22:
417:), as well as a number of memories and other devices, were interconnected by a high-speed Exchange. All three processors ran a version of MUSS. MUSS also encompassed compilers for various languages and runtime packages to support the compiled code. It was structured as a small kernel that implemented an arbitrary set of virtual machines analogous to a corresponding set of processors. The MUSS code appeared in the common segments that formed part of each virtual machine's virtual address space.
406:
optimally buffered. Thus named variables were buffered separately from array elements, which were themselves accessed by means of named descriptors. Each descriptor included an array length which could be used in string processing instructions or to enable array bound checking to be carried out by hardware. The instruction pre-fetching mechanism used an associative jump trace to predict the outcome of impending branches.
433:
MU6V, a parallel vector processing system. A prototype model of MU6V, based on 68000 microprocessors with vector orders emulated as "extracodes" was constructed and tested but not further developed beyond this. MU6-G was built with a grant from SRC and successfully ran as a service machine in the
Department between 1982 and 1987, using the MUSS operating system developed as part of the MU5 project.
398:, made its production facilities available to the University. In that year a group of 20 people was involved in the design: 11 Department of Computer Science staff, 5 seconded ICT staff and 4 SRC supported staff. The peak level of staffing was in 1971, when the numbers, including research students, rose to 60.
432:
Once MU5 was fully operational, a new project was initiated to produce its successor, MU6. MU6 was intended to be a range of processors: MU6P, an advanced microprocessor architecture intended for use as a personal computer, MU6-G, a high performance machine for general or scientific applications and
313:
At the end of 1958 Ferranti agreed to collaborate with
Manchester University on the project, and the computer was shortly afterwards renamed Atlas, with the joint venture under the control of Tom Kilburn. The first Atlas was officially commissioned on 7 December 1962, and was considered at that time
186:
Two versions of the
Manchester Mark 1 were produced, the first of which, the Intermediary Version, was operational by April 1949. The Final Specification machine, which was fully working by October 1949, contained 4,050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. Perhaps the Manchester
382:
The
Manchester MU5 was the successor to Atlas. An outline proposal for a successor to Atlas was presented at the 1968 IFIP Conference in Edinburgh, although work on the project and talks with ICT (of which Ferranti had become part) aimed at obtaining their assistance and support had begun in 1966.
405:
to speed up operand and instruction accesses. The instruction set was designed to permit the generation of efficient object code by compilers, to allow for a pipeline organisation of the processor and to provide information to the hardware on the nature of operands, so as to allow them to be
283:, in which all the circuitry was modified to make use of junction transistors. Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years.
424:. ICL's 2980 in particular, first delivered in June 1975, owed a great deal to the design of MU5. MU5 remained in operation at the University until 1982. A fuller article about MU5 can be found on the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.
124:, an early form of computer memory, rather than as a practical computer. Work on the machine began in 1947, and on 21 June 1948 the computer successfully ran its first program, consisting of 17 instructions written to find the highest
202:
As a result of experience gained from the Mark 1, the developers concluded that computers would be used more in scientific roles than pure maths. They therefore embarked on the design of a new machine which would include a
207:; work began in 1951. The resulting machine, which ran its first program in May 1954, was known as Meg, or the megacycle machine. It was smaller and simpler than the Mark 1, as well as quicker at solving maths problems.
1890:
A description of the
Globally Asynchronous, Locally Synchronous (GALS) nature of SpiNNaker, with an overview of the asynchronous communications hardware designed to transmit neural 'spikes' between processors.
301:
engine" – began at the university in 1956. The aim was to build a computer that could operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction, one million instructions per second.
409:
The MU5 operating system MUSS was designed to be highly adaptable and was ported to a variety of processors at
Manchester and elsewhere. In the completed MU5 system, three processors (MU5 itself, an
171:
Development of the
Manchester Mark 1 began in August 1948, with the initial aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility. In October 1948 UK Government Chief Scientist
322:
and paging allowed each concurrent user to have up to one million words of storage space available. Atlas pioneered many hardware and software concepts still in common use today including the
882:
256:, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. The machine did however make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic
1942:
Modelling and analysis of the SpiNNaker interconnect in a million-core machine, showing the suitability of the packet-switched network for large-scale spiking neural network simulation.
