamaster, III, and Vicki L. Hansen, 2005

1362:

These suggested three type of setting for this unit:

196:(on October 18, 1967) was the first lander to make a 1705:

some regional features being classified regionally.

829:

Extensive areas with both bright and dark materials

326:

SAR images provide the highest resolution data set.

241:

The global surface of Venus was first mapped by the

1726:Examples of quadrangle mapping unit classification 1622: 1467: 713:science team was a very early mapping done by the 1692:Quadrangles' mapping of Venusian geological units 4128: 709:The global-scale geologic mapping scheme by the 268: 1759:Elizabeth Rosenberg and George E. McGill, 2001 1644:(3) Terminology and classification of "plains" 1427:Tessera-forming structures (ridges and grooves) 560:5. Regional plains (rp, upper and lower units) 544:2. Flow material from different origin locally 3967: 2652: 395:There are three types of topography on Venus 289:(InSAR) for mapping Venus has been proposed. 1545:The mapping scheme by Vicki L. Hansen (2005) 905:Linear, which parallel to the nearby ridges 614:1. Complex ridged terrain (CRT or tesserae) 2345: 2343: 1909:Tectonic and fracture terrain units (fr, t) 1895:Roger A.Bannister and Vicki L.Hansen, 2010 3974: 3960: 2659: 2645: 2200: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2075: 1820:Mikhail A. Ivanov and James E. Head, 2005 1669:Terminology and classification of "plains" 1154: 629:3. Ridge belts (including mountain belts) 456:Mikhail A. Ivanov and James W. Head (2011) 2144: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 1823:Global stratigraphy units classification 1817:V-13 Nemesis tesserae quadrangle mapping 1415:. The resultant properties depend on the 1233:The mountain belts unit is the only real 880:Complex ridged terrain (CRT or tesserae) 849:Lava flow fields associated with coronae 821:Lava flooding with extension and rifting 190:probes for surface mapping by radar. The 67:Learn how and when to remove this message 2340: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2053: 1966: 1956: 1848: 1739:Mapping group & year of publication 1695: 1522: 1471: 1352: 1335: 1273: 1265: 1220: 1181: 1158: 1115: 1103: 1078: 1034: 967: 957: 947: 937: 519:(Tessera is not in this classification) 386: 380:Topographic images were collected using 356: 348: 287:Interferometric synthetic aperture radar 272: 255: 226: 210: 165: 136: 121:are used to penetrate the thick, cloudy 78: 1937:Examples of regional geological mapping 1892:V-48 Artemis Chasma quadrangle mapping 1304: 899:Ridges and fractures with deformations 425:Unit classification and mapping schemes 4129: 2572: 2570: 2123: 2009: 2007: 1610: 1518: 1216: 1163:Densely lineated plains (pdl) on Venus 1099: 727: 594:6. Digitate plains (lava flow fields) 369: 110:, volumes of rock with a similar age. 3981: 3955: 2640: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2098: 2096: 2050: 1602:Flow materials with different origins 1177: 616: 299: 4098:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 2043: 2041: 2015:USGS Magellan stereomapping of Venus 1831:Tessera material of tessera unit (t) 684:2. Impact crater flow material (cf) 17: 2567: 2004: 1631:Differences between mapping schemes 1553: 1411:Structural units are formed due to 1400: 1070:Stratigraphic classification scheme 855: 219: 13: 2606: 2207: 2105: 2093: 1847:V-35 Ovda Regio quadrangle mapping 1561: 1331: 942:Aphrodite Terra, a complex terrain 281:to measure small scale earthquakes 14: 4163: 2038: 1756:V-5 Barrymore Quadrangle Mapping 1419:applied to the formation and the 1112:imposed on the 'GIS Map of Venus' 1090: 541:3. Densely lineated plains (pdl) 409:The surface observation includes 158: 102:images of Venus, construction of 4111: 4110: 3935: 3926: 3925: 1377: 1348: 1261: 815:Homogeneous, bright local areas 790:Abundant and low sinuous ridges 764:Interpreted geological materials 624:2. Ridged and fractured terrain 22: 2624: 2615: 2597: 2588: 2579: 2558: 2549: 2539: 2529: 2519: 2510: 2500: 2490: 2481: 2471: 2462: 2453: 2444: 2435: 2426: 2417: 2408: 