ICT 1900 series - Knowledge

1750:(NCC), set up by the British Government in Manchester. Initially, it was a very flexible, parameter-driven report generator with later versions allowing extensive file handling capabilities. The product was first known as NITA (Nineteen Hundred Tabulator) and later became known as TABN (Tabulator Nineteen Hundred). It would run on the ICL 1900 Series of machines, and later on both the 2900 Series and 3900 Series computers. TABN statements were either interpreted from punched cards at run-time, or they could be compiled to produce a program that could simply be executed. One of the attractions of writing programs in Filetab was its short development time. 2819: 2727: 2640: 2588: 1787:"About January 1965, there was a meeting in my office, while I was away abroad, discussing different ways of allotting functions between the proposed operating system and Executive. Scheme A was discussed and rejected. Scheme B ditto. And Schemes C, D, E and F were also discarded in quick succession. When Scheme G came up, everybody was happy, and it was decided to adopt it. The " 273:, comprising a 16K word 1902 with an 80-column 980-card/minute reader, a card punch, a 600 line/min printer and 4 x 20kchar/s tape drives. It was soon upgraded to a 32K word memory and a floating point unit to allow for some scientific work. The same company had also been the first to order ICT's first computer, the HEC4 (later ICT 1201), in 1955. 1236:, a simple operating system that allowed the operator using the system console to load programs from magnetic tape, cards or paper tape, allocate peripherals to programs and attribute priorities to running programs. Executive performed all the I/O operations on behalf of user programs, allowing allocation of different peripherals as needed. 1640:– Financial planning system (not the forerunner of today's spreadsheet programs that were originated by accountants more than one hundred years ago in the form of Analysis Ledgers). PROSPER (Profit Simulation, Planning and Evaluation of Risk) package extended the previous work contained in PROP (Profit Rating of Projects). 894:

integrated circuits in the new 1906A (which was based on the original 1906 rather than the dual processor 1904 of the 1906E/F). There was a proposal to build a multiprocessor version of the 1906A, the 1908A (known internally as Project 51), which would allow ICL to compete with the large CDC and IBM

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The largest change between the original FP6000 and the 1900 series was the inclusion of the ICT standard interface for connection of peripherals. This allowed connection of any ICT peripheral to any processor of the series, and owners could upgrade their processors while keeping the same peripherals

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The compilers were released in various versions, of increasing sophistication. Initially paper tape and cards were used for input and output; later magnetic tape and finally disk files. The first versions of the compilers ran in very limited space, starting around 4K words for PLAN and NICOL and as

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register, preventing one program interfering with another. The System/360 gave each process and every 2048-byte block of memory a four-bit key, and if a process key did not match the memory block key an exception would result. The 1900 system required programs to occupy a contiguous area of memory

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into the executive. The executive would then communicate with the appropriate peripheral via the Standard Interface, using functions not available to user processes. The subsequent data transfers would then occur across this interface, autonomously without further program involvement. The conclusion

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on disk or tape. The jobs were then run, writing output to disk or tape spool files, which were then written to the output peripherals. The input/processing/output stages were run in parallel, increasing machine utilisation. On larger machines it was possible to run multiple jobs simultaneously.

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The System/360 had the advantage of a larger word and character size; its 32-bit words were large enough for (low accuracy) floating point numbers whereas the 1900 needed at least two words. The eight-bit byte of the System/360 allowed manipulation of lowercase characters without the complex shift

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One major consideration was that the FP6000 was already running, while the RCA Spectra range would take some years to become available. In the end, the decision was made to go with a range of machines based on the FP6000. The centrepiece of the new range was the ICT 1904, a version of the FP6000

1290:. Disk based executives included features to simplify disk operations, handling file management (creation, renaming, deletion, resizing) on behalf of user programs. Files were identified by 12 character names and a user program did not need to know which physical disk was being used for a file. 346:

On the original models the address size was 15 bits, allowing up to 32K words of memory. Later models added 22-bit addressing, allowing a theoretical 4Mword maximum memory. Instructions contained a 12-bit operand, either fixed or offset from an index register. Branch instructions held a 15-bit

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As the larger models of the new range were being introduced it was decided that the lower models of the 1900 range were becoming uncompetitive. To refresh the range new models were released. In each case the model was simply based on the next higher model of the previous range, the 1903T being

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series, a family of compatible machines spanning nearly the complete range of customer needs. It was immediately obvious that ICT would need a coherent response. Two paths were available: develop a range of machines based on the FP6000, using the flexibility of its design to produce smaller or

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entry-level machine, which began to cut into sales of the ICL 1901 and 1902 models. To recapture the market, an ICL project known internally as PF73 was started, based on an ICL Stevenage-developed microprogrammed machine known as MICOS-1, which came to market in 1973 as the ICL 2903 and 2904.