2104:
71:(CRTs); and to construct a machine that could be used to investigate how computers might be able to assist in the solution of mathematical problems. The first of the series, the
318:. It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the UK's computer capacity was lost. Its fastest instructions took 1.59 microseconds to execute, and the machine's use of
1850:
A manifesto for the SpiNNaker project, surveying and reviewing the general level of understanding of brain function and approaches to building computer modelof the brain.
245:
Two versions of the machine were produced. The first was the world's first transistorised computer, a prototype, and became operational on 16 November 1953. "The
249:
machine used 92 point-contact transistors and 550 diodes". The second version was completed in April 1955. The 1955 version used 250 junction transistors, 1,300
367:
The
University of Manchester's Atlas was decommissioned in 1971, but the last was in service until 1974. Parts of the Chilton Atlas are preserved by the
420:
MU5 was fully operational by
October 1974, coinciding with ICL's announcement that it was working on the development of a new range of computers, the
1982:
A demonstration of SpiNNaker's ability to simulate different neural models (simultaneously, if necessary) in contrast to other neuromorphic hardware.
128:
of 2 (262,144) by trying every integer from 2 − 1 downwards. The program ran for 52 minutes before producing the correct answer of 2 (131,072).
153:
published in
September 1948, establishing it as the world's first stored-program computer. It quickly evolved into a more practical machine, the
889:
2030:
Four-chip, real-time simulation of a four-million-synapse cortical circuit, showing the extreme energy efficiency of the SpiNNaker architecture
383:
The new machine, later to become known as MU5, was intended to be at the top end of a range of machines and to be 20 times faster than Atlas.
175:
was given a demonstration of the prototype, and was so impressed that he immediately initiated a government contract with the local firm of
361:
26:
1900:
Navaridas, J.; Luján, M.; Miguel-Alonso, J.; Plana, L. A.; Furber, S. (2009). "Understanding the interconnection network of SpiNNaker".
1072:
79:
developed from it, quickly attracted the attention of the United Kingdom government, who contracted the electrical engineering firm of
1588:
Edwards, D.B.G; Knowles, A.E.; Woods, J.V. (1980), "MU6-G: a new design to achieve mainframe performance from a mini-sized computer",
390:(SRC) awarded Manchester University a five-year grant of £630,466 (equivalent to £12 million in 2023) to develop the machine and
914:
672:
227:
Work on building a smaller and cheaper computer began in 1952, in parallel with Meg's ongoing development. Two of Kilburn's team,
462:
in the University of Manchester's Advanced Processor Technologies Research Group (APT). Built in 2019, it is composed of 57,600
56:, the world's first transistorised computer, and what was the world's fastest computer at the time of its inauguration in 1962.
391:
1276:
1767:
828:
802:
778:
1364:
194:
In June 2022 an IEEE Milestone was dedicated to the "Manchester University "Baby" Computer and its Derivatives, 1948-1951".
147: – and had a power consumption of 3.5 kilowatts. Its successful operation was reported in a letter to the journal
1864:; Temple, S.; Khan, M.; Shi, Y.; Wu, J.; Yang, S. (2007). "A GALS Infrastructure for a Massively Parallel Multiprocessor".
1140:
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131:
The Baby was 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) tall, and weighed almost 1
45:
1790:
374:
In June 2022 an IEEE Milestone was dedicated to the "Atlas Computer and the Invention of Virtual Memory 1957–1962".
2094:
2050:
1186:
395:
91:
2114:
2099:
1752:
2008 IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence)
448:
1750:; Woods, J. V. (2008). "Efficient modelling of spiking neural networks on a scalable chip multiprocessor".
368:
1027:
272:
75:, ran its first program on 21 June 1948. As the world's first stored-program computer, the Baby, and the
231:
and D. C. Webb, were assigned to the task of designing and building a machine using the newly developed
1098:
455:
402:
268:
235:
instead of valves, which became known as the Manchester TC. Initially the only devices available were
90:
The collaboration with Ferranti eventually led to an industrial partnership with the computer company
338:
250:
94:, who made use of many of the ideas developed at the university, particularly in the design of their
1910:
1539:
1169:
1471:
Lavington, S.H.; Thomas, G.; Edwards, D.B.G. (1977), "The MU5 Multicomputer Communication System",
387:
239:
38:
1141:"COMPUTERS, Overseas: 5. Manchester University - A SMALL EXPERIMENTAL TRANSISTOR DIGITAL COMPUTER"
817:
Napper, R. B. E. (2000), "The Manchester Mark 1 Computers", in Rojas, Raúl; Hashagen, Ulf (eds.),
471:
401:
The most significant novel features of the MU5 processor were its instruction set and the use of
346:
53:
275:
became available. The Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of
1956:(2011). "Concurrent heterogeneous neural model simulation on real-time neuromimetic hardware".