2399: 2390: 2381: 2371: 2362: 2353: 2331: 2322: 2313: 2304: 2294: 2285: 2276: 2267: 2258: 2249: 2240: 2231: 2084: 1745:Stratigraphic units identified 1715:United States Geological Survey 1623:Impact crater-forming materials 1468:Impact Crater Forming Materials 1128:the SAR images with high radar 952:Lineated terrain on Alpha Regio 702:Geologic mapping scheme by the 664:Impact Crater Forming Materials 658:- Associated with impact events 2066: 2029: 2020: 1995: 1986: 1708: 801:Homogeneous, dark local areas 321: 1: 1979: 1906:Flow and shield materials (f) 1779:Dense lineated materials (ld) 1452: 989:materials and its deposits: 883:Ridged and fractured terrain 787:Intermediate and homogeneous 476:Global-scale geologic mapping 277:Hypothetical satellite using 269:Proposed future InSAR mapping 141: 1496:terrestrial planetary bodies 1140:and extensional features of 985:The deposits are mainly the 487:Stratigraphic Classification 450:Magellan Science Team (1994) 106:, and the identification of 7: 3858:Artificial objects on Venus 3853:Geological mapping of Venus 1971:Irnini Mons on Venus (V-20) 1951:Original SAR image of V-20 1785:Impact crater materials (c) 1190:The ridged plains unit are 980: 687:2. Flooded crater material 681:2. Bright diffuse deposits 132: 42:. The specific problem is: 10: 4168: 1479: 1404: 1270:Formation of Shield Domes. 843:Bright and dark deposites 501: 373: 303: 234: 173: 4147:Surface features of Venus 4106: 4093: 4060: 4037: 3989: 3921: 3908:Neith (hypothetical moon) 3870: 3845: 3816: 3770: 3734: 3709: 3425: 3416: 3384: 3336: 3310: 3303: 3263: 3080: 3027: 2994: 2800: 2768: 2737: 2730: 2694: 2687: 2674: 2666: 1052:Forming "wispy patterns" 1033: 994: 865: 773:Moderate and homogeneous 737: 686: 683: 662: 634: 631: 606: 580: 543: 524: 518: 511: 3636:Pioneer Venus Multiprobe 2986:List of coronae on Venus 1748:Structural units mapped 1046:Bright diffuse deposits 921:Regional highland areas 918:Regional highland areas 673:1. Crater materials (c) 635:1. Secondary Structures 589:8. Shield clusters (sc) 391:Topographic Map of Venus 310:Synthetic aperture radar 251:synthetic aperture radar 3778:European Venus Explorer 3394:Venus-crosser asteroids 1961:V-20 Venus geologic map 1948:Ｇeological map of V-20 1340:Volcanic Domes on Venus 1155:Densely lineated plains 1049:Radar-bright materials 1028:Impact ejecta (bright) 584:7. Shield plains (psh) 533:2. Mountain belts (mb) 440:and surface features. 180:From 1961 to 1984, the 83:Global surface of Venus 3638: / Pioneer 13 3632: / Pioneer 12 1972: 1962: 1854: 1701: 1588:Basin-and-Dome Terrain 1528: 1477: 1358: 1341: 1282: 1271: 1230: 1187: 1164: 1121: 1113: 1057:Dark diffuse deposits 1040: 973: 963: 953: 943: 692:3. Dark diffuse areas 597:9. Lobate plains (pl) 576:6. Smooth plains (ps) 552:4. Ridged plains (pr) 463:Vicki L. Hansen (2005) 392: 362: 354: 282: 265: 232: 216: 171: 148: 98:. It involves surface 84: 3630:Pioneer Venus Orbiter 2951:Scalloped margin dome 2921:Quetzalpetlatl Corona 1970: 1960: 1852: 1782:Tessera materials (t) 1773:Corona materials (co) 1699: 1585:Folded Ribbon Terrain 1582:Extended Fold Terrain 1526: 1475: 1460:It is found that the 1356: 1339: 1277: 1269: 1224: 1185: 1162: 1119: 1107: 1060:Radar-dark materials 1038: 971: 961: 951: 941: 846:In digitate patterns 549:2. Reticulate plains 390: 360: 352: 304:Further information: 276: 259: 237:Magellan (spacecraft) 230: 214: 169: 140: 82: 1903:Crater materials (c) 1807:Corona-like features 1700:Quadrangles on Venus 1305:Regional plains (rp) 1225:Perspective view of 632:1. Groove belt (gb) 508:Stratigraphic Units: 49:improve this article 38:to meet Knowledge's 4070:Geology of the Moon 1611:Structural features 1576:"Lava Flow" Terrain 1519:Global stratigraphy 1217:Mountain belts (mb) 1100:Tessera regions (t) 1085:stratigraphic units 1079:Stratigraphic units 739:Stratigraphic units 728:Stratigraphic units 676:1. Crater material 670:1. Crater material 648:2. Rift zones (rz) 608:Structural features 538:1. Lineated plains 525:1. Tessera terrain 503:Unit Classification 370:Topographic mapping 