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but allowed processes to be relocated during execution, simplifying the work of the operating system. The 1900 also allowed any process direct access to the first 4096 words of its address space. (Both the 1900 and 360 had a 12-bit operand field, but on the 360 addresses were

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An extended version of the FP6000 executive was provided with the ICT 1904/1905, and new versions were written for the ICT 1906/7 and ICT 1901/2/3. An important task of these different versions was to hide the hardware differences between the different machines, providing

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Delivery started in 1973. As the 1903T was based on the 1904S it was available with a paging unit and could run George 4. The processor clock and memory cycle time were slower than the 1904S, allowing the use of cheaper parts. The 1903T was built at the ICL West Gorton

693:). For compatibility with the other machines a 24-bit operation was performed by the processor as four 6-bit operations. Based on the PF183 developed by ICT Stevenage. The 1901 was announced and released after the other members of the initial range, in response to the 315:

The accumulators were addressable as if they were the first eight words of memory, giving the effect of register-to-register instructions with no extra operation codes being needed. The hardware registers were an optional feature, and if not fitted the accumulators

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status that allowed them to control user programs). George 3 was a complete operating system in itself, it used a much reduced executive responsible only for handling low level hardware access. George 3 implemented both batch processing and

1279:. The concept was that applications, and later operating systems, were written to run on the combination of the hardware and the executive, and so would run on any member of the series, no matter how different the underlying hardware was. 1123:

numbering, these machines used the ICL 1900 instruction set and ran 1900 software, although a microprogram was available that provided an IBM-360 instruction set to allow them to run IBM software. The 2903/2904 were released with an

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within programs (each program could be split into up to four sub-programs, sharing the same address space, which were also time shared. While one sub-program was waiting for peripheral activity another could continue processing).

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The hardware floating-point unit, if fitted, ran autonomously. After a floating-point operation was started, integer instructions could be run in parallel until the result of the floating-point operation was needed.

426:(branch on character indexing) instruction decremented the counter and incremented the character offset, incrementing the word address if the character offset overflowed, branching if the count had not reached zero. 774:

The execution time for an addition instruction ("add the contents of store location x to register y") ranged from 2.5 μs for a 1906 or 1907 with 1.1 μs core store, to 34 μs for a 1901 with 6 μs core store.

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In 1969 the 1900 A series was delivered, replacing the remaining machines from the initial series and the E/F machines. The original discrete germanium semiconductor implementations were replaced by

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Second generation "S3E" (microcoded) versions of the larger New Range systems (such as the 2960/2966 from West Gorton, and the later 2940/50 from Stevenage), could run 1900 series code under DME (

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In December 1964, ICT set up an Operating Systems Branch to develop a new operating system for the 1906/7. The branch was initially staffed with people being released by the end of work on the

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In an effort to increase sales to ICL customers, and to profit from the difficulties ICL were having moving customers from the 1900 to the New Range, IBM introduced a microcode package for the

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sequences of the 1900. However, in the early days the smaller word size of the 1900 was seen as a cost advantage, as the memory could be 25% cheaper for the same number of words.

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with the basic system, including the compilers and utility programs. Other software was available as paid options from ICT or other sources, including such exotic packages as

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With the A series a hardware floating point unit was made an optional feature of all machines, instead of having a different model number for floating point equipped machines.

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for example) were also implemented as extracodes. The combination of the executive and hardware provided the same interface to programs running on any model of the range.

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A machine similar to the 1905 but with a slow 6μs store comparable to the 1902. Designed for Universities who needed floating point but found the 1905 too expensive.

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nvironment' was also quickly formulated as the official expansion of the acronym. But the name 'GEORGE' was in any case a natural choice: it had echoes of aircraft

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In April 1971 ICL announced the S series of machines, replacing the core store of the earlier machines with semiconductor memory in most of the range and very fast

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operating system, GEORGE 4 which was compatible with GEORGE 3 but used paged virtual memory in place of the simple base/limit system of the earlier machines.

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A notable feature of the series was the hardware support for running multiple processes – every process ran in an independent address space, enforced by

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A new processor designed by ICT West Gorton with a 48-bit wide memory pathway and a 22-bit addressing mode. Delivered with up to 256Kwords of memory.

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unit (formerly part of Ferranti). To meet the needs of smaller customers, smaller machines, the ICT 1901 and ICT 1902/3, were developed by the ICT

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The original 1906 had not been as fast as hoped, therefore the new top of the range machines were actually dual-processor versions of the 1904E.

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A 9-bit counter and a 15-bit modifier (address) field. A loop instruction decremented the counter and incremented the address either by 1 or 2.

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little as 16K words for FORTRAN and ALGOL. Later versions for the George 3 and 4 operating systems expanded to sizes as large as 48K words.

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instruction incremented the character offset, incremented the word address if the character offset overflowed, and branched unconditionally.

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with the ICT standard peripheral interface. For higher-end machines, a new larger processor, the ICT 1906, was to be developed by the ICT

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was developed, which allowed DME and VME to co-exist (and run) concurrently on the same platform, similar to the functionality offered by

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The first word held a 24-bit two's complement signed number, subsequent words held 23-bit extensions with the high bit used for internal

2295: 888: 277: 1336:, peripherals and magnetic tape files were dynamically allocated to the job which was then run, producing output on the line printer. 913:

addressing mode and extended branch mode introduced by the 1906 was extended to the 1902A and 1903A, but not the much smaller 1901A.

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Improvements to the memory subsystems of these machines, replacing the 1.8μs core with 0.75μs core, were introduced as the F series.

205:, to a design known as Harriac that had been initiated in Ferranti by Harry Johnson and fleshed out by Stanley Gill and John Iliffe. 429:

In 22-bit addressing mode the counter was unavailable, and the format was a two-bit character offset and a 22-bit word address. The

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the first eight words of memory. The large number of optional features in the FP6000 design gave ICT great flexibility in pricing.

