243:) operate in the same virtual machine as the user application, as do intermediate levels such as the subsystems that implement filestore access and networking. System calls thus involve a change of protection level, but not an expensive call to invoke code in a different virtual machine. Every code module executes at a particular access level, and can invoke the functions offered by lower-level (more privileged) code, but does not have direct access to memory or other resources at that level. The architecture thus offers a built-in encapsulation mechanism to ensure system integrity.
27:
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320:. This is a 64-bit structure containing a 32-bit virtual address and 32 bits of control information. The control information identifies whether the area being addressed is code or data; in the case of data, the size of the items addressed (1, 8, 32, 64, or 128 bits); a flag to indicate whether hardware array-bound-checking is required; and various other refinements.
334:. However, in practice, all machines in the 2900 series implement a common order code or instruction set, known as the PLI (Primitive Level Interface). This is designed primarily as a target for high-level language compilers. The most powerful machines, such as the 2980 and 2988, implemented all instructions in hardware, whereas the others used microcoded firmware.
627:
configuration by enquiring down the Stream(s), Trunk(s), and Port(s) to find the default or manually elected boot device for the microcode set and/or
Operating System to be booted. This process was called a GROPE or General Reconnaissance Of Peripheral Equipment. The cassette load method also allowed engineering staff to load and execute diagnostic software.
920:
The cabinets in the foreground, labelled 44, 45, etc., are exchangeable disk drives; the plastic containers on top of the cabinets are used to hold the disks if they are removed from the drives. The larger containers holding more platters are 200Mb in capacity, the smaller would typically hold 40MB.
106:
on 9 October 1974. The company had started development under the name "New Range" immediately on its formation in 1968. The range was not designed to be compatible with any previous machines produced by the company, nor for compatibility with any competitor's machines: rather, it was conceived as a
368:
Because some of the PLI instructions, notably those for procedure calling, are very powerful (especially system calls), instruction rates on the 2900 Series are not always directly comparable with those on competitors' hardware. ICL marketing literature tended to use the concept of "IBM equivalent
337:
There are several registers, each designed for a special purpose. An accumulator register (ACC) is available for general-purpose use, and may be 32, 64, or 128 bits in size. The B register is used for indexing into arrays; the LNB (Local Name Base) register points to the base of the current stack
607:
A 2900 Series machine was constructed from a number of functional modules, each contained in a separate cabinet. Peripheral devices were connected using ICL's
Primitive Interface (Socket/Plug and cable set) to a Port Adapter on the SMAC. Logical addressing was employed and used a group scheme to
592:
The 2980 was initially the most powerful of ICL's New Range mainframe computers. In addition to the OCPs, it consisted of a store multiple access controller (SMAC) and one or more store access controllers (SAC), a general peripheral controller (GPC), one or more disc file controllers (DFC) and a
626:
The boot process for the 2960 Series merits special mention: the OCP contained a mini OPER terminal and a cassette deck. At boot, the OCP would perform its
Initial Program Load (IPL) from the nominated IPL device. The IPL code provided the means for the OCP to discover the system's hardware
338:
frame, with the SF (Stack Front) register pointing to the movable 'top' of the stack; the DR register is used for holding descriptors for addressing into the heap, and so on. There are also two 32-bit pointers to off-stack data; XNB (eXtra Name Base) and LTB (Linkage Table Base).
588:
The first machines announced in the 2900 Series were the 2980 and 2970. The 2980 allowed one or two order code processors (OCPs), each operating at up to 3 million instructions per second, with real memory configurable up to 8 megabytes, with a 500 nanosecond access time.
373:
rating of an IBM mainframe that achieved the same throughput in application benchmarks. The efficiencies achieved by the 2900 architecture, notably the avoidance of system call overheads, compensated for relatively slow raw hardware performance.
254:
used for application-level shared data: this latter mechanism is used only when there is an application requirement for two virtual machines to communicate. For example, global memory segments are used for database lock tables. Hardware
238:
In a virtual machine, code can run in any of sixteen layers of protection, called access levels (or ACR levels, after the Access
Control Register which controls the mechanism). The most-privileged levels of operating system code (the
593:
communications link controller (CLC), together with disc drives (a typical configuration would have eight EDS 200 drives), tape decks, an operating station (OPER), line printers, and card readers. It could run the
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118:
in the mid-1980s; however, Series 39 was essentially a new set of machines implementing the 2900 Series architecture, as were subsequent ICL machines branded "Trimetra".