123:atmosphere of Venus 108:stratigraphic units 4029:Geology of Neptune 4014:Geology of Jupiter 3999:Geology of Mercury 3009:Guinevere Planitia 2901:Nightingale Corona 1973: 1963: 1855: 1853:Ovda Regio in V-35 1770:Flow materials (f) 1751:Other information 1702: 1529: 1478: 1407:Structural geology 1359: 1342: 1283: 1272: 1231: 1188: 1178:Ridged plains (pr) 1165: 1122: 1114: 1063:Parabola in shape 1041: 974: 964: 954: 944: 784:Reticulate plains 640:4. Fracture belts 581:5. Mottled plains 513:Stratigraphic Unit 393: 363: 355: 300:Mapping strategies 283: 266: 233: 217: 172: 149: 117:. Long wavelength 85: 4124: 4123: 4085:Geology of Charon 4080:Geology of Triton 4024:Geology of Uranus 4019:Geology of Saturn 3983:Planetary Geology 3949: 3948: 3866: 3865: 3762:Venus Life Finder 3433:Sputnik programme 3412: 3411: 3299: 3298: 2796: 2795: 1977: 1976: 1934: 1933: 1776:Linear belts (bl) 1279:Accruva Formation 1067: 1066: 978: 977: 853: 852: 696: 695: 603:Geomorphic units: 565:3. Bright plains 77: 76: 69: 40:quality standards 31:This article may 4159: 4142:Geology of Venus 4114: 4113: 4052:Geology of Pluto 4047:Geology of Ceres 4004:Geology of Venus 3976: 3969: 3962: 3953: 3952: 3939: 3929: 3928: 3831:Inspiration Mars 3423: 3422: 3308: 3307: 3281:Surface features 2936:Sacajawea Patera 2735: 2734: 2722:Mapping of Venus 2692: 2691: 2679:Outline of Venus 2661: 2654: 2647: 2638: 2637: 2631: 2628: 2622: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2604: 2601: 2595: 2592: 2586: 2583: 2577: 2574: 2565: 2562: 2556: 2553: 2547: 2543: 2537: 2533: 2527: 2523: 2517: 2514: 2508: 2504: 2498: 2494: 2488: 2485: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2451: 2448: 2442: 2439: 2433: 2430: 2424: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2397: 2394: 2388: 2385: 2379: 2375: 2369: 2366: 2360: 2357: 2351: 2347: 2338: 2335: 2329: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2311: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2283: 2280: 2274: 2271: 2265: 2262: 2256: 2253: 2247: 2244: 2238: 2235: 2229: 2226: 2205: 2202: 2121: 2118: 2103: 2100: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2079: 2073: 2070: 2064: 2061: 2048: 2045: 2036: 2033: 2027: 2024: 2018: 2011: 2002: 1999: 1993: 1990: 1945: 1944: 1733: 1732: 1401:Structural Units 1025:Crater material 1014:Surface features 992: 991: 924:Elevated ridges 895:Surface features 867:Geomorphic units 863: 862: 856:Geomorphic units 840:Digitate plains 770:Lineated plains 759:Surface features 735: 734: 443: 442: 376:Geology of Venus 89:mapping of Venus 72: 65: 61: 58: 52: 26: 25: 18: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4160: 4158: 4157: 4156: 4127: 4126: 4125: 4120: 4102: 4089: 4056: 4033: 4009:Geology of Mars 3985: 3980: 3950: 3945: 3917: 3862: 3841: 3818: 3812: 3766: 3730: 3705: 3676:Cassini–Huygens 3578:Mariner program 3408: 3380: 3332: 3295: 3259: 3076: 3032: 3023: 2999: 2990: 2806: 2804: 2792: 2778:Aphrodite Terra 2764: 2726: 2683: 2670: 2665: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2544: 2540: 2534: 2530: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2501: 2495: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2382: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2354: 2348: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2208: 2203: 2124: 2119: 2106: 2101: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2080: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2051: 2046: 2039: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2012: 2005: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1939: 1912:Radar unit (rf) 1801:Linear features 1742:Mapping scheme 1728: 1711: 1694: 1671: 1662: 1650: 1633: 1625: 1613: 1604: 1594:Tessera Inliers 1564: 1562:Tessera Terrain 1556: 1547: 1521: 1484: 1470: 1455: 1429: 1409: 1403: 1380: 1351: 1334: 1332:Shield clusters 1324: 1320: 1307: 1264: 1219: 1180: 1157: 1110:tessera terrain 1102: 1093: 1081: 1072: 983: 972:Lineated plains 889:Fracture belts 858: 826:Mottled plains 730: 707: 573:4. Dark plains 522:1. Tessera (t) 446:Mapping Groups 427: 382:radar altimetry 378: 