Brain - Knowledge

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individual cell types). In 2024, investigators studied a large integrated dataset of almost 3 million nuclei from the human prefrontal cortext from 388 individuals. In doing so, they annotated 28 cell types to evaluate expression and chromatin variation across gene families and drug targets. They identified about half a million cell type–specific regulatory elements and about 1.5 million single-cell expression quantitative trait loci (i.e., genomic variants with strong statistical associations with changes in gene expression within specific cell types), which were then used to build cell-type regulatory networks (the study also describes cell-to-cell communication networks). These networks were found to manifest cellular changes in aging and neuropsychiatric disorders. As part of the same investigation, a machine learning model was designed to accurately impute single-cell expression (this model prioritized ~250 disease-risk genes and drug targets with associated cell types).

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ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.

466: 2772: 1014: 2507:, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the 2676: 913: 694: 1282:

environments. The midbrain links sensory, motor, and integrative components received from the hindbrain, connecting it to the forebrain. The tectum, which includes the optic tectum and torus semicircularis, receives auditory, visual, and somatosensory inputs, forming integrated maps of the sensory and visual space around the animal. The tegmentum receives incoming sensory information and forwards motor responses to and from the forebrain. The isthmus connects the hindbrain with midbrain. The forebrain region is particularly well developed, is further divided into diencephalon and telencephalon. Diencephalon is related to regulation of eye and body movement in response to visual stimuli, sensory information,

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birth, contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer. These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time; that is, they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons. This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken, and eventually vanish, if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell. The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map, leaving it finally in its precise adult form.

1314: 514: 3072:, which can be simulated using computers. Some useful models are abstract, focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons. No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function, though. The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively—current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time. 2904: 545:) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a 2095: 1939: 623: 549:(an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials. 2791:, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior. 2970: 851: 1699: 2067: 1175: 2586:: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( 1815:. Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience shows that both factors are important. Genes determine both the general form of the brain and how it reacts to experience, but experience is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections, resulting in greatly increased complexity. The presence or absence of experience is critical at key periods of development. Additionally, the quantity and quality of experience are important. For example, animals raised in 1774:, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of 72: 1010:. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. 2726:, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of 1711:, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away. 2465: 2520: 1242:, including gene expression, morphological and cell type differentiation. In fact, high levels of transcriptional factors can be found in all areas of the brain in reptiles and mammals, with shared neuronal clusters enlightening brain evolution. Conserved transcription factors elucidate that evolution acted in different areas of the brain by either retaining similar morphology and function, or diversifying it. 2014:) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods of 2842: 3132: 2950:(1737–1798), who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for 3202: 1958:(MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow 1649:(EQ) is used to compare brain sizes across species. It takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain-to-body relationship. Humans have an average EQ in the 7-to-8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2-to-3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans, but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower. 2802:. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists. 900:, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a rule, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a 3065:, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space. 571:, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million. The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating 1978:, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in 1147:: they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia. 2958:, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of 941:, respectively). At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many classes of vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain becomes very small. 3075:

Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that do not reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present

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responsible to infrared detection in snakes. Variation in size, weight, and shape of the brain can be found within reptiles. For instance, crocodilians have the largest brain volume to body weight proportion, followed by turtles, lizards, and snakes. Reptiles vary in the investment in different brain

1094:, and its best-studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements and other object-directed actions. It receives strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive 1059:

is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles,

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contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed each one under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every

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also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated

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in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural

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enters into the cell, typically when an action potential arrives at the synapse – neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell (or cells), and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions,

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The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of

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insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important

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Most organisms studied to date use a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal

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The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts

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Similar things happen in other brain areas: an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance, but then gradually refined by activity-dependent mechanisms, partly driven by internal dynamics, partly by external sensory inputs. In some cases, as with the

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The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning. It is as if the Milky Way entered upon

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recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally

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The individual animals need to express survival-promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate. The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works

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For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the

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to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer. In the first stages of development, each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues, but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons. The retina, before

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Anatomically, the reptilian brain has less subdivisions than the mammalian brain, however it has numerous conserved aspects including the organization of the spinal cord and cranial nerve, as well as elaborated brain pattern of organization. Elaborated brains are characterized by migrated neuronal

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is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates (whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than

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mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles. A search in the genomes of vertebrates revealed a set of analogous genes, which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock—and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well. Studies done on Drosophila, also

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period, 700–650 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body. At a schematic level, that basic worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including

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of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the

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The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes, though. In many parts of the brain, axons initially "overgrow", and then are "pruned" by mechanisms that depend on neural activity. In the projection from the eye to the midbrain, for example, the structure in the adult

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diverged from a common ancestor around 320 million years ago. Interestingly, the number of extant reptiles far exceeds the number of mammalian species, with 11,733 recognized species of reptiles compared to 5,884 extant mammals. Along with the species diversity, reptiles have diverged in terms of

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modulates the outputs of other brain systems, whether motor-related or thought related, to make them certain and precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in but learned by

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fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure. These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.

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Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using

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Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a

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of about 0.75. This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger

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of birds. The pallium is made up of several major structures: the hyperpallium, a dorsal bulge of the pallium found only in birds, as well as the nidopallium, mesopallium, and archipallium. The bird telencephalon nuclear structure, wherein neurons are distributed in three-dimensionally arranged

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the raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment. Next it combines the processed information with information about the current needs of the animal and with memory of past circumstances. Finally, on the basis of the results, it generates motor response patterns. These

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Recent years have also seen rapid advances in single-cell sequencing technologies, and these have been used to leverage the cellular heterogeneity of the brain as a means of better understanding the roles of distinct cell types in disease and biology (as well as how genomic variants influence

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Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure. The

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In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the

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Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations. ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious, and fears and terrors assail us, some by night, and some by day, and dreams and untimely

1136:, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals. 2565:

Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Already in the late 19th century theorists like

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The hindbrain coordinates and integrates sensory and motor inputs and outputs responsible for, but not limited to, walking, swimming, or flying. It contains input and output axons interconnecting the spinal cord, midbrain and forebrain transmitting information from the external and internal

2819:. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using 2797:

encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their

2420:, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma. 1949:

As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using

2409:: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the 2005:

Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as

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Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in

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In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult

889:, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (the 1706:

The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages. It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain

2496:: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a 2423:

Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep:

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discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect

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The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is their size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.

1660:. The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex. The 488:

The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other

2223:. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the 2440:(non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called 1515:, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the 579:

of their target cells in complex ways. A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that

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are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.

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lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla. Among other things, it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial expressions, and

2935:, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of 1220:

sections. Crocodilians have the largest telencephalon, while snakes have the smallest. Turtles have the largest diencephalon per body weight whereas crocodilians have the smallest. On the other hand, lizards have the largest mesencephalon.

1215:, such as: absence of lateral motor column neurons in snakes, which innervate limb muscles controlling limb movements; absence of motor neurons that innervate trunk muscles in tortoises; presence of innervation from the trigeminal nerve to 501:, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to 1895:(GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some 1170:

Olf, olfactory lobes; Hmp, cerebral hemispheres; Pn, pineal gland ; Mb, optic lobes of the middle brain ; Cb, cerebellum; MO, medulla oblongata; ii, optic nerves; iv and vi, nerves for the muscles of the eye; Py, pituitary

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is the ability to remember the details of specific events. This sort of memory can last for a lifetime. Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role: people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show

2219:, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the 3002:

some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns.

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Hain, David; Gallego-Flores, Tatiana; Klinkmann, Michaela; Macias, Angeles; Ciirdaeva, Elena; Arends, Anja; Thum, Christina; Tushev, Georgi; Kretschmer, Friedrich; Tosches, Maria Antonietta; Laurent, Gilles (2022-09-02).

2511:, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity. 944:

The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of

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The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a

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The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The

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in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many

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is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in. This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of

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All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the

595:, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored 3037:. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism. 2861:. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave. 3080:

is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.

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Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas. A key component of the sleep system is the

1290:.Telencephalon is related to control of movements, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators responsible for integrating inputs and transmitting outputs are present, sensory systems, and cognitive functions. 2632:

is the ability to learn facts and relationships. This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex, mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of

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is a layer of grey matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ. In reptiles and mammals, it is called the

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Collins, S; McLean CA; Masters CL (2001). "Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies".

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argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the

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Frazer, A; Hensler, JG (1999). "Understanding the neuroanatomical organization of serotonergic cells in the brain provides insight into the functions of this neurotransmitter". In Siegel, GJ (ed.).

1474:, widespread among birds, depends on the organisation and functions of the brain. Some birds exhibit strong abilities of cognition, enabled by the unique structure and physiology of the avian brain. 819:

was achieved. Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information gained has enabled a multitude of studies that would otherwise have not been possible.

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of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later

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and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942

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The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking,

556:. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a 6839:"Simultaneous measurements of cerebral oxygenation changes during brain activation by near-infrared spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy young and elderly subjects" 1067:

is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions: some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres, while others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (

413:, brains exert centralized control over a body's other organs. They act on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called 1848:

each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as

1121:. In mammals, where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain, it takes over functions from many other brain areas. In many mammals, the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called 2179:, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by 1766:). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions. 4473:

Shu, D.-G.; Conway Morris, S.; Han, J.; Zhang, Z.-F.; Yasui, K.; Janvier, P.; Chen, L.; Zhang, X.-L.; Liu, J.-N.; et al. (2003). "Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate

1714:

For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of

2939:

and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical

2887:

wanderings, and cares that are not suitable, and ignorance of present circumstances, desuetude, and unskillfulness. All these things we endure from the brain, when it is not healthy...

738:, and similar molluscs). The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain, the 1832:

of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.

1044:, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting, heart rate and digestive processes. 2416:

The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the

653:(that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other). All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared late in the 2872:, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. The unknown author of 1734:, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the 761:, have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development. In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many aspects of 802:

for studying the way that genes control development. One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped: the nervous system of the

2405:

from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours,

3350: 1129:. The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be stored and processed. 1083:

that may take place largely within the cerebellum. 10% of the brain's total volume consists of the cerebellum and 50% of all neurons are held within its structure.

8581: 7351: 2808:

is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes.

1428:. The subpallium connects different parts of the telencephalon and plays major roles in a number of critical behaviours. To the rear of the telencephalon are the 877:

in form. Jawed fish appeared by 445 Mya, amphibians by 350 Mya, reptiles by 310 Mya and mammals by 200 Mya (approximately). Each species has an equally long

2444:, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters 749:

There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work:

658:

vertebrates. The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a

9109: 5764:

Aboitiz, F; Morales, D; Montiel, J (2003). "The evolutionary origin of the mammalian isocortex: Towards an integrated developmental and functional approach".

8789: 2156:. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the 2105:

The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, the position of the body in space (

6837:

Mehagnoul-Schipper, DJ; Van Der Kallen, BF; Colier, WNJM; Van Der Sluijs, MC; Van Erning, LJ; Thijssen, HO; Oeseburg, B; Hoefnagels, WH; Jansen, RW (2002).

1791:

retina-midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely to guide development.

429:, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. 3027:. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in 2002:

play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.