604:
Unlike the 2980, the 2970 and the subsequent 2960 were microcoded, and thus allowed emulation of instruction sets such as that of the older 1900 Series or the System 4.
259:
instructions are available to synchronise access to such segments. A minor curiosity is that two virtual machines sharing a global segment use different
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The orange colour of the cabinets (officially "burnt tango") was the dominant colour used in ICL's corporate image at the time of the system's release.
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The most obvious resource in a virtual machine is the virtual store (memory). Other resources include peripherals, files, and network connections.
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The first machines were subsequently replaced by a family of machines based on the 2966 mid-range design, which was less costly to build and used
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365:) instead of EBCDIC by setting a control bit in a privileged register; among other things, this affects certain decimal conversion instructions.
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is represented as zero and false is represented as minus one. Strings are stored as arrays of 8-bit characters, conventionally encoded in
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system provided other ideas, notably in the area of protection. However, the biggest single outside influence was probably the
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as the set of resources available to a program. The concept of a virtual machine in the 2900 Series architecture differs from
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345:; 32-bit and 64-bit twos-complement integers; 32-bit, 64-bit and 128-bit floating point; and 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit
326:
The order code is not strictly part of the 2900 architecture. This fact has been exploited to emulate other machines by
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601:(EMAS) operating system. A typical 2980 configuration would cost about £2 million (equivalent to £16 million in 2023).
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for the same memory locations, which means that virtual addresses cannot safely be passed from one VM to another.
142:, the company considered several options for its future product line. These included enhancements to either ICT's
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293:, providing an efficient vehicle for executing high-level language programs, especially those allowing recursive
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309:. The architecture provides built-in mechanisms for making procedure calls using the stack, and special-purpose
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was a generic name and a hardware address within a Port to which a peripheral controller would be assigned. A
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As the name implies, the design was influenced by many sources, including earlier ICL machines. The design of
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was influential, although ICL rejected the concept of optimising the design for one high-level language. The
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The 32-bit virtual address comprises a 14-bit segment number and an 18-bit displacement within the segment.
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was the generic name for the channel under which individual peripheral devices could be referenced.
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643:. The 2966 was extended upward in performance to the 2988 and downward to the 2958, augmented by
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Segments of memory can be shared between virtual machines. There are two kinds of shared memory:
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858:"ICL Company Research and Development Part 3: The New Range and Other Developments, 1968-85"
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220:. Because each program runs in its own virtual machine, the concept may be likened to a
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357:(although ICL's EBCDIC has minor variations from IBM's version). It is possible to use
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739:"ICL Company Research and Development. Part 3: The New Range and other developments"
712:, ed Daniel P. Siewiorek, C. Gordon Bell, and Allen Newell. Originally published in
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659:- the operating system for the ICL 2900 Series, not to be confused with a (later)
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used by the operating system (which are present in all virtual machines), and
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for addressing the top of the stack and the base of the current stack frame.
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669:- non-ICL operating system for the ICL 2900 series (and other machines)
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was a generic name for a controller for a number of Stream devices. A
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913:(archived page with a larger photo of an ICL 2966 from around 1984)
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identify system components in terms of Ports, Trunks, and
Streams.
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Data formats recognized by the PLI instructions include 32-bit
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694:. J. K. Buckle. Macmillan Computer Science Series, 1978.
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349:. Contrary to C and UNIX convention, the boolean value
716:, vol. 9, no. 2, July 1977, pp. 53–62. Available
114:
In marketing terms, the 2900 Series was superseded by
855:
706:
An
Outline of the ICL 2900 Series System Architecture
212:The 2900 Series architecture uses the concept of a
647:versions, to cover the entire performance range.
1604:
289:The 2900 architecture supports a hardware-based
157:. The option finally selected was the so-called
130:was formed in 1968 as a result of the merger of
228:, while the 2900 Series process is more like a
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102:systems announced by the British manufacturer
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815:Historical anecdotes (Pink Mouse Productions)
710:Computer Structures: Principles and Examples
316:Off-stack data is typically addressed via a
161:: a new design conceptualized from scratch.