372: 324: 312: 302: 271: 239: 225: 178: 164: 147: 135: 115:wave reflection 104:geological maps 73: 62: 56: 53: 46: 27: 23: 12: 11: 5: 4165: 4155: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4118: 4107: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4100: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4088: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4066: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4043: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3995: 3993: 3987: 3986: 3979: 3978: 3971: 3964: 3956: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3933: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3874: 3872: 3868: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3849: 3847: 3843: 3842: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3738: 3736: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3721: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3703: 3698: 3691: 3684: 3679: 3672: 3665: 3658: 3657: 3656: 3651: 3641: 3640: 3639: 3633: 3622: 3621: 3620: 3610: 3609: 3608: 3601: 3594: 3587: 3575: 3574: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3442: 3441: 3440: 3429: 3427: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3342: 3340: 3334: 3333: 3331: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3314: 3312: 3305: 3301: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3294: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3267: 3265: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3257: 3252: 3247: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3202: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3182: 3177: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3160:Goeppert-Mayer 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3086: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3075: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3047:Artemis Chasma 3044: 3042:Aikhulu Chasma 3038: 3036: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3021: 3019:Sedna Planitia 3016: 3014:Lakshmi Planum 3011: 3005: 3003: 2992: 2991: 2989: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2958: 2956:Siddons Patera 2953: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2916:Pavlova Corona 2913: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2896:Maxwell Montes 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2846:Ciuacoatl Mons 2843: 2838: 2833: 2831:Artemis Corona 2828: 2823: 2818: 2812: 2810: 2798: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2774: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2741: 2739: 2732: 2728: 2727: 2725: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2698: 2696: 2689: 2685: 2684: 2682: 2681: 2675: 2672: 2671: 2664: 2663: 2656: 2649: 2641: 2633: 2632: 2623: 2614: 2605: 2596: 2587: 2578: 2566: 2557: 2548: 2538: 2528: 2518: 2509: 2499: 2489: 2480: 2470: 2461: 2452: 2443: 2434: 2425: 2416: 2407: 2398: 2389: 2380: 2370: 2361: 2352: 2339: 2330: 2321: 2312: 2303: 2293: 2284: 2275: 2266: 2257: 2248: 2239: 2230: 2206: 2122: 2104: 2092: 2083: 2074: 2065: 2049: 2037: 2028: 2019: 2003: 1994: 1984: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1974: 1964: 1953: 1952: 1949: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1918: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1904: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1844: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1814: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1795:Wrinkle ridges 1793: 1788: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1753: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1727: 1724: 1710: 1707: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1670: 1667: 1661: 1658: 1649: 1646: 1632: 1629: 1624: 1621: 1612: 1609: 1603: 1600: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1591:“Star” Terrain 1589: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1563: 1560: 1555: 1554:Tectonic units 1552: 1546: 1543: 1520: 1517: 1488:impact craters 1486:Just like the 1480:Main article: 1469: 1466: 1454: 1451: 1428: 1425: 1423:of the rocks. 