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Despite its simplicity executive was, for the time, quite powerful, allocating memory to programs as needed (rather than the fixed

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larger machines, or cooperate with RCA who were re-targeting their development to a System/360 compatible range to be known as the

1997: 1968: 1939: 1910: 2258: 1263: 312:, which could be used as four six-bit characters; instructions were provided for copying single characters to and from memory. 61: 27: 824:

Some improvements were made to the original 1904 and the new 22-bit addressing mode developed for the 1906 was made available.

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This format was only available in 15-bit addressing mode. In 22-bit mode the counter and address were kept in separate words.

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Delivery started in 1974. The 1902T was based on the 1903S with an integrated disk controller and integrated VDU controller.

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To allow more efficient use of peripherals, as well running multiple programs simultaneously, executive allowed a limited

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on 9 July 1968. Thus although the E series had been designed by ICT many, if not all, were delivered with ICL badges).

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shift, indicating the next character was a control character. Thus the ASCII string "Hello World" would be encoded as "

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between 1971 and 1978. By agreement with ICL the Odra machines ran standard ICL software (executive E6RM, George 3).

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registers which made programs address independent and avoided one program accessing the memory allocated to another.

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machines in Universities and research centers but it was eventually abandoned in favor of accelerating work on the

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initially ported the CDC Pascal compiler to the 1900, then wrote a completely new and well-engineered replacement.

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offset, allowing access to all memory on the initial range. When the address size was increased to 22 bits,

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provided hardware support for multi-programming. On the 1900, all user memory addresses were modified by a

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Since the ICT 1900 used a six-bit character it was largely limited to a 64-character repertoire, with only

1321: 881: 2881: 2876: 2591: 2251: 1200: 1155:, implying that the ME29 was faster than the original ICT 1904, approaching the speed of the ICT 1906. 858: 355:) and relative branches were added to the instruction set to allow access to the larger address space. 2059: 1526:

produced a FORTRAN 77 compiler for George 3. It was unusual in that it used 8-bit characters and the

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The ICT West Gorton processor derived from the FP6000 with the addition of the ICT standard interface.

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1300 series (Odra 1304, Odra 1305 and Odra 1325) were a range of 1900 compatible machines built by

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logic used, giving a 30% performance increase. 500ns semiconductor store. Used by Brian Wyvill of

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Delivery started in 1974. The 1901T was based on the 1902S with an integrated disk controller and

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The same processor as the 1902, but with 2μs core in place of the 6μs core supplied with the 1902.

262:. The following week two working systems were demonstrated at the Business Equipment Exhibition, 1489: 1324:

computer. The initial versions, George 1 (for the ICT 1901, 1902 and 1903 machines) was a simple

1212: 1152: 1148:, the ME29 was sold as a replacement for the 2903 and 2904, still executing the 1900 order code. 1065: 694: 270: 228:

The initial 1900 range did not suffer from the many years of careful planning behind the IBM 360.

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or CCF was available to add hardware multiply and divide. An optional floating point unit, the

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An EMMY processor emulating the IBM 360 order code was estimated to be around the speed of an

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registers. No user process could access the memory of any other process. Later models added

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On 29 September 1964 the ICT 1900 range was announced in a filmed presentation, scripted by

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Handled in software on all but 1906/7 processors with the extended floating-point feature.

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of the transfers (or error if any) would similarly be indicated back to the executive.

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shift and indicated subsequent characters were to be considered uppercase, #75 was a

511: 1316:, head of the Basic Programming Division, was based on ideas from the Orion and the 1282:

With the introduction of magnetic disk systems executive became more complex, using

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Two-bit character offset, seven-bit counter and 15-bit modifier (word address). The

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All I/O operations were initiated by a privileged supervisor process, known as the

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In early 1963, ICT was engaged in negotiations to buy the computer business of

169: 2106:"Equatorial orbit nailed: the story behind the computer animations of 'Alien'" 1096:

During and after the production of the 1900 series a number of compatible (or

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shift and indicated subsequent characters were in lower case, and #76 the

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The FP6000 was an advanced design, notably including hardware support for

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unit to the higher end machines (1904A, 1906A) and a new version of the

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unit, based on the PF182 and PF183 processors already in development.

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addresses so a program could directly access the first 4096 bytes of

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Four words holding a 75-bit signed argument and a nine-bit exponent.

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Like the 1901 the 1902 performed multiply and divide operations as

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Two words holding a 38-bit signed argument and a nine-bit exponent.

221: 213: 194: 1132:. It was a commercial success and almost 3000 machines were sold. 197:. In order to sweeten the deal, Ferranti demonstrated to ICT the 2896: 2835: 2793: 2788: 2763: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2203:"George Operating Systems for the ICL 1900 Series Computer Range" 1738: 1557: 1539: 1445: 1384: 1204: 1125: 981: 899:

which was being designed to replace both the 1900 series and the

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Character counter modifier, also known as a character index word

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The 1904A had an optional paging unit and so could run GEORGE 4.

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On smaller members of the series, some expensive instructions (

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Like many contemporary machines much application software was

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A 1906E with a special higher performance floating point unit.

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A small machine. Based on the ICT Stevenage PF182 processor.

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George 1 and 2 ran as simple programs under executive (with

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All machines except the 1901 were operated from a modified

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controller added to the processor cabinet to reduce space.