1905:
1662:
1618:
Ibbett, R.N.; Capon, P.C.; Topham, N.P. (1985), "MU6V: a parallel vector processing system",
1156:
577:
350:
260:, so it was not the first completely transistorised computer, a distinction that went to the
310:) is a prefix in the SI and other systems of units denoting a factor of 10 (one millionth).
926:
334:
276:
1902:
Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on Conference on Supercomputing - ICS '09
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8:
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204:
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2021:
1933:
1881:
1836:
1811:
1773:
1601:
1442:
952:
944:
267:
Problems with the reliability of early batches of transistors meant that the machine's
1996:(2012). "Power-efficient simulation of detailed cortical microcircuits on SpiNNaker".
1378:
Kilburn, T.; Morris, D.; Rohl, J.S.; Sumner, F.H. (1969), "A System Design Proposal",
1187:"1953: Transistorized Computers Emerge | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum"
470:, totalling 1,036,800 cores and over 7 TB of RAM. The computing platform is based on
242:; these were less reliable than the valves they replaced but consumed far less power.
2013:
1973:
1952:
Rast, A.; Galluppi, F.; Davies, S.; Plana, L.; Patterson, C.; Sharp, T.; Lester, D.;
1923:
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107:
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84:
72:
44:
developed during the 30-year period between 1947 and 1977 by a small team at the
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2065:
1759:
1731:
1714:
1513:
Ibbett, Roland N. (1999), "The University of Manchester MU5 Computer Project",
1148:
319:
1574:
1425:
Frank, G.R.; Theaker, C.J. (1979), "The design of the MUSS operating system",
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860:
647:
2088:
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856:
643:
541:
326:, "considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system".
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1993:
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1953:
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1005:
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459:
354:
136:
1597:
1365:"Milestones:Atlas Computer and the Invention of Virtual Memory, 1957–1962"
1877:
475:
298:
257:
216:
87:, was the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.
49:
21:
1645:"Themes - Department of Computer Science - The University of Manchester"
467:
232:
1526:
1073:"Manchester University "Baby" Computer and its Derivatives, 1948-1951"
939:
442:
236:
1794:
452:
315:
208:
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132:
80:
41:
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to be the most powerful computer in the world, equivalent to four
59:
The project began with two aims: to prove the practicality of the
353:
or Atlas 2, which had a different memory organisation, and ran a
215:, in which the Williams tubes were replaced by the more reliable
144:
125:
117:
1899:
1479:
1452:
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342:
187:
Mark 1's most significant innovation was its incorporation of
1311:
1309:
253:
140:
1621:
12th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture
271:
was about 90 minutes, which improved once the more reliable
83:
to produce a commercial version. The resulting machine, the
1590:
7th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture
1028:"The Manchester Mark 1 and Atlas: a Historical Perspective"
463:
1410:
Sumner, F.H. (1974), "MU5 - An Assessment of the Design",
1321:
1306:
1257:
1122:
1120:
1105:
1099:"The "Manchester TC" transistor computer - CHM Revolution"
983:
981:
1709:
752:
750:
2105:
Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester
466:(specifically ARM968), each with 18 cores and 128 MB of
1991:
1951:
1377:
1345:
1333:
1294:
1117:
1079:
1053:
978:
883:"The "Baby": The World's First Stored-Program Computer"
330:
1470:
747:
608:
1859:
966:
735:
881:
Manchester Museum of Science & Industry (2011),
447:
SpiNNaker: Spiking Neural Network Architecture is a
1587:
1745:
1540:"The University of Manchester MU5 Computer System"
913:Williams, F. C.; Kilburn, T. (25 September 1948),
1713:; Galluppi, F.; Temple, S.; Plana, L. A. (2014).
1617:
179:to make a commercial version of the machine, the
2086:
2058:
1210:
345:. A derivative system was built by Ferranti for
297:Development of MUSE – a name derived from "
2043:
1559:"MU6P: an advanced microprocessor architecture"
912:
329:Two other machines were built: one for a joint
2059:Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2024).