1405:Main article: 1402: 1399: 1394:relationship. 1379: 1376: 1350: 1347: 1333: 1330: 1322: 1318: 1306: 1303: 1263: 1260: 1252:Maxwell Montes 1235:mountain range 1218: 1215: 1179: 1176: 1156: 1153: 1101: 1098: 1092: 1091:Tectonic units 1089: 1080: 1077: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1042: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1003: 997: 996: 982: 979: 976: 975: 965: 955: 945: 935: 929: 928: 925: 922: 919: 916: 910: 909: 906: 903: 900: 897: 891: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 872: 871: 869: 857: 854: 851: 850: 847: 844: 841: 837: 836: 833: 830: 827: 823: 822: 819: 816: 813: 812:Bright plains 809: 808: 805: 802: 799: 795: 794: 791: 788: 785: 781: 780: 777: 774: 771: 767: 766: 761: 756: 748: 742: 741: 729: 726: 706: 700: 694: 693: 689: 688: 685: 682: 678: 677: 674: 671: 667: 666: 661: 650: 649: 646: 642: 641: 637: 636: 633: 630: 626: 625: 621: 620: 615: 611: 610: 605: 599: 598: 595: 591: 590: 586: 585: 582: 578: 577: 574: 570: 569: 566: 562: 561: 558: 554: 553: 550: 546: 545: 542: 539: 535: 534: 530: 529: 523: 520: 516: 515: 510: 505: 499: 498: 495: 484: 473: 471:Mapping Scheme 467: 466: 459: 452: 447: 426: 423: 411:impact craters 407: 406: 403: 400: 374:Main article: 371: 368: 323: 320: 301: 298: 270: 267: 235:Main article: 224: 218: 184:developed the 174:Main article: 163: 157: 134: 131: 75: 74: 30: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4164: 4153: 4152:Geologic maps 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4132: 4117: 4109: 4108: 4105: 4099: 4096: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4075:Geology of Io 4073: 4071: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4039:Dwarf Planets 4036: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3972: 3970: 3965: 3963: 3958: 3957: 3954: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3932: 3924: 3923: 3920: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3844: 3838: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3815: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3722: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3701:Venus Express 3699: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3677: 3673: 3671: 3670: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3646: 3645: 3642: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3625:Pioneer Venus 3623: 3619: 3616: 3615: 3614: 3611: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3580: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3434: 3431: 3430: 3428: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3415: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3399:Venus trojans 3397: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3306: 3302: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3221: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3195:Maria Celeste 3193: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3096: 3093: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3062:Devana Chasma 3060: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3052:Baltis Vallis 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3006: 3004: 3002: 2997: 2993: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2906:Onatah Corona 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2886:Jaszai Patera 2884: 2882: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2866:Heng-o Corona 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2836:Baʽhet Corona 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2803: 2799: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2750:Asteria Regio 2748: 2746: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2699: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2686: 2680: 2677: 2676: 2673: 2669: 2662: 2657: 2655: 2650: 2648: 2643: 2642: 2639: 2627: 2618: 2609: 2600: 2591: 2582: 2573: 2571: 2561: 2552: 2542: 2532: 2522: 2513: 2503: 2493: 2484: 2474: 2465: 2456: 2447: 2438: 2429: 2420: 2411: 2402: 2393: 2384: 2374: 2365: 2356: 2346: 2344: 2334: 2325: 2316: 2307: 2297: 2288: 2279: 2270: 2261: 2252: 2243: 2234: 