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The instruction set supported the following data formats:

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George Felton explains the origin of the name as follows:

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character set, with differences in five character codes:

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Hoevel, Lee W.; Wallach, Walter A. Jr. (November 1975).

366:. User processes communicated with the executive using 1465:, a conversational language similar in capabilities to 744:

A 1904 with an autonomous hardware floating point unit.

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registers. Three of the accumulators could be used as

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The 1906A had a paging unit and so could run GEORGE 4.

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could be used to represent the full 128 characters of

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anguage. A simple report generation language in the

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PLASYD – an alternative assembly language modeled on

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hardware on the later machines and implemented paged

720:, SCF was also available as a super-set of the CCF. 41:, enjoying significant success in the European and 269:The first commercial sale was made in 1964 to the 1560:compiler to the 1900 architecture in mid-1969 at 1363:George 4 was introduced with the availability of 403:A 24-bit word could hold four six-bit characters. 2914: 2138:Stanford Electronics Laboratory Technical Report 2035:Proctor, Brian; Keith Crook; Virgilio Pasquali. 1398:and later the "big three" high-level languages: 789:A range of peripherals was available, including 2037:"Hardware technology in the ICT/ICL 1900 Range" 1969:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processors 1906, 1907" 1940:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processors 1904, 1905" 1911:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processors 1902, 1903" 1194: 276:The first system delivered was a 1904, for the 127:Comparison, carry, overflow, indexing, counting 1847: 817:In 1968 ICT introduced the E series machines: 648:(base address) register and checked against a 521:or from communications equipment, a system of 408:Counter modifier, also known as an index word 2252: 2176:"Counterfeit computers better than originals" 2131: 1822: 884:integrated circuits in most of the range and 635: 1448:vein, much used on the small 1901 replacing 1328:system. Job descriptions were read in from 1167:allowing execution of 1900 series programs. 472:Two words holding a 24-bit signed argument ( 2231:Guide to running George 3 on a raspberry pi 1091: 2259: 2245: 1872: 1140:Based on a fully microprogrammed CPU, the 278:Northampton College of Advanced Technology 182:if the extended floating point is present) 2140:(Technical report No. 98). Archived from 1742:– A tool for generating reports based on 1492:, a stack-based list-processing language. 1998:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processor 1909" 1572: 1389: 1360:(MOP) – interactive use from terminals. 220:, probably compatible with the expected 2200: 685:A very small machine with a 6-bit wide 489:Quadruple-length floating-point number 2928:Computer-related introductions in 1964 2915: 1672:– Production control system (Acronym: 1646:– Production control system (Acronym: 1378: 812: 28:International Computers and Tabulators 2240: 1850:ICL: A Business and Technical History 832:The 1904E with a floating point unit. 801:. Data could be stored on half-inch 797:punches and readers and solid barrel 2057: 1873:Carmichael, Hamish (November 1998). 1772:20800 six bit characters per second. 1417:Other languages available included: 1232:The FP6000 ran under the control of 1222: 975: 481:Double-length floating-point number 135:1024 words (1904A/S, 1906A/S, 1903T) 16:Family of mainframe computers by ICT 1825:Pegasus: the Seminal Early Computer 1170: 1106:licensees, as well as competitors. 678:The initial range of machines was: 553:(ignore) character, similar to the 547:αHβELLO αWβORLD 296:-to-memory architecture with eight 13: 2007:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 4 1978:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 4 1949:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 4 1920:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 3 809:storage became available in 1966. 760:A 1906 with a floating point unit. 234:On 7 April 1964 IBM announced the 14: 2949: 2224: 2201:Goodman, H. P. (1 January 2004). 2060:"How the ICT 1900 Series evolved" 1592:– Stock control system (Acronym: 782:ASR used to give commands to the 501: 308:) registers. The word length was 143:extended floating point in 1906/7 2818: 2817: 2726: 2725: 2639: 2638: 2587: 2586: 2321:English Electric System 4 series 1394:ICT initially provided the PLAN 1128:compiler to better compete with 1057:based on the 1904S for example. 