1382:, vol. 2, North Holland, pp. 806–811
1213:"Some early transistor applications in the UK"
1181:
1179:
820:The First Computers: History and Architectures
797:(2nd ed.), The British Computer Society,
211:produced a commercial version marketed as the
16:Series of stored-program electronic computers
1805:
1485:
1458:
1424:
1392:
1791:A million ARM cores to host brain simulator
1393:Morris, Derrick; Ibbett, Roland N. (1979),
1217:Engineering Science & Education Journal
1176:
666:
664:
625:
623:
1556:
1279:, University of Manchester, archived from
1004:, University of Manchester, archived from
702:, University of Manchester, archived from
694:
692:
1909:
1835:
1730:
1506:
1351:
1339:
1327:
1315:
1300:
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1025:
987:
938:
851:(20), The Computer Conservation Society,
792:
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756:
741:
638:(20), The Computer Conservation Society,
629:
614:
1663:"SpiNNaker Project - The SpiNNaker Chip"
661:
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20:
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689:
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1816:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
1512:
1497:
1409:
972:
816:
673:"50th Birthday of Transistor Computer"
222:
25:Replica of the Manchester Baby at the
1703:
1211:Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998),
1042:. (Reprint of the paper published in
670:
1739:
874:
700:"A Timeline of Manchester Computing"
160:
1992:Sharp, T.; Galluppi, F.; Rast, A.;
1866:IEEE Design & Test of Computers
1793:News article on the project in the
1680:
1557:Woods, J.V.; Wheen, A.J.T. (1983).
1139:Neumann, Albrecht J. (April 1955).
993:
630:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998),
191:, commonplace on modern computers.
13:
1515:Annals of the History of Computing
999:
337:consortium, and the other for the
197:
101:
52:. They included the world's first
14:
2126:
1427:Software: Practice and Experience
1414:, North Holland, pp. 133–136
795:A History of Manchester Computers
286:
2057:"consistent series" supplied in
1475:, vol. C-26, pp. 19–28
551:Manchester Mark II a.k.a. "Meg"
2051:Gross Domestic Product deflator
1998:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
1985:
1945:
1893:
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1033:, University of Central Florida
1019:
906:
845:"The Original Original Program"
836:
823:, MIT Press, pp. 356–377,
810:
773:, Manchester University Press,
98:of computers during the 1970s.
2010:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.03.001
1026:Lavington, S. H. (July 1977),
915:"Electronic Digital Computers"
843:Tootill, Geoff (Summer 1998),
786:
762:
717:
27:Museum of Science and Industry
1:
2061:"What Was the U.K. GDP Then?"
727:. 5 July 2008. Archived from
601:
362:Cambridge Computer Laboratory
37:were an innovative series of
1970:10.1016/j.neunet.2011.06.014
1812:"Neural systems engineering"
677:curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk
632:"Computing's Golden Jubilee"
436:
369:National Museums of Scotland
7:
491:Chronology of developments
474:, useful in simulating the
10:
2131:
1760:10.1109/IJCNN.2008.4634194
1732:10.1109/JPROC.2014.2304638
1692:, University of Manchester
1624:, IEEE, pp. 136–144,
1486:Morris & Ibbett (1979)
1459:Morris & Ibbett (1979)
1147:(2): 16–17. Archived from
485:
456:supercomputer architecture
440:
290:
269:mean time between failures
164:
105:
48:, under the leadership of
1412:Information Processing 74
1380:Information Processing 68
1044:Communications of the ACM
793:Lavington, Simon (1998),
769:Lavington, Simon (1980),
583:
563:
547:
531:
516:, which evolved into the
509:
339:Atlas Computer Laboratory
240:point-contact transistors
2110:Transistorized computers
2037:
1498:Buckle, John K. (1978),
388:Science Research Council
135:. It contained 550
46:University of Manchester
2095:Early British computers
1920:10.1145/1542275.1542317
1719:Proceedings of the IEEE
1715:"The SpiNNaker Project"
1667:apt.cs.manchester.ac.uk
1649:www.cs.manchester.ac.uk
1575:10.1093/comjnl/26.3.208
1396:The MU5 Computer System
1253:(subscription required)
1191:www.computerhistory.org
1002:"The Manchester Mark 1"
771:Early British Computers
472:spiking neural networks
54:stored-program computer
1828:10.1098/rsif.2006.0177
1754:. pp. 2812–2819.