2225: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2099: 2097: 2087: 2078: 2069: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2044: 2042: 2032: 2023: 2016: 2010: 2008: 1998: 1989: 1985: 1969: 1965: 1959: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1943: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1916: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1901: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1851: 1846: 1845: 1841: 1838: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1815: 1811: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1734: 1731: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1706: 1698: 1689: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1676: 1675: 1666: 1657: 1655: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1628: 1620: 1616: 1608: 1599: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1567: 1559: 1551: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1525: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1483: 1482:Impact crater 1474: 1465: 1463: 1458: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1432: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1408: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1378:Lobate plains 1375: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1355: 1349:Smooth plains 1346: 1338: 1329: 1326: 1315: 1313: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1293: 1289: 1280: 1276: 1268: 1262:Shield plains 1259: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1248:Freyje Montes 1245: 1241: 1236: 1228: 1223: 1214: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1184: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1161: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1133: 1131: 1126: 1118: 1111: 1106: 1097: 1088: 1086: 1076: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1037: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1009: 1004: 1002: 999: 998: 993: 990: 988: 987:impact crater 970: 966: 960: 956: 950: 946: 940: 936: 934: 931: 930: 926: 923: 920: 917: 915: 912: 911: 907: 904: 901: 898: 896: 893: 892: 888: 885: 882: 879: 877: 874: 873: 870: 868: 864: 861: 848: 845: 842: 839: 838: 834: 831: 828: 825: 824: 820: 817: 814: 811: 810: 806: 803: 800: 797: 796: 792: 789: 786: 783: 782: 778: 775: 772: 769: 768: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 754: 749: 747: 744: 743: 740: 736: 733: 725: 722: 720: 716: 712: 705: 699: 691: 690: 680: 679: 675: 672: 669: 668: 665: 660: 659: 655: 652: 651: 647: 644: 643: 639: 638: 628: 627: 623: 622: 619: 613: 612: 609: 604: 601: 600: 596: 593: 592: 588: 587: 583: 579: 575: 572: 571: 567: 564: 563: 559: 556: 555: 551: 548: 547: 540: 537: 536: 532: 531: 528: 521: 517: 514: 509: 506: 504: 500: 496: 494: 491: 488: 485: 483: 480: 477: 474: 472: 469: 468: 465: 464: 460: 458: 457: 453: 451: 448: 445: 444: 441: 439: 435: 430: 422: 420: 416: 412: 404: 401: 398: 397: 396: 389: 385: 383: 377: 367: 359: 351: 347: 345: 339: 336: 331: 329: 319: 317: 311: 307: 306:Radar mapping 297: 295: 290: 288: 280: 275: 263: 258: 254: 252: 247: 244: 238: 229: 222: 213: 209: 207: 203: 199: 195: 194: 189: 188: 183: 177: 168: 161: 156: 154: 145: 139: 130: 126: 124: 120: 116: 111: 109: 105: 101: 97: 94: 90: 81: 71: 68: 60: 50: 45: 41: 37: 36: 29: 20: 19: 16: 3837:Terraforming 3826:Colonization 3808:Shukrayaan-1 3723: 3716: 3693: 3686: 3674: 3667: 3660: 3644:Vega program 3613:Zond program 3603: 3596: 3589: 3582: 3476:Venera 1964A 3072:Ganis Chasma 3067:Diana Chasma 2941:Sachs Patera 2926:Pancake dome 2856:Fotla Corona 2841:Boala Corona 2783:Ishtar Terra 2721: 2626: 2617: 2608: 2599: 2590: 2581: 2560: 2551: 2541: 2536:2004JE002252 2531: 2521: 2512: 2507:15949–15966. 2502: 2497:13153–13197. 