1051: 1041:First delivery in 1973. Nickel 988:for the top of the range 1906S. 868: 673: 2268:International Computers Limited 2194: 2168: 2159: 2125: 2116: 2098: 2073: 2051: 2028: 1848:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1989). 1775: 1583:Storm Sewer Design and Analysis 1114:In 1969 IBM had introduced the 391: 283: 32:International Computers Limited 2019: 1990: 1961: 1932: 1903: 1866: 1841: 1816: 1766: 1746:. Filetab was marketed by the 1339:George 2 added the concept of 1158: 1027:for the computer animation in 517:In order to deal with data on 1: 1754: 1019:First delivery in 1972. New 793:punches and readers, 8 track 718:scientific computing facility 714:commercial computing facility 668: 370:, instructions that caused a 1823:McGregor-Ross, Hugh (2012). 1810: 1227: 1195:ICL 2900 (New Range) systems 1109: 1102:) machines were produced by 7: 2182:. 22 June 1972. p. 690 2134:"A TALE OF THREE EMULATORS" 1852:. Oxford University Press. 1734:ata (data analysis package) 1530:character set internally. 1358:Multiple online programming 1275:of missing instructions as 947:Deliveries started in 1969. 939:Deliveries started in 1969. 931:Deliveries started in 1969. 560:The 1900 used a variant of 280:, London, in January 1965. 10: 2954: 1514:Queen's University Belfast 1382: 1297: 1201:Direct Machine Environment 859:English Electric Computers 697:, and was a great success. 636:Comparison with System/360 476:) and a nine-bit exponent. 188: 2812: 2720: 2633: 2581: 2548: 2465: 2362: 2319: 2275: 2085:Atlas Computer Laboratory 1748:National Computing Centre 1702:– Company payroll program 1616:Project management system 1500:Royal Radar Establishment 1427:Atlas Computer Laboratory 1308:operating system for the 1300:GEORGE (operating system) 1293: 1045:with a 250ns cycle speed. 1011:1.5μs semiconductor store 966:First deliveries in 1970. 955:First deliveries in 1970. 640:Both the 1900 series and 168: 154: 147: 139: 131: 121: 111: 99: 89: 81: 71: 53: 2122:Campbell-Kelly, page 304 1759: 1564:. BCPL is antecedent of 1542:is a distant descendant. 1092:1900-compatible machines 335:hardware, allowing true 2933:Early British computers 2923:ICL mainframe computers 1783:"Another ICL Anthology" 1506:compilers for the 1900. 1502:wrote one of the first 1490:University of Edinburgh 1153:IBM System/360 Model 50 1135: 1003:3μs semiconductor store 995:4μs semiconductor store 695:IBM System/360 Model 20 549:". Character #77 was a 271:Morgan Crucible Company 164:(3 usable for indexing) 1371:instead of the simple 564:, known by ICT as the 533:74) was considered an 529:. Character #74 (i.e. 438:Single-length integer 232: 2814:Programming languages 2025:Cambell-Kelly, pp 238 1876:Another ICL Anthology 1573:Applications software 1524:University of Salford 1390:Programming languages 453:Multi-length integer 226: 199:Ferranti-Packard 6000 2165:Cambell-Kelly, p 326 2058:Pasquali, Virgilio. 557:in the 7-bit world. 230:-- Virgilio Pasquali 107:Memory–Memory (move) 43:British Commonwealth 2081:"ATLAS Replacement" 2039:. Virgilio Pasquali 1425:, much used by the 1379:Minimop and Maximop 1234:operators executive 813:The 1900 E/F series 288:The ICT 1900 was a 50: 24:mainframe computers 2112:on 23 August 2022. 1375:used by George 3. 1144:commercialised by 1043:plated wire memory 986:plated wire memory 512:control characters 343:operating system. 48: 2910: 2909: 2887:ApplicationMaster 2722:Operating systems 2005:ICT Press release 1976:ICT Press release 1947:ICT Press release 1918:ICT Press release 1889:978-0-9527389-2-3 1882:. Laidlaw Hicks. 1834:978-0-7552-1482-2 1532:Silverfrost FTN95 1396:assembly language 1249:multi-programming 1223:Operating systems 1215:software such as 1025:System Simulation 976:The 1900 S series 916:ICL introduced a 875:Texas Instruments 857:(ICT merged with 780:Teletype Model 33 633: 632: 186: 185: 103:Register–Register 2945: 2938:24-bit computers 2821: 2820: 2729: 2728: 2642: 2641: 2590: 2589: 2261: 2254: 2247: 2238: 2237: 2233:at rs-online.com 2219: 2218: 2216: 2214: 2205:. Archived from 2198: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2172: 2166: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2146: 2129: 2123: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2108:. Archived from 2102: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2077: 2071: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2032: 2026: 2023: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2002: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1973: 1965: 1959: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1944: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1915: 1907: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1881: 1870: 1864: 1863: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1820: 1804: 1779: 1773: 1770: 1741: 1726:nterrogation of 1717: 1711: 1707: 1701: 1671: 1650:ineteen-hundred 1645: 1639: 1613: 1608:ineteen-hundred) 1591: 1562:Essex University 1326:batch processing 1314:George E. Felton 1288:memory footprint 1171:Odra 1300 series 1146:Palyn Associates 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 571: 570: 555:rubout