964:

enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the

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Naumann, Robert K.; Ondracek, Janie M.; Reiter, Samuel; Shein-Idelson, Mark; Tosches, Maria Antonietta; Yamawaki, Tracy M.; Laurent, Gilles (2015-04-20).

2981:

In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by

6596:

Speckmann EJ, Elger CE (2004). "Introduction to the neurophysiological basis of the EEG and DC potentials". In Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Silva FH (eds.).

1164: 444:

This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the

2649:

is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing, or more generally by repetition. A number of brain areas are involved, including the

1902:

There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function.

1017:

The main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain, shown for shark and human. The same parts are present, but they differ greatly in size and shape.

8429: 7771: 4967: 4345: 1030:

Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:

1182:

CB., cerebellum; PT., pituitary body; PN., pineal body; C. STR., corpus striatum; G.H.R., right ganglion habenulæ. I., olfactory; II., optic nerves.

5652: 1819:

demonstrate thick cerebral cortices, indicating a high density of synaptic connections, compared to animals with restricted levels of stimulation.

7270:

Shima, K; Tanji, J (1998). "Both supplementary and presupplementary motor areas are crucial for the temporal organization of multiple movements".

3019:, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of 662:) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as 1071:) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors such as eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation. 1684:. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain. 1090:

allows actions to be directed toward points in space, most commonly in response to visual input. In mammals, it is usually referred to as the

7468: 4882:. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School. Archived from 521:, it causes a neurotransmitter chemical to be released, which binds to receptors on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity. 158: 6344: 2641:

is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior. It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia.

2077:

Information from the sense organs is collected in the brain. There it is used to determine what actions the organism is to take. The brain

7546:

Chiel, HJ; Beer, RD (1997). "The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body, and environment".

2966:, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity. 2695:

is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in

2653:, basal ganglia, and especially the cerebellum, which functions as a large memory bank for microadjustments of the parameters of movement. 5012:

Salas, C; Broglio, C; Rodríguez, F (2003). "Evolution of forebrain and spatial cognition in vertebrates: conservation across diversity".

6986:"The contribution of blood lactate to brain energy metabolism in humans measured by dynamic 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy" 5917:

Shoshani, J; Kupsky, WJ; Marchant, GH (2006). "Elephant brain Part I: Gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution".

2811:

Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of

4940:

Richard Swann Lull; Harry Burr Ferris; George Howard Parker; James Rowland Angell; Albert Galloway Keller; Edwin Grant Conklin (1922).

1966:

when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task, called

441:, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways. 3178:

are known to eat human brains. In funerary rituals, those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of

2492:

for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is

6072: 1488:

cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the

685:

lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure.

9349: 7986: 7969: 5504:

Tosches, Maria Antonietta; Yamawaki, Tracy M.; Naumann, Robert K.; Jacobi, Ariel A.; Tushev, Georgi; Laurent, Gilles (2018-05-25).

6937:"Heptanoate as a neural fuel: energetic and neurotransmitter precursors in normal and glucose transporter I-deficient (G1D) brain" 626:

Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front

7201:

Gurney, K; Prescott, TJ; Wickens, JR; Redgrave, P (2004). "Computational models of the basal ganglia: from robots to membranes".

473:

of a rat, stained in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows neuron cell bodies, the other shows receptors for the

7517: 7438: 7176: 7150: 4943:

The evolution of man: a series of lectures delivered before the Yale chapter of the Sigma xi during the academic year 1921–1922

4875: 2597:

Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways:

1246:

cell bodies away from the periventricular matrix, region of neuronal development, forming organized nuclear groups. Aside from

746:

behind each eye for visual processing. Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.

719:, and numerous types of worms. The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures. 485:

animal species; others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.

9233: 8947: 8879: 8854: 8772: 8745: 8715: 8641: 8616: 8563: 8402: 8377: 8301: 8268: 8243: 8218: 8155: 8060:

Balleine, BW; Liljeholm, Mimi; Ostlund, SB (2009). "The integrative function of the basal ganglia in instrumental learning".

7416: 7252:. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School 7133: 6663: 6605: 6580: 6504: 6444: 6415: 6270: 6148: 6106: 6016: 5816: 4798: 4632: 4607: 4537: 4457: 4426: 4031: 3995: 3978: 3958: 3890: 3687: 3585: 3509: 3480: 3453: 3426: 3276: 2764: 1899:

act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.

493:, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called 2687:

The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system.

517:

Neurons generate electrical signals that travel along their axons. When a pulse of electricity reaches a junction called a

6888:"Energy contribution of octanoate to intact rat brain metabolism measured by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy" 5058:

Grillner, S; et al. (2005). "Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs—roles for the striatum and pallidum".

3389: 2805: 1346: 841:, because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system, and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments. 681:. It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest 9008:"Intracellular Calcium Dynamics Permit a Purkinje Neuron Model to Perform Toggle and Gain Computations Upon its Inputs" 8587: 7390: 2015: 1034: 6729: 2675: 2109:), the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses are present, such as the 7411:. Revised and enlarged edition 1963, Reprint edition 1987. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Midway Reprint. 6633: 5628: 4858: 4825: 1816: 1645:

contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size. The

9148: 4047: 3294:"The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: A review of 150 years of cell counting" 2946:

The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of

2148:. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a 1652:

Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the

1143:

are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain. The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be

8820: 4905:

Saitoh, K; Ménard, A; Grillner, S (2007). "Tectal control of locomotion, steering, and eye movements in lamprey".

3092:

In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including

2943:, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically. 1168:

Anatomical comparison between the brain of a lizard (A and C) and the brain of a turkey (B and D). Abbreviations:

9552: 1313: 666:

worms; in other species, such as vertebrates, it is a large and very complex organ. Some types of worms, such as

17: 5506:"Evolution of pallium, hippocampus, and cortical cell types revealed by single-cell transcriptomics in reptiles" 4343:; Thomson, JN; Brenner, S (1986). "The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". 2755:, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for 2548:

largely by a reward–punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the

9512: 8527: 5893: 3226: 3221: 1994:

that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. The

1239: 2160:, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract the relevant features, and 3069: 2707:

seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as

383:

to several thousand other neurons, typically communicating with one another via root-like protrusions called

8736:

Churchland, PS; Koch, C; Sejnowski, TJ (1993). "What is computational neuroscience?". In Schwartz EL (ed.).

8586:, Translated by Francis Adams, Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library, archived from 781:

regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions.

505:

of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.

9342: 4939: 3784:

Jacobs, DK; Nakanishi, N; Yuan, D; et al. (2007). "Evolution of sensory structures in basal metazoa".

3216: 2436: 2267: 1408:, though there exist layer-like and column-like connections. Structures in the pallium are associated with 8180: 6984:

Boumezbeur, F.; Petersen, KF.; Cline, GW.; Mason, GF.; Behar, KL.; Shulman, GI.; Rothman, DL. (Oct 2010).

2683:

is a large scientific research project, starting in 2013, which aims to simulate the complete human brain.

1754:(which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the 587:

Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called

356:

functions below the head, can be considered a caudal extension of the myelencephalon enclosed inside the

312:

control over all body segments. All vertebrate brains can be embryonically divided into three parts: the

7915:

Curtis, CE; D'Esposito, M (2003). "Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory".

4389: 2239:. In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the 9507: 9310: 7272: 6730:"Ratio of central nervous system to body metabolism in vertebrates: its constancy and functional basis" 6032:

Sereno, MI; Dale, AM; Reppas, AM; Kwong, KK; Belliveau, JW; Brady, TJ; Rosen, BR; Tootell, RBH (1995).

4963:"Thoughts on the development, structure and evolution of the mammalian and avian telencephalic pallium" 3033: 3024: 2903: 2794: 2738:

techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.

2110: 2023: 1852:. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of 1216: 465: 9557: 9457: 8103:

Doya, K (2000). "Complementary roles of basal ganglia and cerebellum in learning and motor control".

4815: 2994: 2215:, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the 2189: 568: 301: 7929: 6315: 4295: 3798: 2974: 2963: 2567: 9499: 4020:"Are the main grades of brains different principally in numbers of connections or also in quality?" 2426: 2410: 2345: 2240: 2228: 2161: 2078: 1719: 1646: 1287: 1079:

trial and error. The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of

739: 146: 129: 8293: 7499: 6098: 2823:

it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.

1930:

have multiple sources in the brain but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.

30:

This article is about the brains of all types of animals. For information specific to humans, see

9547: 9335: 6361:

van Praag, H; Kempermann, G; Gage, FH (2000). "Neural consequences of environmental enrichment".

6287: 3241: 2836: 2712: 2398: 1991: 1892: 1856:

exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as

1350: 965: 572: 561: 399:

to target specific recipient cells in other areas of the brain or distant parts of the body. The

50: 39: 8895:

Engel, AK; Singer, W (2001). "Temporal binding and the neural correlates of sensory awareness".

5561:"Morphological differentiation of distinct neuronal classes in embryonic turtle cerebral cortex" 4449: 4443: 2611:—groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another. 2082:

signal-processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems.

1102:, this region is the largest part of the brain. The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain. 9517: 9466: 9366: 8846: 7924: 6526: 6310: 4790: 3882: 3793: 3015:

The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical

2864:

Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart.

2775:

Design of an experiment in which brain activity from a monkey was used to control a robotic arm

2743: 2583: 1955: 1951: 1665: 1493: 1106: 786: 743: 612: 361: 353: 285: 250: 177: 165: 153: 35: 8284:

Laureys S, Boly M, Tononi G (2009). "Functional neuroimaging". In Laureys S, Tononi G (eds.).

5960:

Finlay, BL; Darlington, RB; Nicastro, N (2001). "Developmental structure in brain evolution".

4019: 3470: 3443: 2553:

changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.

1519:) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates. 980:

and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).

567:

Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is

6034:"Borders of multiple visual areas in human revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging" 6033: 5136:

Reiter, Sam; Liaw, Hua-Peng; Yamawaki, Tracy M.; Naumann, Robert K.; Laurent, Gilles (2017).

4817:

The Human Hypothalamus – Basic and Clinical Aspects: Nuclei of the human hypothalamus. Part I

3231: 2874: 2820: 1812: 1799:

is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the

1223:

Yet their brains share several characteristics revealed by recent anatomical, molecular, and

1126: 920:

vertebrate brain (left), which later differentiate into structures of the adult brain (right)

670:, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain". 8838: 8285: 6090: 5560: 5286:"Evolution of Forebrain and Spatial Cognition in Vertebrates: Conservation across Diversity" 4782: 3874: 3089:" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research. 2868:

favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood.

703:) have been extensively studied to gain insight into the role of genes in brain development. 9178: 9066: 8963:

Averbeck, BB; Lee, D (2004). "Coding and transmission of information by neural ensembles".

7737: 6791: 6302: 6048: 5722: 5517: 5399: 5207: 5183: 4947: 4562: 4486: 4354: 4148: 4089: 3622: 3365: 3093: 2858: 2812: 2730:

techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also,

2637: 2216: 1467: 1235: 1197: 1180:

Comparison of Vertebrate Brains: Mammalian, Reptilian, Amphibian, Teleost, and Ammocoetes.