2492: 2483: 2473: 2464: 2455: 2446: 2437: 2428: 2419: 2410: 2401: 2392: 2383: 2373: 2364: 2355: 2333: 2324: 2315: 2306: 2296: 2287: 2278: 2269: 2260: 2251: 2242: 2233: 2086: 2077: 2068: 2031: 2022: 2014: 1997: 1988: 1940: 1798:Radar-bright 1792:Linear belts 1736:Quadrangles 1729: 1720: 1712: 1703: 1687: 1672: 1663: 1653: 1651: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1626: 1617: 1614: 1605: 1597: 1573:Fold Terrain 1568: 1565: 1557: 1548: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1514: 1507: 1504: 1500: 1485: 1459: 1456: 1448: 1444: 1441: 1433: 1430: 1410: 1396: 1392: 1381: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1343: 1327: 1316: 1311: 1308: 1300: 1296: 1284: 1256: 1232: 1227:Ishtar Terra 1212: 1208: 1204:radar albedo 1200: 1196: 1189: 1173: 1170: 1166: 1150: 1134: 1123: 1094: 1082: 1073: 1018: 1013: 1005: 1000: 984: 932: 913: 894: 886:Ridge belts 875: 866: 859: 798:Dark plains 763: 758: 750: 745: 738: 731: 723: 714: 710: 708: 703: 697: 663: 657: 656: 653: 617: 607: 602: 526: 512: 507: 502: 492: 489: 486: 481: 478: 475: 470: 462: 461: 455: 454: 449: 433: 431: 428: 408: 394: 379: 364: 340: 332: 325: 315: 313: 291: 284: 261: 248: 242: 240: 220: 206:space probes 201: 198:soft landing 191: 185: 182:Soviet Union 179: 159: 150: 146:; 1974/2020) 127: 112: 88: 86: 63: 57:January 2017 54: 47:Please help 43: 32: 15: 3725:BepiColombo 3418:Exploration 3271:Geodynamics 3255:Yablochkina 3057:Dali Chasma 2981:Zisa Corona 2931:Renpet Mons 2881:Irnini Mons 2871:Iaso Tholus 2821:Akna Montes 2816:Abeona Mons 2745:Alpha Regio 2712:Dune fields 2546:16249–16278 1709:Cartography 1579:S-C Terrain 1436:extensional 1413:deformation 1244:Akna Montes 1240:Danu Montes 1192:lava plains 1130:backscatter 1108:Outline of 1008:backscatter 753:backscatter 719:backscatter 438:backscatter 344:light waves 322:SAR imaging 294:earthquakes 285:The use of 153:ultraviolet 51:if you can. 4131:Categories 3913:Phosphorus 3888:In fiction 3883:In culture 3605:Mariner 10 3531:Kosmos 482 3506:Kosmos 167 3466:Sputnik 21 3461:Sputnik 20 3456:Sputnik 19 3291:Venusquake 3286:Venus snow 3215:Merit Ptah 3150:De Lalande 2976:Ushas Mons 2971:Theia Mons 2966:Skadi Mons 2946:Sapas Mons 2876:Idunn Mons 2826:Anala Mons 2788:Lada Terra 2760:Ovda Regio 2755:Beta Regio 2707:Atmosphere 2350:D399–D411. 1980:References 1494:and other 1462:rift zones 1453:Rift zones 1384:rift zones 914:Topography 807:Lava flow 144:Mariner 10 119:microwaves 3903:Mythology 3878:Cytherean 3688:MESSENGER 3598:Mariner 5 3591:Mariner 2 3584:Mariner 1 3571:Venera 16 3566:Venera 15 3561:Venera 14 3556:Venera 13 3551:Venera 12 3546:Venera 11 3541:Venera 10 3496:Kosmos 96 3481:Kosmos 27 3471:Kosmos 21 3438:Sputnik 7 3386:Asteroids 3304:Astronomy 3220:Mona Lisa 3165:Golubkina 3155:Dickinson 3135:Cleopatra 2911:Ozza Mons 2891:Maat Mons 2861:Gula Mons 2851:Fand Mons 2808:volcanoes 2802:Mountains 2702:Arachnoid 2688:Geography 1510:volcanism 1388:volcanoes 1292:fractures 1146:fractures 995:Deposits 654:Deposits: 419:lava flow 415:volcanoes 335:roughness 328:Microwave 314:From the 4116:Category 3931:Category 3893:Hesperus 3817:Proposed 3771:Proposed 3757:Venera-D 3747:EnVision 3718:Akatsuki 3662:Magellan 3536:Venera 9 3526:Venera 8 3521:Venera 7 3516:Venera 6 3511:Venera 5 3501:Venera 4 3491:Venera 3 3486:Venera 2 3451:Venera 1 3447:program 3338:Transits 3250:Wheatley 3240:Stefania 3185:Isabella 3180:Guilbert 3145:Danilova 3001:plateaus 2961:Sif Mons 2717:Features 1654:Magellan 1312:Magellan 1125:Tesserae 981:Deposits 715:Magellan 711:Magellan 704:Magellan 434:Magellan 316:Magellan 262:Magellan 243:Magellan 221:Magellan 193:Venera 4 133:Overview 33:require 3991:Planets 3871:Related 3833:(flyby) 3752:VERITAS 3742:DAVINCI 3735:Planned 3710:Current 3695:Shin'en 3669:Galileo 3318:Aspects 3311:General 3276:Geology 3225:Nanichi 3210:Meitner 3175:Gregory 3115:Aurelia 3110:Ariadne 3082:Craters 3034:valleys 3029:Canyons 2731:Regions 2695:General 2526:727–770 2378:96–112. 1804:Coronae 804:Smooth 264:images. 223:mission 204:series 162:program 35:cleanup 3941:Portal 3819:crewed 3793:VISAGE 3682:IKAROS 3654:Vega 2 3649:Vega 1 3618:Zond 1 3445:Venera 3404:Zoozve 3328:Phases 3200:Mariko 3190:Jeanne 3170:Grimke 3140:Cunitz 3125:Barton 3105:Alcott 3100:Agnesi 3095:Adivar 3090:Addams 2996:Plains 2770:Terrae 2478:68–81. 2301:96–112 1417:stress 1314:data. 1288:ridges 1142:graben 1138:ridges 1006:Radar 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