1439:10.1002/spe.4380090802
1399:, Macmillan, p. 1
1164:Cite journal requires
888:, MOSI, archived from
427:
377:
30:
2115:Vacuum tube computers
2100:History of Manchester
1598:10.1145/800053.801921
1502:, The Macmillan Press
1473:IEEE Trans. Computers
1229:10.1049/esej:19980301
499:University Prototype
24:
1878:10.1109/MDT.2007.149
1592:, pp. 161–167,
1563:The Computer Journal
535:Transistor computer
505:Commercial Computer
347:Cambridge University
335:University of London
277:Metropolitan-Vickers
273:junction transistors
42:electronic computers
35:Manchester computers
2053:figures follow the
1689:SpiNNaker Home Page
1500:The ICL 2900 Series
1488:, pp. 132–140.
1223:(3), IEE: 100–106,
931:1948Natur.162..487W
895:on 15 February 2012
492:
480:Human Brain Project
223:Transistor Computer
205:floating-point unit
63:, an early form of
1461:, pp. 189–211
1008:on 9 February 2014
1000:Napper, R. B. E.,
490:
449:massively parallel
403:associative memory
394:, later to become
116:was designed as a
67:based on standard
31:
1769:978-1-4244-1820-6
1527:10.1109/85.759366
863:on 9 January 2012
830:978-0-262-68137-7
804:978-1-902505-01-5
780:978-0-7190-0803-0
671:Grimsdale, Dick,
650:on 9 January 2012
599:
598:
518:Manchester Mark 1
331:British Petroleum
229:Richard Grimsdale
167:Manchester Mark 1
161:Manchester Mark 1
155:Manchester Mark 1
139: – 300
137:thermionic valves
77:Manchester Mark 1
69:cathode-ray tubes
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1352:Lavington (1998)
1349:
1343:
1340:Lavington (1998)
1337:
1331:
1330:, pp. 50–52
1328:Lavington (1980)
1325:
1319:
1318:, pp. 44–45
1316:Lavington (1998)
1313:
1304:
1301:Lavington (1998)
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1266:, pp. 36–37
1264:Lavington (1998)
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615:Lavington (1998)
612:
558:Ferranti Mercury
493:
489:
468:mobile DDR SDRAM
358:operating system
341:at Chilton near
324:Atlas Supervisor
293:Atlas (computer)
213:Ferranti Mercury
2130:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2085:
2084:
2081:
2071:
2069:
2049:United Kingdom
2048:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2034:
1990:
1986:
1958:Neural Networks
1950:
1946:
1930:
1911:10.1.1.634.9481
1904:. p. 286.
1898:
1894:
1858:
1854:
1822:(13): 193–206.
1804:
1800:
1789:
1785:
1770:
1744:
1740:
1708:
1704:
1695:
1693:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1671:
1669:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1632:
1616:
1612:
1586:
1582:
1555:
1551:
1546:. 10 June 2022.
1538:
1537:
1533:
1521:, IEEE: 24–31,
1511:
1507:
1496:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1423:
1419:
1408:
1404:
1391:
1387:
1376:
1372:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1286:
1284:
1283:on 28 July 2012
1275:
1274:
1270:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1165:
1163:
1154:
1153:
1151:on 10 May 2024.
1137:
1133:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1084:
1080:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1046:(January 1978)
1036:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1011:
1009:
998:
994:
986:
979:
971:
967:
958:
956:
955:on 6 April 2009
911:
907:
898:
896:
892:
885:
879:
875:
866:
864:
841:
837:
831:
815:
811:
805:
791:
787:
781:
767:
763:
755:
748:
740:
736:
731:on 5 July 2008.
723:
722:
718:
709:
707:
698:
697:
690:
681:
679:
669:
662:
653:
651:
628:
621:
613:
609:
604:
594:ICL 2900 Series
526:Ferranti Mark 1
514:Manchester Baby
488:
464:ARM9 processors
445:
439:
430:
380:
320:virtual storage
295:
289:
225:
200:
198:Meg and Mercury
189:index registers
181:Ferranti Mark 1
173:Ben Lockspeiser
169:
163:
114:Manchester Baby
110:
108:Manchester Baby
104:
102:Manchester Baby
85:Ferranti Mark 1
73:Manchester Baby
65:computer memory
17:
12:
11:
5:
2128:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2080:
2079:
2066:MeasuringWorth
2055:MeasuringWorth
2041:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2004:(1): 110–118.