character 548: 443:two's complement 292:machine using a 210:multiprogramming 203:Ferranti-Packard 58:Ferranti-Packard 51: 47: 30:(ICT) and later 22:was a family of 2953: 2952: 2948: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2942: 2913: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2816: 2808: 2724: 2716: 2637: 2629: 2585: 2577: 2544: 2467:ICL 2900 Series 2461: 2364:ICT 1900 series 2358: 2315: 2271: 2270:(ICL) 1968-2002 2265: 2227: 2222: 2212: 2210: 2209:on 28 June 2011 2199: 2195: 2185: 2183: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2150: 2148: 2147:on 28 June 2011 2144: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2117: 2104: 2103: 2099: 2089: 2087: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2064: 2062: 2056: 2052: 2042: 2040: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2010: 2008: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1981: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1966: 1962: 1952: 1950: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1933: 1923: 1921: 1913: 1909: 1908: 1904: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1879: 1871: 1867: 1860: 1846: 1842: 1835: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1807: 1786: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1744:decision tables 1737: 1730:ineteenhundred 1715: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1669: 1643: 1637: 1611: 1589: 1575: 1554:Martin Richards 1461:– a dialect of 1436:neteen Hundred 1392: 1387: 1381: 1302: 1296: 1264:multi-threading 1230: 1225: 1197: 1173: 1161: 1138: 1112: 1094: 1054: 978: 871: 815: 712:. An optional 691:arithmetic unit 676: 671: 638: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 546: 510:letters and no 504: 394: 359:or vice versa. 290:word-addressing 286: 229: 191: 156:General-purpose 106: 105:Register–Memory 104: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2951: 2941: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2844: 2838: 2833: 2827: 2825: 2810: 2809: 2807: 2806: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2735: 2733: 2718: 2717: 2715: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2648: 2646: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2627: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2596: 2594: 2579: 2578: 2576: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2554: 2552: 2546: 2545: 2543: 2542: 2537: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2471: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2460: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2393: 2390: 2387: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2368: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2325: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2314: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2282: 2280: 2273: 2272: 2264: 2263: 2256: 2249: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2226: 2225:External links 2223: 2221: 2220: 2193: 2167: 2158: 2124: 2115: 2097: 2072: 2050: 2027: 2018: 1989: 1960: 1931: 1902: 1888: 1865: 1858: 1840: 1833: 1827:. Bright Pen. 1814: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1805: 1774: 1764: 1763: 1761: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1752: 1751: 1735: 1713: 1703: 1697: 1688:onitoring of 1684:rganising and 1667: 1641: 1635: 1626:valuation and 1609: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1550:Bernard Sufrin 1543: 1517: 1507: 1493: 1483: 1470: 1456: 1430: 1391: 1388: 1383:Main article: 1380: 1377: 1369:virtual memory 1320:system of the 1310:Ferranti Orion 1298:Main article: 1295: 1292: 1286:to reduce its 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1213:virtualisation 1196: 1193: 1172: 1169: 1160: 1157: 1137: 1134: 1119:Despite their 1111: 1108: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1079: 1078: 1077: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1048: 1047: 1046: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1006: 1005: 1004: 998: 997: 996: 977: 974: 973: 972: 971: 970: 967: 961: 960: 959: 956: 950: 949: 948: 942: 941: 940: 934: 933: 932: 870: 867: 852: 851: 850: 849: 843: 842: 841: 835: 834: 833: 827: 826: 825: 814: 811: 791:80-column card 772: 771: 770: 769: 763: 762: 761: 755: 754: 753: 747: 746: 745: 739: 738: 737: 731: 730: 729: 723: 722: 721: 706: 700: 699: 698: 675: 672: 670: 667: 642:IBM System/360 637: 634: 631: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 601: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 503: 502:Character sets 500: 499: 498: 497: 496: 493: 487: 486: 485: 479: 478: 477: 467:floating point 465:Single-length 463: 462: 461: 451: 450: 449: 436: 435: 434: 427: 417: 416: 415: 412: 406: 405: 404: 393: 390: 382:floating point 337:virtual memory 285: 282: 241:RCA Spectra 70 190: 187: 184: 183: 172: 170:Floating point 166: 165: 158: 152: 151: 145: 144: 141: 137: 136: 133: 129: 128: 125: 119: 118: 115: 109: 108: 101: 97: 96: 93: 87: 86: 83: 79: 78: 73: 69: 68: 55: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2950: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2868: 2865: 2863: 2860: 