490: 8707: 8701: 8608: 8602: 5246: 4746:

The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology

3906:

Kristan, WB Jr.; Calabrese, RL; Friesen, WO (2005). "Neuronal control of leech behavior".

8: 8286: 7245: 6091: 3097: 3086: 3077: 3068:

Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical

3062: 3049: 2788: 2680: 2571: 2536: 2417: 2367: 1896: 1849: 1681: 1512: 1511:

The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The

1381: 1376:

The bird brain is divided into a number of sections, each with a different function. The

1091: 1087: 949: 581: 434: 418: 375:

contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons, and the estimated number of neurons in the

9182: 9070: 8502: 8475: 7741: 6795: 6306: 6052: 5726: 5521: 5403: 5114: 4566: 4490: 4358: 4152: 4093: 3716: 3418: 3412: 3369: 2477: 1750:(which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the 1446:

The size and structure of the avian brain enables prominent behaviours of birds such as

673:

There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including

9274: 9199: 9166: 9140: 9090: 9034: 9007: 8988: 8920: 8812: 8682: 8451: 8424: 8128: 8085: 8042: 8017:

Martin, A; Chao, LL (2001). "Semantic memory and the brain: structures and processes".

7999: 7950: 7897: 7847: 7793: 7766: 7706: 7614: 7571: 7491: 7382: 7332: 7226: 7059: 7034: 7010: 6985: 6961: 6936: 6912: 6903: 6887: 6863: 6838: 6705: 6680: 6548: 6521: 6386: 6336: 6236: 6227: 6211: 5985: 5942: 5930: 5860: 5789: 5746: 5646: 5428: 5387: 5245:

Nomura, Tadashi; Kawaguchi, Masahumi; Ono, Katsuhiko; Murakami, Yasunori (March 2013).

5083: 5037: 4989: 4962: 4722: 4710: 4510: 4316: 4267: 4242: 4218: 4208: 4191: 4172: 3931: 3763: 3326: 3293: 3016: 2982: 2931:

that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called

2879: 2771: 2760: 2523:

Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue:

2280: 2197: 2125: 2011: 1995: 1843:

are chemicals that are released at synapses when the local membrane is depolarised and

1829: 1693: 1586: 1232: 693: 647: 404: 289: 8908: 8670: 8345: 8318: 8116: 8030: 7938: 7559: 7095: 6814: 6779: 6539: 5505: 5458: 4674: 4649: 4112: 4077: 3377: 1918:, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the 794:, has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s, 9394: 9266: 9229: 9223: 9204: 9132: 9082: 9039: 8980: 8943: 8912: 8875: 8850: 8839: 8768: 8741: 8711: 8674: 8637: 8612: 8559: 8507: 8456: 8398: 8373: 8350: 8319:"Learning to Control a Brain–Machine Interface for Reaching and Grasping by Primates" 8297: 8264: 8239: 8214: 8207: 8161: 8151: 8120: 8077: 8034: 7991: 7942: 7901: 7889: 7869: 7839: 7798: 7698: 7659: 7606: 7563: 7412: 7374: 7324: 7307:

Miller, EK; Cohen, JD (2001). "An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function".

7289: 7218: 7129: 7099: 7064: 7050: 7015: 6966: 6917: 6868: 6819: 6749: 6710: 6659: 6629: 6601: 6576: 6553: 6500: 6477: 6440: 6411: 6378: 6328: 6266: 6241: 6192: 6154: 6144: 6102: 6064: 6012: 6005: 5977: 5934: 5852: 5812: 5781: 5738: 5692: 5634: 5624: 5588: 5580: 5541: 5533: 5486: 5478: 5433: 5415: 5363: 5355: 5313: 5305: 5266: 5215: 5165: 5157: 5118: 5075: 5029: 4994: 4922: 4854: 4821: 4794: 4783: 4763: 4714: 4679: 4628: 4603: 4578: 4533: 4502: 4453: 4422: 4370: 4321: 4272: 4223: 4164: 4137:"An unusual coding sequence from a Drosophila clock gene is conserved in vertebrates" 4117: 4027: 4000: 3954: 3923: 3886: 3875: 3855: 3811: 3755: 3720: 3683: 3653: 3626: 3591: 3581: 3505: 3476: 3472:

Brain-Body-Mind in the Nebulous Cartesian System: A Holistic Approach by Oscillations

3449: 3422: 3381: 3331: 3313: 3272: 3207: 3096:, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; 2955: 2756: 2704: 2591: 2493: 2401:(SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the 2358: 2153: 1998:

regulates cerebral blood flow so that activated neurons can be supplied with energy.

1853: 1763: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1566: 1451: 1041: 1007: 946: 400: 293: 281: 234: 9278: 9144: 9094: 8992: 8924: 8762: 8686: 8132: 8089: 8003: 7954: 7618: 7525: 7495: 7446: 7386: 7180: 7154: 6836: 6745: 6340: 5989: 5946: 5864: 5750: 5138:"On the Value of Reptilian Brains to Map the Evolution of the Hippocampal Formation" 5087: 5041: 4883: 4726: 3935: 3919: 2936: 2846: 417:. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the 9258: 9194: 9186: 9124: 9074: 9029: 9019: 8972: 8904: 8816: 8804: 8666: 8497: 8489: 8446: 8438: 8395:

Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems

8340: 8330: 8112: 8069: 8046: 8026: 7981: 7934: 7881: 7829: 7788: 7780: 7745: 7710: 7690: 7649: 7598: 7575: 7555: 7483: 7366: 7336: 7320: 7316: 7281: 7230: 7210: 7091: 7054: 7046: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6956: 6948: 6907: 6899: 6858: 6850: 6809: 6799: 6741: 6700: 6692: 6598:

Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields

6543: 6535: 6469: 6390: 6370: 6320: 6231: 6223: 6184: 6056: 5969: 5926: 5844: 5793: 5773: 5730: 5682: 5572: 5525: 5470: 5423: 5407: 5347: 5297: 5258: 5247:"Reptiles: A New Model for Brain Evo-Devo Research: REPTILES FOR EVO-DEVO RESEARCH" 5149: 5110: 5067: 5021: 4984: 4976: 4941: 4914: 4753: 4706: 4669: 4661: 4570: 4514: 4494: 4362: 4340: 4311: 4303: 4262: 4254: 4213: 4203: 4176: 4156: 4107: 4097: 3990: 3915: 3845: 3803: 3767: 3747: 3712: 3618: 3373: 3321: 3305: 3175: 3028: 2907: 2708: 2540: 2406: 2387: 2118: 2010:. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge ( 1840: 1523: 1283: 1144: 896:

Brains are most commonly compared in terms of their size. The relationship between

557: 474: 438: 396: 357: 274: 7602: 6188: 2200:. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control. 2034:

provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain

2026:. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of 1746:(hindbrain). At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the 1278:. Overall elaborated brains are subdivided in forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. 513: 9078: 8335: 7851: 7834: 7817: 7121: 6405: 6260: 6137: 5713:

Barton, RA; Harvey, PH (2000). "Mosaic evolution of brain structure in mammals".

5335: 5137: 4848: 4597: 3677: 3575: 3497: 3104:, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in 2816: 2735: 2700: 2650: 2628: 2615: 2532: 2524: 2508: 2452:

drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of

2441: 2332: 2224: 2220: 2099: 2066: 1979: 1919: 1887:

The two neurotransmitters that are most widely found in the vertebrate brain are

1726:, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the 1527: 1508:, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates. 1471: 1425: 1396: 1392: 1354: 1080: 1013: 938: 870: 552:

Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called

410: 372: 337: 199: 134: 9321: 5285: 1174: 929:; these swellings eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (the 9542: 9484: 9358: 8976: 8808: 7487: 7370: 7214: 6473: 5848: 5071: 4258: 3187: 3100:, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; 3057: 3053: 2919: 2727: 2669: 2645: 2608: 2602: 2481: 2445: 2149: 2114: 2106: 2071: 2043: 1915: 1910:

and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the

1907: 1881: 1873: 1759: 1669: 1576: 1463: 1342: 1201: 1151: 1118: 930: 905: 799: 795: 546: 470: 345: 230: 218: 203: 93: 9317: 8073: 7885: 7285: 7033:

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5973: 5777: 5411: 5208:"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2022-1 - Summary Statistics" 4024:

The nervous systems of invertebrates: an evolutionary and comparative approach

1496:. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called 722:

Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects,

9536: 9474: 9445: 9024: 7679:"Addiction and the brain: the neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence" 6935:

Marin-Valencia, I.; Good, LB.; Ma, Q.; Malloy, CR.; Pascual, JM. (Feb 2013).

6288:"Postnatal development of the visual cortex and the influence of environment" 5638: 5584: 5537: 5482: 5419: 5359: 5309: 5251:

Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution

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contains a very precise mapping, connecting each point on the surface of the

1755: 1727: 1526:, there is a wide nerve tract connecting the cerebral hemispheres called the 1516: 1385: 1140: 934: 917: 803: 765: 450: 341: 329: 317: 297: 266: 226: 170: 117: 9301: 8493: 6158: 6060: 5529: 5474: 4574: 4307: 3979:"Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head" 3595: 2579: 2094: 1504:. Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and 9489: 9421: 9270: 9262: 9208: 9136: 9086: 9043: 8984: 8916: 8678: 8511: 8460: 8442: 8354: 8124: 8081: 8038: 7946: 7893: 7843: 7802: 7784: 7750: 7725: 7702: 7663: 7610: 7378: 7328: 7222: 7103: 7068: 7019: 6970: 6952: 6921: 6872: 6823: 6804: 6714: 6696: 6557: 6481: 6460:

Foster, AC; Kemp, JA (2006). "Glutamate- and GABA-based CNS therapeutics".

6382: 6245: 6196: 5981: 5938: 5856: 5785: 5742: 5696: 5687: 5670: 5545: 5490: 5437: 5367: 5317: 5270: 5169: 5079: 5033: 4998: 4980: 4926: 4767: 4718: 4683: 4506: 4374: 4366: 4325: 4136: 4102: 4004: 3927: 3859: 3850: 3833: 3815: 3759: 3657: 3630: 3385: 3335: 3236: 3109: 2990: 2915: 2780: 2723: 2663: 2504: 2469: 2402: 2319: 2180: 2172: 1911: 1857: 1796: 1751: 1723: 1401: 1384:, and controls higher functions. The telencephalon is dominated by a large 1358: 1263: 1068: 1056: 991: 983: 961: 596: 498: 454: 321: 262: 211: 7995: 7567: 7293: 6757: 6753: 6332: 6068: 5592: 5576: 5122: 4918: 4665: 4582: 4276: 4227: 4168: 4121: 3724: 2503:

In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the

9479: 9431: 9379: 9305: 8288:

The Neurology of Consciousness: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropathology

8165: 3807: 3246: 3179: 3164: 3157: 3020: 2896: 2485: 2464: 2212: 2047: 1771: 1731: 1638: 1539: 1462:

senses, strong in most species of birds, as well as the typically weaker

1459: 1447: 1405: 1338: 1322: 1306: 1299: 1133: 926: 830: 757:), because of the large array of techniques available for studying their 682: 600: 525:

The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of

494: 445: 349: 305: 246: 31: 9190: 5459:"Molecular diversity and evolution of neuron types in the amniote brain" 5262: 4498: 3040:

One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled

2989:, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of 1492:

is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the

9404: 7589:

Berridge, KC (2004). "Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience".