1984:
1964:(9): 961–978.
1944:
1928:
1892:
1860:Plana, L. A.;
1852:
1798:
1783:
1768:
1738:
1725:(5): 652–665.
1702:
1679:
1654:
1636:
1630:
1610:
1580:
1569:(3): 208–217.
1549:
1531:
1505:
1490:
1478:
1463:
1451:
1433:(8): 599–620,
1417:
1402:
1385:
1370:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1305:
1293:
1268:
1256:
1243:on 5 July 2020
1203:
1175:
1166:|journal=
1131:
1116:
1104:
1090:
1078:
1064:
1052:
1018:
992:
977:
965:
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873:
835:
829:
809:
803:
785:
779:
761:
746:
734:
716:
706:on 5 July 2008
688:
660:
619:
606:
605:
603:
600:
597:
596:
591:
588:
585:
581:
580:
574:Ferranti Atlas
571:
568:
565:
561:
560:
555:
552:
549:
545:
544:
539:
536:
533:
529:
528:
523:
520:
511:
507:
506:
503:
500:
497:
487:
484:
441:Main article:
438:
435:
429:
426:
379:
376:
371:in Edinburgh.
291:Main article:
288:
287:Muse and Atlas
285:
224:
221:
199:
196:
165:Main article:
162:
159:
106:Main article:
103:
100:
39:stored-program
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2127:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2083:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2056:
2052:
2046:
2042:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1929:9781605584980
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1862:Furber, S. B.
1856:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1748:Furber, S. B.
1742:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1711:Furber, S. B.
1706:
1691:
1690:
1683:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1633:
1631:9780818606342
1627:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1501:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1474:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1406:
1398:
1397:
1389:
1381:
1374:
1366:
1360:
1353:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1329:
1324:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1302:
1297:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1180:
1171:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1135:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1113:
1108:
1100:
1094:
1087:
1082:
1074:
1068:
1061:
1056:
1049:
1045:
1029:
1022:
1007:
1003:
996:
989:
984:
982:
975:, p. 365
974:
973:Napper (2000)
969:
954:
950:
946:
941:
936:
932:
928:
925:(4117): 487,
924:
920:
916:
909:
891:
884:
877:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
839:
832:
826:
822:
821:
813:
806:
800:
796:
789:
782:
776:
772:
765:
758:
753:
751:
743:
738:
730:
726:
720:
705:
701:
695:
693:
678:
674:
667:
665:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
626:
624:
616:
611:
607:
595:
592:
589:
586:
582:
579:
575:
572:
569:
566:
562:
559:
556:
553:
550:
546:
543:
542:Metrovick 950
540:
537:
534:
530:
527:
524:
521:
519:
515:
512:
508:
504:
501:
498:
495:
494:
483:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
454:
450:
444:
434:
425:
423:
418:
416:
412:
407:
404:
399:
397:
393:
389:
384:
375:
372:
370:
365:
363:
360:developed by
359:
356:
352:
349:, called the
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
311:
309:
305:
300:
294:
284:
282:
281:Metrovick 950
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
262:Harwell CADET
259:
255:
252:
248:
243:
241:
238:
234:
230:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
195:
192:
190:
184:
182:
178:
174:
168:
158:
156:
152:
151:
146:
143:and 250
142:
138:
134:
129:
127:
126:proper factor
123:
122:Williams tube
119:
115:
109:
99:
97:
93:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
61:Williams tube
57:
55:
51:
47:
43:
40:
36:
29:in Manchester
28:
23:
19:
2082:
2070:. Retrieved
2064:
2054:
2045:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1961:
1957:
1947:
1901:
1895:
1869:
1865:
1855:
1819:
1815:
1806:Temple, S.;
1801:
1786:
1751:
1741:
1722:
1718:
1705:
1694:, retrieved
1688:
1682:
1670:. Retrieved
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1620:
1613:
1589:
1583:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1543:
1534:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1499:
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1472:
1466:
1454:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1411:
1405:
1395:
1388:
1379:
1373:
1359:
1354:, p. 44
1347:
1342:, p. 43
1335:
1323:
1303:, p. 41
1296:
1287:21 September
1285:, retrieved
1281:the original
1271:
1259:
1245:, retrieved
1241:the original
1220:
1216:
1206:
1194:. Retrieved
1190:
1157:cite journal
1149:the original
1144:
1134:
1129:, p. 37
1107:
1093:
1088:, p. 31
1081:
1067:
1062:, p. 18
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:, retrieved
1021:
1010:, retrieved
1006:the original
995:
990:, p. 17
968:
957:, retrieved
953:the original
922:
918:
908:
897:, retrieved
890:the original
876:
865:, retrieved
861:the original
849:Resurrection
848:
838:
819:
812:
794:
788:
770:
764:
759:, p. 21
737:
729:the original
719:
708:, retrieved
704:the original
680:, retrieved
676:
652:, retrieved
648:the original
636:Resurrection
635:
617:, p. 49
610:
460:Steve Furber
458:designed by
446:
431:
419:
408:
400:
386:In 1968 the
385:
381:
373:
366:
355:time-sharing
328:
312:
307:
303:
296:
266:
244:
226:
201:
193:
185:
170:
148:
130:
111:
89:
58:
34:
32:
18:
1672:17 November
1277:"The Atlas"
1196:2 September
744:, p. 7
710:25 February
682:24 February
476:human brain
422:2900 series
299:microsecond
258:drum memory
251:solid-state
233:transistors
217:core memory
96:2900 series
50:Tom Kilburn
2089:Categories
1994:Furber, S.
1954:Furber, S.
1872:(5): 454.
1808:Furber, S.
1037:8 February
1012:22 January
959:22 January
725:"timeline"
602:References
1906:CiteSeerX
1746:Xin Jin;
1237:0963-7346
857:0958-7403
644:0958-7403
443:SpiNNaker
437:SpiNNaker
411:ICL 1905E
316:IBM 7094s
279:in their
264:of 1955.
237:germanium
2026:19083072
2018:22465805
1978:21778034
1886:16758888
1846:17251143
1810:(2007).
1795:EE Times
1544:ethw.org
867:19 April
654:19 April
453:manycore
209:Ferranti
177:Ferranti
145:pentodes
133:long ton
120:for the
118:test-bed
81:Ferranti
2072:15 July
1938:3710084
1837:2359843
1778:2103654
1696:11 June
1606:7224504
1447:1962276
949:4110351
927:Bibcode
899:3 April
486:Summary
2024:
2016:
1976:
1936:
1926:
1908:
1884:
1844:
1834:
1776:
1766:
1628:
1604:
1445:
1247:7 June
1235:
947:
919:Nature
855:
827:
801:
777:
642:
415:PDP-11
413:and a
343:Oxford
254:diodes
247:48-bit
150:Nature
141:diodes
2038:Notes
2022:S2CID
1934:S2CID
1882:S2CID
1774:S2CID
1602:S2CID
1443:S2CID
1031:(PDF)
945:S2CID
893:(PDF)
886:(PDF)
590:1974
584:1974
578:Titan
570:1962
567:Muse
564:1959
554:1957
548:1954
538:1956
532:1953
522:1951
510:1948
502:Year
496:Year
478:(see
351:Titan
2074:2024
2014:PMID
1974:PMID
1924:ISBN
1842:PMID
1764:ISBN
1698:2012
1674:2018
1626:ISBN
1289:2010
1249:2009
1233:ISSN
1198:2019
1170:help
1039:2009
1014:2009
961:2009
901:2012
869:2008
853:ISSN
825:ISBN
799:ISBN
775:ISBN
712:2009
684:2018
656:2008
640:ISSN
587:MU5
306:(or
112:The
33:The
2006:doi
2002:210
1966:doi
1916:doi
1874:doi
1832:PMC
1824:doi
1756:doi
1727:doi
1723:102
1594:doi
1571:doi
1523:doi
1435:doi
1225:doi
1050:(1)
935:doi
923:162
482:).
428:MU6
396:ICL
392:ICT
378:MU5
92:ICL
2091::
2063:.
2020:.
2012:.
2000:.
1972:.
1962:24
1960:.
1932:.
1922:.
1914:.
1880:.
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1868:.
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1717:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