2858: 2855: 2853: 2850: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2815: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2757: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2636: 2632: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2584: 2583:Minicomputers 2580: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2550:ICL Series 39 2547: 2541: 2538: 2536: 2533: 2531: 2528: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2511: 2508: 2506: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2451: 2448: 2445: 2442: 2439: 2436: 2433: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2369: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2262: 2257: 2255: 2250: 2248: 2243: 2242: 2239: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2208: 2204: 2197: 2181: 2180:New Scientist 2177: 2171: 2162: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2128: 2119: 2111: 2107: 2101: 2086: 2082: 2076: 2061: 2054: 2038: 2031: 2022: 2006: 1999: 1993: 1977: 1970: 1964: 1948: 1941: 1935: 1919: 1912: 1906: 1891: 1885: 1878: 1877: 1869: 1861: 1859:0-19-853918-5 1855: 1851: 1844: 1836: 1830: 1826: 1819: 1815: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1784: 1778: 1769: 1765: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1714: 1704: 1698: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1642: 1636: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1610: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1588: 1587: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1538:compiler for 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1386: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1268: 1265: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1235: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1168: 1166: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1142:Stanford EMMY 1133: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1083: 1082: 1080: 1075: 1074: 1072: 1067: 1063: 1062: 1060: 1059: 1058: 1052:1900 T series 1044: 1040: 1039: 1037: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1022: 1021:Schottky STTL 1018: 1017: 1015: 1010: 1009: 1007: 1002: 1001: 999: 994: 993: 991: 990: 989: 987: 983: 968: 965: 964: 962: 957: 954: 953: 951: 946: 945: 943: 938: 937: 935: 930: 929: 927: 926: 925: 923: 919: 914: 912: 907: 904: 902: 898: 893: 890: 887: 883: 879: 876: 869:1900 A series 866: 864: 860: 855: 847: 846: 844: 839: 838: 836: 831: 830: 828: 823: 822: 820: 819: 818: 810: 808: 807:Magnetic disk 804: 803:magnetic tape 800: 799:line printers 796: 792: 787: 785: 781: 776: 767: 766: 764: 759: 758: 756: 751: 750: 748: 743: 742: 740: 735: 734: 732: 727: 726: 724: 719: 715: 711: 707: 704: 703: 701: 696: 692: 688: 684: 683: 681: 680: 679: 674:Initial range 666: 662: 660: 656: 651: 647: 643: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 603: 602: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 573: 572: 569: 567: 563: 558: 556: 552: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 515: 513: 509: 494: 491: 490: 488: 483: 482: 480: 475: 471: 470: 468: 464: 459: 455: 454: 452: 447: 446:signed number 444: 440: 439: 437: 432: 428: 425: 421: 420: 418: 413: 410: 409: 407: 402: 401: 399: 398: 397: 389: 385: 383: 378: 375: 374: 369: 365: 360: 356: 354: 350: 344: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 321: 319: 313: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 281: 279: 274: 272: 267: 265: 261: 256: 254: 250: 244: 242: 237: 231: 225: 223: 219: 215: 211: 206: 204: 200: 196: 181: 177: 173: 171: 167: 163: 159: 157: 153: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 124: 120: 116: 114: 110: 102: 98: 94: 92: 88: 84: 80: 77: 74: 70: 67: 63: 59: 56: 52: 46: 44: 40: 37: 33: 29: 25: 21: 2892:ReportMaster 2712:One Per Desk 2635:Workstations 2363: 2276:Predecessor 2211:. Retrieved 2207:the original 2196: 2184:. Retrieved 2179: 2170: 2161: 2149:. Retrieved 2142:the original 2137: 2127: 2118: 2110:the original 2100: 2088:. Retrieved 2075: 2063:. Retrieved 2053: 2041:. Retrieved 2030: 2021: 2009:. Retrieved 2004: 1992: 1980:. Retrieved 1975: 1963: 1951:. Retrieved 1946: 1934: 1922:. Retrieved 1917: 1905: 1893:. Retrieved 1875: 1868: 1849: 1843: 1824: 1818: 1796: 1795:anisational 1792: 1788: 1777: 1768: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1582: 1576: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1432:NICOL – the 1416: 1412: 1393: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1350: 1344: 1338: 1303: 1281: 1276: 1269: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1243:provided by 1238: 1233: 1231: 1198: 1174: 1162: 1150: 1139: 1113: 1097: 1095: 1055: 1028: 979: 915: 908: 905: 901:ICL System 4 872: 856: 853: 816: 788: 783: 777: 773: 717: 713: 709: 686: 677: 663: 658: 654: 649: 645: 639: 559: 550: 542: 538: 534: 522: 516: 505: 430: 423: 395: 392:Data formats 386: 379: 372: 367: 363: 361: 357: 348: 345: 328: 324: 322: 317: 314: 301: 297: 287: 284:Architecture 275: 268: 257: 245: 233: 227: 207: 192: 26:released by 19: 18: 2902:DAP FORTRAN 2354:System 4/75 2349:System 4/72 2344:System 4/70 2339:System 4/50 