4758: 4741: 4055: 3141: 3136: 2869: 2716: 2696: 2688: 2497: 2293: 2236: 2208: 2055: 2035: 1971: 1963: 1959: 1891:, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and 1877: 1673: 1437: 1409: 1228: 1075: 999: 897: 866: 862: 816: 769: 731: 723: 708: 699: 674: 654: 526: 392: 376: 309: 207: 141: 77: 71: 7987:

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Armstrong, E (1983). "Relative brain size and metabolism in mammals".

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to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and

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discussion with Vivian Nutton, Jonathan Sawday & Marina Wallace (

8601:

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Soengas, JL; Aldegunde, M (2002). "Energy metabolism of fish brain".

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of two types of Golgi-stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon

2865: 2779:

Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of

2751:

been used to study brain activity in human patients with intractable

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studies. Vertebrates share the highest levels of similarities during

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Jones, EG; Mendell, LM (1999). "Assessing the Decade of the Brain".

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Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000).

3498:"A Brief Review of the Techniques Used in the Study of Neuroanatomy" 2914:, published in 1543, showing the base of the human brain, including 2124:

Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as

1420:. Beneath the pallium are the two components of the subpallium, the 1208:, reflecting adaptive radiation to a diverse array of environments. 245:. Being the most specialized organ, it is responsible for receiving 9438: 9411: 9374: 9128: 8476:"Single-cell genomics and regulatory networks for 388 human brains" 5620:

Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy : evolution and adaptation

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3101: 2951: 2841: 2784: 2752: 2413:(RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. 2157: 1975: 1943: 1927: 1861: 1747: 1739: 1715: 1596: 1505: 1489: 1433: 1429: 1421: 1413: 1377: 1362: 1326: 1267: 1224: 1064: 995: 987: 977: 973: 953: 890: 834: 778: 758: 727: 716: 678: 663: 659: 635: 384: 325: 5385: 4528:

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Brain electrical activity recorded from a human patient during an

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Brain and visual perception: the story of a 25-year collaboration

8480: 5455: 2854: 2699:, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat 2668:"Brain research" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see 2621: 2528: 2391: 2193: 2141: 2051: 2027: 1869: 1844: 1642: 1455: 1271: 1255: 1247: 1188: 1099: 912: 882: 874: 824: 553: 518: 426: 414: 380: 254: 238: 8316: 7863: 7861: 6175:

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usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the

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have been shown to be relevant to humans. The first biological

631: 592: 591:. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of 530: 422: 270: 214: 8657:

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Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles

1938: 1730:, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the 1211:

Morphological differences are reflected in the nervous system

850: 395:

and carry trains of rapid micro-electric signal pulses called

8787: 7858: 7726:"The Croonian Lecture: La Fine Structure des Centres Nerveux" 7200: 6653: 5284:

Salas, Cosme; Broglio, Cristina; Rodríguez, Fernando (2003).

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neuron and synapse in the entire body. The complete neuronal

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Model of a neural circuit in the cerebellum, as proposed by

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that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.

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2587: 2211:. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the 2019: 2007: 1808: 1775: 1370: 1275: 1048: 1003: 477: 388: 222: 9248: 7970:"Episodic and declarative memory: role of the hippocampus" 6934: 5244: 2882:, came down unequivocally in favor of the brain, writing: 1807:

There has long been debate about whether the qualities of

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is the brain's primary mechanism for learning and memory.

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of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.

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visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

2798:

electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as

1702:

Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development

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studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for

2468:

Cross-section of a human head, showing location of the

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4189: 2954:

cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the

2340:

Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns

2275:

Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles

1060:

eating and drinking, and the release of some hormones.

284:(each of which is only responsible for the respective 9318:

Our Quest to Understand the Brain – with Matthew Cobb

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Animal brains are used as food in numerous cuisines.

3023:, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as 1811:, personality, and intelligence can be attributed to 1758:(which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the 1345:

in birds. Birds possess large, complex brains, which

638:(which have a diffuse nervous system consisting of a 360:. Together, the brain and spinal cord constitute the 292:, vertebrate brains develop axially from the midline 8258: 7914: 7035:"Acetate transport and utilization in the rat brain" 6654:

Nieuwenhuys, R; Donkelaar, HJ; Nicholson, C (1998).

6522:"Autism, fever, epigenetics and the locus coeruleus" 4904: 4739: 3197: 2327:

Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits

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was chosen by Nobel Prize-winning neurophysiologist

617: 8204: 6928: 6656:

The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates, Volume 1

6212:"Adult neurogenesis in mammals: an identity crisis" 4742:"Organization and evolution of the avian forebrain" 1778:create products that influence axonal pathfinding. 1444:connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord. 1254:, other vertebrates with elaborated brains include 8526: 8261:The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice 8206: 7967: 6136: 6004: 1835: 1804:body, they are generated throughout the lifespan. 1454:. Dedicated structures and pathways integrate the 8430:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 8283: 7772:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 6885: 5558: 4968:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 4346:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 3953:(5th ed.). Saunders College Pub. p. 1. 2594:appear to play a beneficial role in the process. 425:can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral 9534: 9164: 7870:"Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain" 7081: 6886:Ebert, D.; Haller, RG.; Walton, ME. 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In some primitive fishes, such as 630:Except for a few primitive organisms such as 421:. Some basic types of responsiveness such as 9056: 8790:"What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain" 8572: 8549: 8547: 8545: 8418: 8416: 8414: 8238:. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–24. 7676: 7631: 6431:McGeer, PL; McGeer, EG (1989). "Chapter 15, 6430: 5811:. Holt-Saunders International. p. 531. 5806: 5712: 5651:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5048: 4616: 4017: 3167:also involved the consumption of the brain. 2742:electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in 2314:Action selection on the basis of motivation 2175:are areas of the brain that are involved in 1400:clusters, with no large-scale separation of 1125:that create deep furrows or fissures called 772:, for example, were identified by examining 407:, is particularly well developed in humans. 280:While invertebrate brains arise from paired 9005: 8962: 8937: 8894: 8836: 8767:. 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(2003). 8209:Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain 7148: 6540:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.11.001 4946:. Yale University Press. p. 3378:10.1038/scientificamerican0314-38 2480:, as the pioneering physiologist 742:, with three divisions and large 618:Generic bilaterian nervous system 316:(prosencephalon, subdivided into 202:that serves as the center of the 9251:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 9242: 9215: 9158: 9101: 9050: 8999: 8956: 8931: 8888: 8863: 8830: 8781: 8754: 8693: 8650: 8625: 8594: 8518: 8361: 8310: 8277: 8252: 8227: 8198: 8172: 8096: 8053: 8010: 7961: 7908: 7809: 7758: 7730:Proceedings of the Royal Society 7717: 7670: 7625: 7582: 7539: 7509: 7460: 7400: 7343: 7300: 7263: 7051:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05895.x 6778:Raichle, M; Gusnard, DA (2002). 6520:Mehler, MF; Purpura, DP (2009). 6350:from the original on 2022-10-09. 6139:Principles of neural development 6078:from the original on 2006-05-23. 3200: 2574:hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 2167: 2121:mainly seen in aquatic animals. 1305:This section is an excerpt from 688: 352:, which directly interacts with 253:, processing those information ( 221:and is typically located in the 8474:Emani, PS; et al. (2024). 8105:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 8019:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 7677:Hyman, SE; Malenka, RC (2001). 7632:Ardiel, EL; Rankin, CH (2010). 7237: 7194: 7168: 7142: 7075: 6830: 6771: 6746:10.1152/ajpregu.1981.241.3.R203 6721: 6672: 6564: 6488: 6462:Current Opinion in Pharmacology 6453: 6424: 6397: 6354: 6279: 6265:. 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Glial cells (also known as 9296:The Brain from Top to Bottom 9079:10.1126/science.284.5415.739 8897:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8336:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000042 7917:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7835:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.012 7816:Malenka, R; Bear, M (2004). 7407:Kleitman, Nathaniel (1939). 7151:"Anatomy of the spinal cord" 6784:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 6658:. Springer. pp. 11–14. 6433:Amino acid neurotransmitters 5837:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5334:Northcutt, R. Glenn (2013). 4082:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 3577:Principles of neural science 2878:, a medical treatise in the 1341:is the central organ of the 606: 460: 7: 8636:. Oxford University Press. 8525:Bower, Bruce (2009-01-12). 8292:. Academic Press. pp. 7683:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6628:. Oxford University Press. 6363:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6089:Fuster, Joaquín M. (2008). 6003:Calvin, William H. (1996). 4388:Jabr, Ferris (2012-10-02). 4026:. Birkhäuser. p. 439. 3740:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3193: 2657: 2150:first-order sensory nucleus 2061: 1533: 1395:and is responsible for the 1388:, which corresponds to the 1231:development, controlled by 1159: 229:), usually near organs for 10: 9574: 8977:10.1016/j.tins.2004.02.006 8809:10.1109/jrproc.1959.287207 8764:The Computer and the Brain 8738:Computational Neuroscience 8062:Behavioural Brain Research 7488:10.1177/107385849800400520 7467:Gross, Charles G. (1998). 7371:10.1016/j.tins.2005.01.003 7273:Journal of Neurophysiology 7215:10.1016/j.tins.2004.06.003 6474:10.1016/j.coph.2005.11.005 5892:(17): 1–16. Archived from 5849:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005 5072:10.1016/j.tins.2005.05.004 4907:Journal of Neurophysiology 4627:. Williams & Wilkins. 4596:Jerison, Harry J. (1973). 4294:Research Community (ed.). 3873:Schmidt-Rhaesa, A (2007). 3448:. MIT Press. p. 143. 3124: 3120: 3034:The Computer and the Brain 3025:computational neuroscience 2834: 2830: 2795:Computational neuroscience 2667: 2661: 2456:show the reverse pattern. 2385: 2379: 2152:dedicated to one specific 1691: 1537: 1478: 1304: 1297: 1196:external morphology, from 1032: 610: 569:cell-to-cell communication 503:examine the microstructure 265:) and the coordination of 44: 29: 9498: 9465: 9458:Peripheral nervous system 9456: 9365: 9222:Connell, Evan S. (2001). 8146:Storrow, Hugh A. (1969). 8074:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.034 7886:10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6 7724:Ramón y Cajal, S (1894). 7591:Physiology & Behavior 7286:10.1152/jn.1998.80.6.3247 5974:10.1017/S0140525X01003958 5778:10.1017/S0140525X03000128 5412:10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.049 4847:Jones, Edward G. (1985). 3475:. Springer. p. 225. 3267:Saladin, Kenneth (2011). 3190:has been traced to this. 2815:and physical activity in 2357: 2344: 2331: 2318: 2305: 2292: 2279: 2266: 2258: 2177:initiating body movements 2136:, or vibration-sensitive 2030:(i.e., blood sugar), but 1813:heredity or to upbringing 1545:Encephalization Quotient 646:, meaning animals with a 575:that change the internal 176: 164: 152: 140: 128: 116: 104: 99: 89: 84: 69: 64: 9225:The Aztec Treasure House 9025:10.3389/fncom.2014.00086 8940:Theoretical Neuroscience 8700:Sherrington, CS (1942). 8554:Finger, Stanley (2001). 6941:J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 6736:(Submitted manuscript). 6624:Buzsáki, Gyorgy (2006). 6183:. St. Louis, MO: 29–47. 5188:www.reptile-database.org 4419:Encyclopedia of Genetics 4259:10.1093/genetics/77.1.71 4241:Brenner, Sydney (1974). 4022:. In Breidbach O (ed.). 3496:Singh, Inderbir (2006). 3217:Brain–computer interface 3094:multielectrode recording 2715:and similar fields) and 2411:retinohypothalamic tract 2375: 2346:Supplementary motor area 2241:autonomic nervous system 2229:supplementary motor area 1762:(which will contain the 1647:encephalization quotient 1293: 1288:autonomic nervous system 990:(cerebral hemispheres), 740:supraesophageal ganglion 573:second messenger systems 45:Not to be confused with 8965:Trends in Neurosciences 8659:Trends in Neurosciences 8556:Origins of Neuroscience 8494:10.1126/science.adi5199 8187:(Revised, 2nd ed.) 7548:Trends in Neurosciences 7359:Trends in Neurosciences 7203:Trends in Neurosciences 6216:Journal of Neuroscience 6061:10.1126/science.7754376 5919:Brain Research Bulletin 5530:10.1126/science.aar4237 5475:10.1126/science.abp8202 5060:Trends in Neurosciences 4814:Swaab, Dick F. (2003). 4699:Brain Research Bulletin 4575:10.1126/science.6407108 4308:10.1895/wormbook.1.12.1 3242:Outline of neuroscience 2837:History of neuroscience 2732:functional neuroanatomy 2713:artificial intelligence 2399:suprachiasmatic nucleus 2188:responses, and contain 1990:All vertebrates have a 1893:gamma-aminobutyric acid 1357:on how to respond with 1286:, olfactory input, and 707:This category includes 40:brains (disambiguation) 9553:Human anatomy by organ 9367:Central nervous system 9298:, at McGill University 9263:10.1054/jocn.2001.0919 9228:. Counterpoint Press. 8443:10.1098/rstb.2002.1243 8179:Thagard, Paul (2007). 7785:10.1098/rstb.2002.1226 7751:10.1098/rspl.1894.0063 7636:Caenorhabditis elegans 7128:. Sinauer Associates. 6953:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.151 6805:10.1073/pnas.172399499 6697:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0333 6527:Brain Research Reviews 5669:Northcutt, RG (2002). 4981:10.1098/rstb.2001.0973 4785:Essential Neuroscience 4532:. Sinauer Associates. 4448:. 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MIT Press. p. 8590:on September 26, 2007 8583:On the Sacred Disease 8580:Hippocrates (2006) , 7409:Sleep and Wakefulness 7177:"Ocular motor system" 6259:Ridley, Matt (2004). 6210:Rakic, Pasko (2002). 6093:The Prefrontal Cortex 5881:Marino, Lori (2004). 5577:10.1002/cne.903100405 5388:"The reptilian brain" 4919:10.1152/jn.00639.2006 4666:10.1602/neurorx.2.1.3 4648:Pardridge, W (2005). 3832:Balavoine, G (2003). 3445:Networks of the Brain 3411:Shepherd, GM (1994). 3232:Neurological disorder 3134: 2999: 2972: 2906: 2893:On the Sacred Disease 2884: 2875:On the Sacred Disease 2844: 2821:Cre-Lox recombination 2774: 2678: 2638:Instrumental learning 2522: 2467: 2097: 2069: 1962:during sleep, faster 1941: 1830:electrical properties 1817:enriched environments 1701: 1359:the rest of the body. 1316: 1236:transcription factors 1177: 1167: 1016: 915: 853: 696: 648:bilaterally symmetric 625: 516: 469:Cross section of the 468: 9006:Forrest, MD (2014). 8236:Neurons and Networks 8234:Dowling, JE (2001). 7736:(331–335): 444–468. 7516:Dougherty, Patrick. 7437:Dougherty, Patrick. 6626:Rhythms of the Brain 6497:Basic Neurochemistry 6437:Basic Neurochemistry 5688:10.1093/icb/42.4.743 3951:Invertebrate Zoology 3851:10.1093/icb/43.1.137 3144:curry from Indonesia 2926:The Roman physician 2859:Areni-1 cave complex 2813:neurotrophic factors 2217:primary motor cortex 2119:electric field sense 2115:magnetic field sense 1908:antidepressant drugs 879:evolutionary history 391:, which are usually 364:in all vertebrates. 9191:10.1038/nature08537 9183:2009Natur.461..908G 9117:Nature Neuroscience 9108:Buzsáki, G (2004). 9071:1999Sci...284..739J 8181:"Cognitive Science" 7742:1894RSPS...55..444C 7642:Learning and Memory 7522:Neuroscience Online 7443:Neuroscience Online 7250:Neuroscience Online 6996:(42): 13983–13991. 6796:2002PNAS...9910237R 6790:(16): 10237–10239. 6307:1982Natur.299..583W 6053:1995Sci...268..889S 5809:The Vertebrate Body 5727:2000Natur.405.1055B 5721:(6790): 1055–1058. 5522:2018Sci...360..881T 5404:2015CBio...25.R317N 5263:10.1002/jez.b.22484 4975:(1414): 1583–1598. 4961:Puelles, L (2001). 4880:Neuroscience Online 4567:1983Sci...220.1302A 4561:(4603): 1302–1304. 4499:10.1038/nature01264 4491:2003Natur.421..526S 4442:Kandel, ER (2007). 4413:Hodgkin J (2001). " 4394:Scientific American 4359:1986RSPTB.314....1W 4153:1985Natur.317..445S 4094:1971PNAS...68.2112K 3977:Butler, AB (2000). 3949:Barnes, RD (1987). 