820:
764:
730:
949:
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771:Moralee, Dennis (November–December 1981).
266:The term used in the ICL 2900 Series and
186:
71:Learn how and when to remove this message
737:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (November 1989).
575:
277:
198:
190:
82:
34:This article includes a list of general
856:Martin Campbell-Kelly (November 1989).
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274:(CPU) is "Order Code Processor" (OCP).
1623:Computer-related introductions in 1974
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571:
218:the term as used in other environments
207:
132:International Computers and Tabulators
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584:terminal, used as an operator console
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20:
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813:Reflections on the ICL 2900 Series
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40:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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1011:English Electric System 4 series
907:The National Museum of Computing
896:The National Museum of Computing
823:"The origins of the 2900 series"
667:Edinburgh Multiple Access System
599:Edinburgh Multiple Access System
25:
958:International Computers Limited
679:ICL Distributed Array Processor
104:International Computers Limited
673:Content Addressable File Store
1:
821:J.K. Buckle (November 1978).
723:
150:, and a development based on
16:UK mainframe computer systems
773:"Robb Wilmot: The ICL Story"
383:ICL 2900 range (as at 1980)
136:English Electric Leo Marconi
7:
714:Australian Computer Journal
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661:embedded operating system
641:parallel interconnections
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148:English Electric System 4
1618:ICL mainframe computers
777:Electronics & Power
528:2955, 2958, 2977, 2988
272:central processing unit
55:more precise citations.
597:(VME/B, VME/K) or the
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187:Architectural concepts
155:Basic Language Machine
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1504:Programming languages
865:ICL Technical Journal
830:ICL Technical Journal
746:ICL Technical Journal
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299:programming languages
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278:Addressing mechanisms
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181:Manchester University
179:machine developed at
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789:10.1049/ep.1981.0360
203:Operator adding unit
195:ICL 2966 disk drives
87:An ICL 2966 Model 39
1613:Computing platforms
692:The ICL 2900 Series
572:P (parallel) series
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301:would initially be
208:The virtual machine
708:. J. L. Keedy. In
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140:Elliott Automation
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1412:Operating systems
752:(4). ICL: 791–795
631:S (serial) series
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369:MIPS", being the
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261:virtual addresses
226:operating systems
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1024:System 4/30
1019:System 4/10
991:Elliott 803
794:18 December
756:19 December
328:microcoding
144:1900 Series
134:(ICT) with
53:introducing
1607:Categories
1310:System Ten
968:mainframes
892:"ICL 2966"
882:7 November
871:(4). ICL.
847:7 November
836:(1). ICL.
724:References
507:Cancelled
492:Cancelled
481:Cancelled
470:Cancelled
318:descriptor
291:call stack
169:mainframes
36:references
1469:Executive
1449:superNova
1315:System 25
877:0142-1557
842:0142-1557
497:S-series
405:P-series
397:Delivered
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311:registers
257:semaphore
224:in other
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116:Series 39
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1513:category
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1334:category
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1263:Level 80
1258:Level 60
1253:Level 50
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986:ICT 1501
981:ICT 1301
651:See also
582:ICL 7561
561:Jun 1978
556:Nov 1977
540:Nov 1980
524:Jun 1981
519:Nov 1980
458:Dec 1975
453:Mar 1976
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100:computer
61:May 2013
1526:Fortran
1484:MINIMOP
1479:MAXIMOP
1429:OpenVME
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686:Sources
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307:FORTRAN
222:process
173:Multics
146:or the
122:Origins
49:improve
1557:Pascal
1474:GEORGE
1357:DRS 20
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621:Stream
355:EBCDIC
330:their
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230:thread
38:, but
1542:COBOL
1531:ALGOL
1444:VME/K
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1142:1907F
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1064:1901A
976:LEO I
861:(PDF)
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742:(PDF)
681:(DAP)
617:Trunk
613:Trunk
565:2946
391:Model
363:ASCII
303:COBOL
126:When
1547:JEAN
1537:SOBS
1521:PLAN
1397:PERQ
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351:true
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91:The
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1567:SCL
1464:TME
1459:DME
1454:CME
1434:VME
1230:OCP
1225:DAP
909:at
785:doi
657:VME
580:An
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