2334:System 4/30 2329:System 4/10 2301:Elliott 803 2213:15 February 2186:13 February 2151:11 February 2090:11 February 2065:11 February 2043:11 February 2011:11 February 1982:11 February 1953:11 February 1924:11 February 1692:erformance 1604:nalysis on 1600:ontrol and 1488:– from the 1477:Southampton 1159:IBM 370/145 400:Characters 298:accumulator 249:West Gorton 2917:Categories 2620:System Ten 2278:mainframes 1895:18 October 1801:autopilots 1755:References 1696:echniques) 1676:roduction 1662:anagement 1654:ntegrated 1618:(Acronym: 1536:Fortran 95 1520:FORTRAN 77 1408:FORTRAN 66 1345:input well 1334:paper tape 1284:overlaying 1277:extracodes 1241:partitions 1081:ICL 1903T 1073:ICL 1902T 1061:ICL 1901T 1038:ICL 1906S 1016:ICL 1904S 1008:ICL 1903S 1000:ICL 1902S 992:ICL 1901S 963:ICL 1906A 952:ICL 1904A 944:ICL 1903A 936:ICL 1902A 928:ICL 1901A 845:ICT 1907E 837:ICT 1906E 829:ICT 1905E 821:ICT 1904E 795:paper tape 710:extracodes 669:1900 range 519:paper tape 508:upper case 368:extracodes 260:Antony Jay 236:System/360 140:Extensions 82:Introduced 39:System/360 2779:Executive 2759:superNova 2625:System 25 1811:Citations 1706:DATADRIVE 1680:eviewing 1634:echnique) 1496:ALGOL 68R 1453:tabulator 1440:mmercial 1273:emulation 1228:Executive 1209:microcode 1121:New Range 1110:2903/2904 897:New Range 784:executive 765:ICT 1909 757:ICT 1907 749:ICT 1906 741:ICT 1905 733:ICT 1904 725:ICT 1903 702:ICT 1902 682:ICT 1901 661:memory). 441:A 24-bit 364:executive 339:with the 253:Stevenage 149:Registers 132:Page size 123:Branching 45:markets. 2823:category 2804:MultiJob 2731:category 2702:DRS 6000 2697:DRS 3000 2644:category 2592:category 2573:Level 80 2568:Level 60 2563:Level 50 2558:Level 30 2296:ICT 1501 2291:ICT 1301 1710:DATAVIEW 1504:Algol 68 1455:systems. 1400:ALGOL 60 1373:swapping 1341:spooling 1318:spooling 1130:System/3 1116:System/3 889:MECL 10K 886:Motorola 861:to form 659:physical 655:physical 562:ASCII-63 474:mantissa 353:indirect 349:replaced 341:GEORGE 4 302:modifier 294:register 222:IBM 8000 214:ICT 1302 195:Ferranti 113:Encoding 54:Designer 49:ICT 1900 20:ICT 1900 2836:Fortran 2794:MINIMOP 2789:MAXIMOP 2739:OpenVME 2692:DRS 500 2687:DRS 400 2682:DRS 300 2677:DRS 200 2672:DRS 100 1739:Filetab 1658:odular 1638:PROSPER 1622:roject 1579:bundled 1558:IBM 360 1552:ported 1540:Windows 1482:System. 1385:MINIMOP 1353:trusted 1219:today. 1185:Wrocław 1165:370/145 984:nickel 982:Plessey 880:series 469:number 310:24 bits 264:Olympia 189:Origins 2867:Pascal 2784:GEORGE 2667:DRS 20 1886: 1856: 1831: 1791:neral 1700:COMPAY 1670:PROMPT 1666:ystem) 1630:eview 1522:– the 1510:Pascal 1498:– the 1475:– the 1423:PL/360 1365:paging 1294:GEORGE 1245:OS/360 1217:VMware 1189:Poland 922:GEORGE 918:paging 911:22-bit 523:shifts 333:paging 180:96-bit 176:48-bit 162:24-bit 91:Design 76:24-bit 2852:COBOL 2841:ALGOL 2754:VME/K 2749:VME/B 2452:1907F 2449:1907E 2443:1906S 2440:1906F 2437:1906E 2434:1906A 2428:1905F 2425:1905E 2419:1904S 2416:1904F 2413:1904E 2410:1904A 2404:1903T 2401:1903S 2398:1903A 2392:1902T 2389:1902S 2386:1902A 2380:1901T 2377:1901S 2374:1901A 2286:LEO I 2145:(PDF) 2001:(PDF) 1972:(PDF) 1943:(PDF) 1914:(PDF) 1880:(PDF) 1760:Notes 1644:NIMMS 1596:tock 1528:ASCII 1486:POP-2 1480:BASIC 1467:BASIC 1404:COBOL 1330:cards 1322:Atlas 1257:limit 1253:datum 1181:Elwro 1099:clone 1085:site. 1030:Alien 650:limit 646:datum 574:ASCII 543:delta 535:alpha 531:octal 527:ASCII 458:carry 329:limit 325:datum 306:index 117:Fixed 2857:JEAN 2847:SOBS 2831:PLAN 2707:PERQ 2662:7561 2657:7503 2652:7502 2615:ME29 2610:2905 2605:2904 2600:2903 2530:CAFS 2525:2988 2520:2982 2515:2980 2510:2976 2505:2972 2500:2970 2495:2966 2490:2960 2485:2956 2480:2955 2475:2950 2458:1909 2455:1908 2446:1907 2431:1906 2422:1905 2407:1904 2395:1903 2383:1902 2371:1901 2311:KDF9 2306:KDF8 2215:2011 2188:2011 2153:2011 2092:2011 2067:2011 2045:2011 2013:2011 1984:2011 1955:2011 1926:2011 1897:2013 1884:ISBN 1854:ISBN 1829:ISBN 1722:ile 1716:FIND 1708:and 1612:PERT 1590:SCAN 1546:BCPL 1534:, a 1473:SOBS 1463:JOSS 1459:JEAN 1450:card 1406:and 1255:and 1177:Odra 1175:The 1136:ME29 909:The 878:7400 687:mill 604:ECMA 566:ECMA 551:fill 539:beta 431:BCHX 424:BCHX 373:trap 327:and 318:were 100:Type 95:CISC 85:1964 72:Bits 2897:RPG 2882:SFL 2877:SCL 2774:TME 2769:DME 2764:CME 2744:VME 2540:OCP 2535:DAP 1793:ORG 1781:In 1556:'s 1446:RPG 1332:or 1306:OMP 1205:VME 1183:in 1126:RPG 1104:ICL 1066:VDU 892:ECL 882:TTL 863:ICL 218:RCA 66:ICL 62:ICT 36:IBM 2919:: 2872:S3 2843:60 2178:. 2136:. 2083:. 2003:. 1974:. 1945:. 1916:. 1789:GE 1718:– 1614:– 1585:. 1548:– 1512:– 1438:CO 1434:NI 1410:. 1402:, 1251:, 1187:, 903:. 805:. 613:$ 578:$ 514:. 266:. 243:. 224:. 174:1 160:8 2862:C 2799:J 2260:e 2253:t 2246:v 2217:. 2190:. 2155:. 2094:. 2069:. 2047:. 2015:. 1986:. 1957:. 1928:. 1899:. 1862:. 1837:. 1797:E 1732:D 1728:N 1724:I 1720:F 1694:T 1690:P 1686:M 1682:O 1678:R 1674:P 1664:S 1660:M 1656:M 1652:I 1648:N 1632:T 1628:R 1624:E 1620:P 1606:N 1602:A 1598:C 1594:S 1568:. 1566:C 1469:. 1442:L 1429:. 1033:. 689:( 628:_ 623:← 618:↑ 608:£ 598:` 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