3646:Practical Neurology 3370:2014SciAm.310c..38Y 3358:Scientific American 3116:Society and culture 3098:genetic engineering 3087:Decade of the Brain 3078:Human Brain Project 3063:binocular disparity 3007:Sherrington, 1942, 2995:Charles Sherrington 2789:cerebrospinal fluid 2763:techniques such as 2681:Human Brain Project 2572:synaptic plasticity 2561:Learning and memory 2537:subthalamic nucleus 2418:reticular formation 2368:executive functions 2366:Planning and other 2252: 2126:photoreceptor cells 1992:blood–brain barrier 1934:Electrical activity 1897:general anesthetics 1884:, and many others. 1546: 1513:superior colliculus 1397:cognitive functions 1092:superior colliculus 966:blood–brain barrier 730:, and others), and 453:and the effects of 435:biological computer 405:executive functions 300:enlargement at the 8870:Farah, MJ (2000). 7476:The Neuroscientist 7120:Carew, TJ (2000). 7045:(Suppl 1): 46–54. 6286:Wiesel, T (1982). 5469:(6610): eabp8202. 4759:10.1002/ar.a.20253 3808:10.1093/icb/icm094 3442:Sporns, O (2010). 3146: 3017:information theory 2979: 2933:pneumata psychikon 2924: 2880:Hippocratic Corpus 2851: 2777: 2761:Functional imaging 2757:epileptic seizures 2685: 2545: 2473: 2250: 2190:pattern generators 2103: 2075: 2012:membrane potential 1996:neurovascular unit 1947: 1854:psychoactive drugs 1704: 1694:Neural development 1587:Bottlenose dolphin 1544: 1335: 1206:armored chelonians 1185: 1179: 1019: 956:that separate the 922: 859: 784:The nematode worm 705: 628: 589:nerve fiber tracts 523: 509:Cellular structure 482: 340:, subdivided into 290:ventral nerve cord 9530: 9529: 9526: 9525: 9235:978-1-58243-162-8 9177:(7266): 908–915. 8949:978-0-262-54185-5 8881:978-0-631-21403-8 8856:978-0-19-517618-6 8803:(11): 1940–1951. 8774:978-0-300-08473-3 8747:978-0-262-69164-2 8717:978-0-8385-7701-1 8703:Man on his nature 8643:978-0-19-506491-9 8618:978-0-262-23072-8 8565:978-0-19-514694-3 8437:(1432): 787–795. 8404:978-0-262-54185-5 8379:978-0-7167-9586-5 8303:978-0-12-374168-4 8270:978-0-7817-4995-4 8245:978-0-674-00462-7 8220:978-0-7817-6003-4 8157:978-0-390-85075-1 7880:(11): 1505–1518. 7779:(1432): 617–620. 7655:10.1101/lm.960510 7418:978-0-226-44073-6 7135:978-0-87893-092-0 6898:(13): 5928–5935. 6855:10.1002/hbm.10026 6665:978-3-540-56013-5 6607:978-0-7817-5126-1 6582:978-0-443-07145-4 6571:Rang, HP (2003). 6506:978-0-397-51820-3 6446:978-0-88167-343-2 6417:978-0-19-514008-8 6301:(5884): 583–591. 6272:978-0-06-000678-5 6150:978-0-87893-744-8 6108:978-0-12-373644-4 6047:(5212): 889–893. 6018:978-0-465-07278-1 5818:978-0-03-910284-5 5516:(6391): 881–888. 5352:10.1159/000351996 5302:10.1159/000072438 5154:10.1159/000478693 5026:10.1159/000072438 4800:978-0-7817-8383-5 4634:978-0-683-06752-1 4609:978-0-12-385250-2 4539:978-0-87893-820-9 4485:(6922): 526–529. 4459:978-0-393-32937-7 4428:978-0-12-227080-2 4147:(6036): 445–448. 4033:978-3-7643-5076-5 3983:Anatomical Record 3960:978-0-03-008914-5 3892:978-0-19-856669-4 3689:978-0-19-515956-1 3587:978-0-8385-7701-1 3511:978-81-8061-808-6 3482:978-1-4419-6134-1 3469:Başar, E (2010). 3455:978-0-262-01469-4 3428:978-0-19-508843-4 3310:10.1002/cne.24040 3304:(18): 3865–3895. 3278:978-0-07-122207-5 3208:Philosophy portal 3009:Man on his Nature 2705:Cognitive science 2592:physical activity 2494:negative feedback 2407:circadian rhythms 2373: 2372: 2359:Prefrontal cortex 2281:Oculomotor nuclei 1976:epileptic seizure 1944:epileptic seizure 1841:Neurotransmitters 1764:medulla oblongata 1682:executive control 1662:prefrontal cortex 1654:prefrontal cortex 1635: 1634: 1567:Common chimpanzee 1524:placental mammals 1284:circadian rhythms 1260:galeomorph sharks 1240:signaling centers 1081:neural plasticity 1008:medulla oblongata 947:connective tissue 403:, which controls 401:prefrontal cortex 397:action potentials 294:dorsal nerve cord 282:segmental ganglia 217:. It consists of 192: 191: 187: 16:(Redirected from 9565: 9558:Organs (anatomy) 9463: 9462: 9352: 9345: 9338: 9329: 9328: 9283: 9282: 9246: 9240: 9239: 9219: 9213: 9212: 9202: 9162: 9156: 9155: 9153: 9147:. Archived from 9114: 9105: 9099: 9098: 9054: 9048: 9047: 9037: 9027: 9003: 8997: 8996: 8960: 8954: 8953: 8935: 8929: 8928: 8892: 8886: 8885: 8867: 8861: 8860: 8844: 8834: 8828: 8827: 8825: 8819:. Archived from 8794: 8785: 8779: 8778: 8758: 8752: 8751: 8733: 8722: 8721: 8697: 8691: 8690: 8654: 8648: 8647: 8629: 8623: 8622: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8576: 8570: 8569: 8551: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8536: 8530: 8522: 8516: 8515: 8505: 8471: 8465: 8464: 8454: 8420: 8409: 8408: 8390: 8384: 8383: 8365: 8359: 8358: 8348: 8338: 8314: 8308: 8307: 8291: 8281: 8275: 8274: 8256: 8250: 8249: 8231: 8225: 8224: 8212: 8202: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8176: 8170: 8169: 8143: 8137: 8136: 8100: 8094: 8093: 8057: 8051: 8050: 8014: 8008: 8007: 7989: 7965: 7959: 7958: 7932: 7912: 7906: 7905: 7865: 7856: 7855: 7837: 7813: 7807: 7806: 7796: 7765:Lømo, T (2003). 7762: 7756: 7755: 7753: 7721: 7715: 7714: 7695:10.1038/35094560 7674: 7668: 7667: 7657: 7629: 7623: 7622: 7586: 7580: 7579: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7524:. Archived from 7513: 7507: 7506: 7504: 7498:. Archived from 7473: 7464: 7458: 7457: 7455: 7454: 7445:. Archived from 7434: 7423: 7422: 7404: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7389:. Archived from 7356: 7347: 7341: 7340: 7304: 7298: 7297: 7280:(6): 3247–3260. 7267: 7261: 7260: 7258: 7257: 7244:Knierim, James. 7241: 7235: 7234: 7198: 7192: 7191: 7189: 7188: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7162: 7146: 7140: 7139: 7117: 7108: 7107: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7062: 7030: 7024: 7023: 7013: 6981: 6975: 6974: 6964: 6932: 6926: 6925: 6915: 6883: 6877: 6876: 6866: 6834: 6828: 6827: 6817: 6807: 6775: 6769: 6768: 6766: 6765: 6756:. Archived from 6725: 6719: 6718: 6708: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6651: 6640: 6639: 6621: 6612: 6611: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6568: 6562: 6561: 6551: 6517: 6511: 6510: 6492: 6486: 6485: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6428: 6422: 6421: 6401: 6395: 6394: 6375:10.1038/35044558 6358: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6325:10.1038/299583a0 6318: 6292: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6256: 6250: 6249: 6239: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6172: 6163: 6162: 6142: 6132: 6113: 6112: 6096: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6038: 6029: 6023: 6022: 6010: 6007:How Brains Think 6000: 5994: 5993: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5898: 5887: 5878: 5869: 5868: 5832: 5823: 5822: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5761: 5755: 5754: 5735:10.1038/35016580 5710: 5701: 5700: 5690: 5666: 5657: 5656: 5650: 5642: 5614: 5597: 5596: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5453: 5442: 5441: 5431: 5398:(8): R317–R321. 5383: 5372: 5371: 5331: 5322: 5321: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5242: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5195: 5194: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5055: 5046: 5045: 5009: 5003: 5002: 4992: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4913:(4): 3093–3108. 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4874:Knierim, James. 4871: 4865: 4864: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4788: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4761: 4752:(1): 1080–1102. 4737: 4731: 4730: 4705:(2–4): 191–205. 4694: 4688: 4687: 4677: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4620: 4614: 4613: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4525: 4519: 4518: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4400: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4319: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4270: 4238: 4232: 4231: 4221: 4211: 4202:(3): 1951–1960. 4187: 4181: 4180: 4161:10.1038/317445a0 4132: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4105: 4088:(9): 2112–2116. 4073: 4067: 4066: 4064: 4063: 4054:. Archived from 4044: 4038: 4037: 4015: 4009: 4008: 3998: 3974: 3965: 3964: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3880: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3853: 3829: 3820: 3819: 3801: 3781: 3772: 3771: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3700: 3694: 3693: 3673: 3662: 3661: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3571: 3516: 3515: 3493: 3487: 3486: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3408: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3388:. Archived from 3355: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3329: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3264: 3210: 3205: 3204: 3203: 3176:Papua New Guinea 3029:John von Neumann 3011: 2908:Andreas Vesalius 2899: 2895:, attributed to 2845:Illustration by 2787:, surrounded by 2709:computer science 2701:mental disorders 2550:reward mechanism 2541:substantia nigra 2478:milieu intérieur 2388:Circadian rhythm 2253: 2249: 2154:sensory modality 1850:Dale's principle 1742:(midbrain), and 1639:brains of humans 1547: 1472:Social behaviour 1202:tetrapod gliders 1145:action selection 960:from the brain. 558:neurotransmitter 475:neurotransmitter 439:digital computer 358:vertebral column 275:endocrine system 184:edit on Wikidata 181: 74: 62: 61: 21: 9573: 9572: 9568: 9567: 9566: 9564: 9563: 9562: 9533: 9532: 9531: 9522: 9513:Parasympathetic 9494: 9452: 9361: 9356: 9292: 9287: 9286: 9247: 9243: 9236: 9220: 9216: 9163: 9159: 9151: 9112: 9106: 9102: 9055: 9051: 9004: 9000: 8961: 8957: 8950: 8936: 8932: 8893: 8889: 8882: 8868: 8864: 8857: 8835: 8831: 8823: 8792: 8786: 8782: 8775: 8759: 8755: 8748: 8734: 8725: 8718: 8698: 8694: 8665:(11): 552–553. 8655: 8651: 8644: 8630: 8626: 8619: 8599: 8595: 8577: 8573: 8566: 8552: 8543: 8534: 8532: 8523: 8519: 8472: 8468: 8421: 8412: 8405: 8391: 8387: 8380: 8366: 8362: 8315: 8311: 8304: 8282: 8278: 8271: 8257: 8253: 8246: 8232: 8228: 8221: 8203: 8199: 8190: 8188: 8177: 8173: 8158: 8144: 8140: 8101: 8097: 8058: 8054: 8015: 8011: 7966: 7962: 7930:10.1.1.457.9723 7913: 7909: 7874:Sports Medicine 7866: 7859: 7814: 7810: 7763: 7759: 7722: 7718: 7689:(10): 695–703. 7675: 7671: 7630: 7626: 7587: 7583: 7554:(12): 553–557. 7544: 7540: 7531: 7529: 7514: 7510: 7502: 7471: 7465: 7461: 7452: 7450: 7435: 7426: 7419: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7354: 7348: 7344: 7305: 7301: 7268: 7264: 7255: 7253: 7242: 7238: 7199: 7195: 7186: 7184: 7173: 7169: 7160: 7158: 7147: 7143: 7136: 7118: 7111: 7080: 7076: 7031: 7027: 6982: 6978: 6933: 6929: 6884: 6880: 6835: 6831: 6776: 6772: 6763: 6761: 6740:(3): R203–212. 6726: 6722: 6685:Biology Letters 6677: 6673: 6666: 6652: 6643: 6636: 6622: 6615: 6608: 6594: 6590: 6583: 6569: 6565: 6518: 6514: 6507: 6493: 6489: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6429: 6425: 6418: 6402: 6398: 6359: 6355: 6347: 6316:10.1.1.547.7497 6290: 6284: 6280: 6273: 6257: 6253: 6208: 6204: 6173: 6166: 6151: 6133: 6116: 6109: 6087: 6083: 6075: 6036: 6030: 6026: 6019: 6001: 5997: 5958: 5954: 5915: 5911: 5902: 5900: 5896: 5885: 5879: 5872: 5833: 5826: 5819: 5805: 5801: 5762: 5758: 5711: 5704: 5667: 5660: 5644: 5643: 5631: 5615: 5600: 5557: 5553: 5502: 5498: 5454: 5445: 5392:Current Biology 5384: 5375: 5332: 5325: 5282: 5278: 5243: 5234: 5224: 5222: 5206: 5205: 5201: 5192: 5190: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5134: 5130: 5099: 5095: 5056: 5049: 5010: 5006: 4959: 4955: 4938: 4934: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4887: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4845: 4841: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4779: 4775: 4738: 4734: 4695: 4691: 4646: 4642: 4635: 4621: 4617: 4610: 4594: 4590: 4551: 4547: 4540: 4526: 4522: 4471: 4467: 4460: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4411: 4407: 4398: 4396: 4386: 4382: 4353:(1165): 1–340. 4337: 4333: 4288: 4284: 4239: 4235: 4188: 4184: 4133: 4129: 4074: 4070: 4061: 4059: 4052:nervous system" 4046: 4045: 4041: 4034: 4016: 4012: 3975: 3968: 3961: 3947: 3943: 3904: 3900: 3893: 3871: 3867: 3830: 3823: 3799:10.1.1.326.2233 3782: 3775: 3752:10.1038/nrn1074 3736: 3732: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3674: 3665: 3642: 3638: 3607: 3603: 3588: 3572: 3519: 3512: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3409: 3400: 3392: 3353: 3347: 3343: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3186:disease called 3154: 3129: 3123: 3118: 3108:properties and 3012: 3006: 2920:olfactory bulbs 2900: 2891: 2839: 2833: 2817:neuroplasticity 2736:medical imaging 2673: 2666: 2660: 2651:premotor cortex 2629:Semantic memory 2616:Episodic memory 2609:cell assemblies 2563: 2533:globus pallidus 2525:caudate nucleus 2517: 2509:pituitary gland 2462: 2442:slow wave sleep 2394: 2384: 2378: 2333:Premotor cortex 2225:premotor cortex 2221:pyramidal tract 2170: 2100:auditory system 2092: 2064: 2054:, and possibly 1988: 1980:neurophysiology 1936: 1920:locus coeruleus 1838: 1825: 1744:rhombencephalon 1696: 1690: 1542: 1536: 1528:corpus callosum 1481: 1476: 1475: 1393:cerebral cortex 1310: 1302: 1296: 1162: 1111:cerebral cortex 1037: 984:Neuroanatomists 939:rhombencephalon 871:Cambrian period 854:The brain of a 848: 777:show that most 691: 620: 615: 609: 511: 463: 411:Physiologically 373:cerebral cortex 338:rhombencephalon 188: 80: 58: 43: 28: 23: 22: 18:Mammalian brain 15: 12: 11: 5: 9571: 9561: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9548:Animal anatomy 9545: 9528: 9527: 9524: 9523: 9521: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9504: 9502: 9496: 9495: 9493: 9492: 9487: 9485:Cranial nerves 9482: 9477: 9471: 9469: 9460: 9454: 9453: 9451: 9450: 9449: 9448: 9443: 9442: 9441: 9436: 9435: 9434: 9429: 9414: 9409: 9408: 9407: 9402: 9397: 9382: 9377: 9371: 9369: 9363: 9362: 9359:Nervous system 9355: 9354: 9347: 9340: 9332: 9326: 9325: 9315: 9314:, May 8, 2008) 9299: 9291: 9290:External links 9288: 9285: 9284: 9257:(5): 387–397. 9241: 9234: 9214: 9157: 9154:on 2006-09-10. 9129:10.1038/nn1233 9123:(5): 446–451. 9100: 9049: 8998: 8971:(4): 225–230. 8955: 8948: 8930: 8887: 8880: 8862: 8855: 8829: 8826:on 2011-09-28. 8780: 8773: 8753: 8746: 8723: 8716: 8692: 8649: 8642: 8624: 8617: 8593: 8571: 8564: 8541: 8517: 8466: 8410: 8403: 8385: 8378: 8360: 8329:(2): 193–208. 8309: 8302: 8276: 8269: 8251: 8244: 8226: 8219: 8197: 8171: 8156: 8138: 8111:(6): 732–739. 8095: 8052: 8025:(2): 194–201. 8009: 7980:(3): 198–204. 7960: 7923:(9): 415–423. 7907: 7857: 7808: 7757: 7716: 7669: 7648:(4): 191–201. 7624: 7597:(2): 179–209. 7581: 7538: 7508: 7505:on 2018-12-08. 7482:(5): 380–385. 7459: 7424: 7417: 7399: 7396:on 2008-10-31. 7365:(3): 145–151. 7342: 7315:(1): 167–202. 7299: 7262: 7236: 7209:(8): 453–459. 7193: 7167: 7141: 7134: 7109: 7090:(3): 271–296. 7074: 7025: 6976: 6947:(2): 175–182. 6927: 6878: 6843:Hum Brain Mapp 6829: 6770: 6720: 6691:(3): 283–286. 6671: 6664: 6641: 6634: 6613: 6606: 6588: 6581: 6563: 6534:(2): 388–392. 6512: 6505: 6487: 6452: 6445: 6423: 6416: 6396: 6369:(3): 191–198. 6353: 6278: 6271: 6251: 6222:(3): 614–618. 6202: 6164: 6149: 6114: 6107: 6081: 6024: 6017: 5995: 5968:(2): 263–308. 5952: 5925:(2): 124–157. 5909: 5870: 5843:(5): 250–257. 5824: 5817: 5799: 5772:(5): 535–552. 5756: 5702: 5681:(4): 743–756. 5658: 5629: 5623:. Wiley-Liss. 5598: 5571:(4): 550–570. 5551: 5496: 5443: 5373: 5323: 5276: 5232: 5199: 5175: 5128: 5093: 5066:(7): 364–370. 5047: 5004: 4953: 4932: 4897: 4866: 4859: 4839: 4826: 4806: 4799: 4773: 4732: 4689: 4640: 4633: 4615: 4608: 4588: 4545: 4538: 4520: 4465: 4458: 4434: 4427: 4405: 4380: 4331: 4282: 4233: 4182: 4127: 4068: 4039: 4032: 4010: 3989:(3): 111–125. 3966: 3959: 3941: 3914:(5): 279–327. 3908:Prog Neurobiol 3898: 3891: 3865: 3844:(1): 137–147. 3821: 3792:(5): 712–723. 3773: 3746:(4): 266–275. 3730: 3695: 3688: 3663: 3652:(3): 192–197. 3636: 3601: 3586: 3517: 3510: 3488: 3481: 3461: 3454: 3434: 3427: 3398: 3395:on 2014-07-14. 3341: 3284: 3277: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3229: 3224: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3211: 3195: 3192: 3158:archaeological 3153: 3150: 3125:Main article: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3058:Torsten Wiesel 3031:'s 1958 book, 3004: 2937:René Descartes 2918:, cerebellum, 2889: 2847:René Descartes 2832: 2829: 2728:immunostaining 2670:Brain Research 2662:Main article: 2659: 2656: 2655: 2654: 2646:Motor learning 2642: 2634: 2625: 2612: 2603:Working memory 2562: 2559: 2516: 2513: 2482:Claude Bernard 2461: 2458: 2446:norepinephrine 2380:Main article: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2370: 2364: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2342: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2312: 2309: 2303: 2302: 2299: 2296: 2290: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2169: 2166: 2107:proprioception 2091: 2088: 2072:James S. Albus 2063: 2060: 1987: 1984: 1935: 1932: 1916:Norepinephrine 1882:chlorpromazine 1837: 1834: 1824: 1821: 1760:myelencephalon 1736:prosencephalon 1722:to become the 1692:Main article: 1689: 1686: 1670:working memory 1633: 1632: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1599: 1593: 1592: 1589: 1583: 1582: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1569: 1563: 1562: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1535: 1532: 1480: 1477: 1355:make decisions 1343:nervous system 1311: 1303: 1298:Main article: 1295: 1292: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1152:olfactory bulb 1148: 1137: 1130: 1119:spatial memory 1103: 1084: 1072: 1061: 1053: 1045: 931:prosencephalon 869:), during the 847: 844: 843: 842: 820: 809:wiring diagram 800:model organism 798:chose it as a 796:Sydney Brenner 782: 690: 687: 619: 616: 611:Main article: 608: 605: 547:pyramidal cell 510: 507: 471:olfactory bulb 462: 459: 346:myelencephalon 231:special senses 219:nervous tissue 204:nervous system 190: 189: 180: 174: 173: 168: 162: 161: 156: 150: 149: 144: 138: 137: 132: 126: 125: 120: 114: 113: 108: 102: 101: 97: 96: 94:Nervous system 91: 87: 86: 82: 81: 75: 67: 66: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9570: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9540: 9538: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9503: 9501: 9497: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9475:Sensory nerve 9473: 9472: 9470: 9468: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9455: 9447: 9446:Limbic system 9444: 9440: 9437: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9424: 9423: 9420: 9419: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9406: 9403: 9401: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9392: 9391: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9364: 9360: 9353: 9348: 9346: 9341: 9339: 9334: 9333: 9330: 9323: 9319: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9307: 9303: 9300: 9297: 9294: 9293: 9280: 9276: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9245: 9237: 9231: 9227: 9226: 9218: 9210: 9206: 9201: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9161: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9118: 9111: 9104: 9096: 9092: 9088: 9084: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9065:(5415): 739. 9064: 9060: 9053: 9045: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9002: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8959: 8951: 8945: 8942:. MIT Press. 8941: 8934: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8898: 8891: 8883: 8877: 8873: 8866: 8858: 8852: 8848: 8843: 8842: 8833: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8798: 8791: 8784: 8776: 8770: 8766: 8765: 8757: 8749: 8743: 8739: 8732: 8730: 8728: 8719: 8713: 8709: 8705: 8704: 8696: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8660: 8653: 8645: 8639: 8635: 8628: 8620: 8614: 8610: 8606: 8605: 8597: 8589: 8585: 8584: 8575: 8567: 8561: 8557: 8550: 8548: 8546: 8531:. ScienceNews 8529: 8521: 8513: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8487: 8483: 8482: 8477: 8470: 8462: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8431: 8426: 8419: 8417: 8415: 8406: 8400: 8397:. MIT Press. 8396: 8389: 8381: 8375: 8372:. Macmillan. 8371: 8364: 8356: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8332: 8328: 8324: 8320: 8313: 8305: 8299: 8295: 8290: 8289: 8280: 8272: 8266: 8262: 8255: 8247: 8241: 8237: 8230: 8222: 8216: 8211: 8210: 8201: 8186: 8182: 8175: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8153: 8149: 8142: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8099: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8056: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8013: 8005: 8001: 7997: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7964: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7911: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7864: 7862: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7812: 7804: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7773: 7768: 7761: 7752: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7720: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7673: 7665: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7637: 7628: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7542: 7528:on 2011-11-17 7527: 7523: 7519: 7512: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7470: 7463: 7449:on 2011-11-17 7448: 7444: 7440: 7433: 7431: 7429: 7420: 7414: 7410: 7403: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7360: 7353: 7346: 7338: 7334: 7330: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7303: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7274: 7266: 7251: 7247: 7240: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7197: 7183:on 2011-11-17 7182: 7178: 7171: 7157:on 2011-10-08 7156: 7152: 7145: 7137: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7116: 7114: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7078: 7070: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7029: 7021: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6980: 6972: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6931: 6923: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6882: 6874: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6833: 6825: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6774: 6760:on 2020-08-17 6759: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6724: 6716: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6675: 6667: 6661: 6657: 6650: 6648: 6646: 6637: 6635:9780199828234 6631: 6627: 6620: 6618: 6609: 6603: 6599: 6592: 6584: 6578: 6574: 6567: 6559: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6516: 6508: 6502: 6498: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6456: 6448: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6427: 6419: 6413: 6409: 6408: 6400: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6357: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6289: 6282: 6274: 6268: 6264: 6263: 6255: 6247: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6206: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6171: 6169: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6146: 6141: 6140: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6110: 6104: 6100: 6095: 6094: 6085: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6035: 6028: 6020: 6014: 6009: 6008: 5999: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5899:on 2018-09-16 5895: 5891: 5884: 5877: 5875: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5831: 5829: 5820: 5814: 5810: 5803: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5760: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5709: 5707: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5665: 5663: 5654: 5648: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5630:0-471-21005-6 5626: 5622: 5621: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5500: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5439: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5330: 5328: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5212:IUCN Red List 5209: 5203: 5189: 5185: 5179: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5132: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5052: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5008: 5000: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4969: 4964: 4957: 4949: 4945: 4944: 4936: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4901: 4886:on 2017-11-18 4885: 4881: 4877: 4870: 4862: 4860:9780306418563 4856: 4852: 4851: 4843: 4829: 4827:9780444514905 4823: 4819: 4818: 4810: 4802: 4796: 4792: 4787: 4786: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4736: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4644: 4636: 4630: 4626: 4619: 4611: 4605: 4601: 4600: 4592: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4541: 4535: 4531: 4524: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4475:Haikouichthys 4469: 4461: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4438: 4430: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4395: 4391: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4347: 4342: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4286: 4278: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4237: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4072: 4058:on 1998-01-09 4057: 4053: 4051: 4043: 4035: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3971: 3962: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3902: 3894: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3878: 3869: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3826: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3780: 3778: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3699: 3691: 3685: 3681: 3680: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3605: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3583: 3579: 3578: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3484: 3478: 3474: 3473: 3465: 3457: 3451: 3447: 3446: 3438: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3415: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3345: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3288: 3280: 3274: 3270: 3269:Human anatomy 3263: 3259: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3233: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3214: 3209: 3198: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3159: 3149: 3143: 3139: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3127:Brain as food 3113: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3071: 3066: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3010: 3003: 2998: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2987:Andrew Huxley 2984: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2960:Camillo Golgi 2957: 2953: 2949: 2948:Luigi Galvani 2944: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2916:optic chiasma 2913: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2894: 2888: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2876: 2871: 2867: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2828: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2807: 2803: 2801: 2796: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2773: 2769: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2748:extracellular 2745: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2682: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2652: 2648: 2647: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2630: 2626: 2623: 2618: 2617: 2613: 2610: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2558: 2554: 2551: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2471: 2466: 2457: 2455: 2454:acetylcholine 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2428: 2421: 2419: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2307:Basal ganglia 2304: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2255: 2254: 2248: 2247:of the body. 2246: 2245:smooth muscle 2242: 2238: 2234: 2233:basal ganglia 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2181:motor neurons 2178: 2174: 2173:Motor systems 2168:Motor control 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2101: 2096: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2073: 2068: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1940: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1924:acetylcholine 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1833: 1831: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1802: 1801:dentate gyrus 1798: 1792: 1788: 1785: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756:metencephalon 1753: 1749: 1748:telencephalon 1745: 1741: 1740:mesencephalon 1738:(forebrain), 1737: 1733: 1729: 1728:neural groove 1725: 1721: 1717: 1712: 1710: 1700: 1695: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1584: 1580: 1578: 1577:Rhesus monkey 1575: 1574: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1541: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1517:neocerebellum 1514: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1485: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1369:bones of the 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1317:Brains of an 1315: 1308: 1301: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1229:embryological 1226: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1209: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1183: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1142: 1141:basal ganglia 1138: 1135: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1039: 1038: 1036: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1015: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 996:mesencephalon 993: 989: 988:telencephalon 985: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 962:Blood vessels 959: 955: 951: 948: 942: 940: 936: 935:mesencephalon 932: 928: 919: 914: 910: 907: 903: 899: 894: 892: 891:telencephalon 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 857: 852: 840: 836: 832: 828: 826: 822:The sea slug 821: 818: 814: 810: 805: 804:hermaphrodite 801: 797: 793: 789: 788: 783: 780: 775: 771: 767: 766:neurogenetics 764: 760: 756: 753:Fruit flies ( 752: 751: 750: 747: 745: 744:optical lobes 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 720: 718: 714: 710: 702: 701: 697:Fruit flies ( 695: 689:Invertebrates 686: 684: 680: 676: 671: 669: 665: 661: 656: 652: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 624: 614: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 585: 583: 578: 574: 570: 565: 563: 559: 555: 550: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 520: 515: 506: 504: 500: 496: 492: 486: 479: 476: 472: 467: 458: 456: 452: 451:brain disease 447: 442: 440: 436: 430: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 342:metencephalon 339: 335: 331: 330:mesencephalon 327: 323: 319: 318:telencephalon 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 278: 276: 273:activity and 272: 268: 267:motor control 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 227:cephalization 224: 220: 216: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 185: 179: 175: 172: 169: 167: 163: 160: 157: 155: 151: 148: 145: 143: 139: 136: 133: 131: 127: 124: 121: 119: 115: 112: 109: 107: 103: 98: 95: 92: 88: 83: 79: 73: 68: 63: 60: 56: 52: 48: 41: 37: 33: 19: 9490:Spinal nerve 9422:Diencephalon 9384: 9322:Ghostarchive 9309: 9254: 9250: 9244: 9224: 9217: 9174: 9170: 9160: 9149:the original 9120: 9116: 9103: 9062: 9058: 9052: 9015: 9011: 9001: 8968: 8964: 8958: 8939: 8933: 8903:(1): 16–25. 8900: 8896: 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Retrieved 6758:the original 6737: 6733: 6723: 6688: 6684: 6674: 6655: 6625: 6597: 6591: 6573:Pharmacology 6572: 6566: 6531: 6525: 6515: 6496: 6490: 6465: 6461: 6455: 6436: 6432: 6426: 6406: 6399: 6366: 6362: 6356: 6298: 6294: 6281: 6261: 6254: 6219: 6215: 6205: 6180: 6176: 6138: 6092: 6084: 6044: 6040: 6027: 6006: 5998: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5901:. Retrieved 5894:the original 5889: 5840: 5836: 5808: 5802: 5769: 5765: 5759: 5718: 5714: 5678: 5674: 5619: 5568: 5564: 5554: 5513: 5509: 5499: 5466: 5462: 5395: 5391: 5346:(1): 45–54. 5343: 5339: 5296:(2): 72–82. 5293: 5289: 5279: 5257:(2): 57–73. 5254: 5250: 5223:. Retrieved 5211: 5202: 5191:. Retrieved 5187: 5178: 5148:(1): 41–52. 5145: 5141: 5131: 5106: 5102: 5096: 5063: 5059: 5020:(2): 72–82. 5017: 5013: 5007: 4972: 4966: 4956: 4942: 4935: 4910: 4906: 4900: 4888:. Retrieved 4884:the original 4879: 4869: 4850:The Thalamus 4849: 4842: 4831:. Retrieved 4820:. Elsevier. 4816: 4809: 4784: 4776: 4749: 4745: 4735: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4657: 4653: 4643: 4624: 4618: 4598: 4591: 4558: 4554: 4548: 4529: 4523: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4468: 4444: 4437: 4418: 4414: 4408: 4397:. Retrieved 4393: 4383: 4350: 4344: 4341:Southgate, E 4334: 4299: 4291: 4285: 4253:(1): 71–94. 4250: 4246: 4236: 4199: 4195: 4185: 4144: 4140: 4130: 4085: 4081: 4071: 4060:. Retrieved 4056:the original 4049: 4042: 4023: 4013: 3986: 3982: 3950: 3944: 3911: 3907: 3901: 3876: 3868: 3841: 3837: 3789: 3785: 3743: 3739: 3733: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3678: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3614: 3610: 3604: 3576: 3501: 3491: 3471: 3464: 3444: 3437: 3414:Neurobiology 3413: 3390:the original 3364:(3): 38–45. 3361: 3357: 3344: 3301: 3297: 3287: 3268: 3262: 3237:Optogenetics 3169: 3165:Neanderthals 3155: 3147: 3135: 3110:neuroimaging 3091: 3083: 3074: 3067: 3050:optic tectum 3041: 3039: 3032: 3014: 3008: 3000: 2991:Bernard Katz 2983:Alan Hodgkin 2980: 2945: 2941:res cogitans 2940: 2932: 2925: 2911: 2892: 2885: 2873: 2863: 2852: 2825: 2810: 2804: 2799: 2793: 2778: 2740: 2731: 2721: 2686: 2664:Neuroscience 2644: 2636: 2633:information. 2627: 2614: 2601: 2596: 2564: 2555: 2546: 2505:hypothalamus 2502: 2474: 2470:hypothalamus 2435: 2425: 2422: 2415: 2403:optic nerves 2395: 2363:Frontal lobe 2350:Frontal lobe 2337:Frontal lobe 2324:Frontal lobe 2320:Motor cortex 2268:Ventral horn 2202: 2171: 2123: 2104: 2084: 2076: 2004: 1989: 1974:. During an 1948: 1912:raphe nuclei 1901: 1886: 1858:cannabinoids 1839: 1826: 1806: 1797:neurogenesis 1793: 1789: 1780: 1768: 1752:diencephalon 1724:neural plate 1713: 1705: 1651: 1636: 1521: 1510: 1501: 1486: 1482: 1452:vocalization 1402:white matter 1375: 1361:Like in all 1336: 1280: 1244: 1222: 1210: 1186: 1181: 1169: 1110: 1088:optic tectum 1069:zona incerta 1057:hypothalamus 1029: 1020: 998:(midbrain), 992:diencephalon 982: 943: 923: 895: 860: 823: 812: 808: 791: 785: 773: 762: 754: 748: 734:(octopuses, 721: 706: 698: 672: 629: 597:white matter 588: 586: 566: 551: 542: 538: 524: 499:white matter 487: 483: 455:brain damage 443: 431: 409: 366: 322:diencephalon 286:body segment 279: 263:intelligence 212:invertebrate 195: 193: 159:A14.1.03.001 122: 110: 59: 9508:Sympathetic 9480:Motor nerve 9432:Optic nerve 9380:Spinal cord 9311:In Our Time 9306:BBC Radio 4 9302:"The Brain" 7974:Hippocampus 7828:(1): 5–21. 7175:Dragoi, V. 7039:J Neurochem 6468:(1): 7–17. 5225:December 6, 5109:: 301–350. 4660:(1): 3–14. 4339:White, JG; 4196:J. Neurosci 3711:: 423–453. 3617:: 419–451. 3247:Aging brain 3180:immortality 3054:David Hubel 3021:cybernetics 2973:Drawing by 2956:Golgi stain 2897:Hippocrates 2486:homeostasis 2460:Homeostasis 2272:Spinal cord 2213:red nucleus 2056:amino acids 2036:fatty acids 2000:Glial cells 1972:gamma waves 1964:alpha waves 1960:delta waves 1772:growth cone 1732:neural tube 1688:Development 1540:Human brain 1406:grey matter 1382:hemispheres 1339:avian brain 1307:Avian brain 1300:Avian brain 1225:ontogenetic 1134:hippocampus 927:neural tube 863:vertebrates 846:Vertebrates 831:Eric Kandel 827:californica 770:clock genes 732:cephalopods 724:crustaceans 709:tardigrades 683:bilaterians 675:echinoderms 644:bilaterians 601:grey matter 535:glial cells 527:brain cells 495:grey matter 446:human brain 419:environment 350:spinal cord 310:centralized 306:neural tube 304:end of the 247:information 100:Identifiers 76:Brain of a 32:human brain 9537:Categories 9405:Cerebellum 8535:2021-01-23 8191:2021-01-23 7532:2011-10-11 7453:2011-10-11 7256:2021-01-23 7187:2011-10-10 7161:2011-10-10 7149:Dafny, N. 6990:J Neurosci 6892:J Neurosci 6764:2021-02-10 5903:2010-08-29 5193:2022-12-06 4890:22 January 4833:2021-01-22 4399:2014-01-18 4292:C. elegans 4062:2011-10-14 4050:drosophila 3254:References 3174:people of 3152:In rituals 3142:beef brain 3137:Gulai otak 2870:Democritus 2835:See also: 2724:anatomical 2717:philosophy 2697:psychiatry 2689:Psychology 2580:Terje Lømo 2515:Motivation 2498:thermostat 2386:See also: 2294:Cerebellum 2237:cerebellum 2209:swallowing 2162:integrated 2138:hair cells 2090:Perception 1986:Metabolism 1878:fluoxetine 1823:Physiology 1709:stem cells 1674:motivation 1641:and other 1601:1.13–2.36 1538:See also: 1438:cerebellum 1410:perception 1217:pit organs 1096:pit organs 1076:cerebellum 1033:See also: 1000:cerebellum 978:antibodies 898:brain size 861:The first 817:connectome 792:Drosophila 774:Drosophila 763:Drosophila 755:Drosophila 713:arthropods 700:Drosophila 655:Cryogenian 636:cnidarians 393:myelinated 377:cerebellum 208:vertebrate 142:NeuroNames 123:encephalon 78:chimpanzee 9500:Autonomic 9417:Forebrain 9390:Hindbrain 7925:CiteSeerX 7902:207493297 6311:CiteSeerX 5647:cite book 5639:489018202 5585:0021-9967 5538:0036-8075 5483:0036-8075 5420:0960-9822 5360:0006-8977 5310:0006-8977 5220:2307-8235 5162:0006-8977 3794:CiteSeerX 3318:0021-9967 2866:Aristotle 2693:neurology 2576:Tim Bliss 2539:. 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