800:
33:
532:
676:. He crossed hooded rats with the black-backed Irish type, and then back-crossed the offspring with pure hooded rats. The dark stripe on the back was bigger. He then tried selecting different groups for bigger or smaller stripes for 5 generations, and found that it was possible to change the characteristics way beyond the initial range of variation. This effectively refuted de Vries's claim that continuous variation could not be inherited permanently, requiring new mutations. By 1911 Castle noted that the results could be explained by Darwinian selection on heritable variation of Mendelian genes.
269:
689:
633:
their offspring, 12 giving 15:1, and 6 giving 3:1. There weren't any grains giving all white, but as he had only expected 1 of those in his sample, 0 was not an unlikely outcome. Genes could clearly combine in almost infinite combinations: ten of his factors allowed for almost 60,000 different forms, with no need to suppose that any new mutations were involved. The results implied that natural selection would work on
Mendelian genes, helping to bring about the unification of Darwinian evolution and genetics.
483:
1011:
synthesis and mutationism was one of several anti-Darwinian "blind alleys" separate from the main line leading from Darwin to the present. A revisionist view is that mutationists accepted both mutation and selection, with broadly the same roles they have today, and early on accepted and indeed offered a correct explanation for continuous variation based on multiple genes, paving the way for gradual evolution. At the time of the Darwin centennial in
Cambridge in 1909, mutationism and
5423:
842:
5433:
935:
interact with selection under conditions of small population size and when standing genetic variation is limited, entirely consistent with standard evolutionary theory." In contrast to
Svensson and Berger a 2023 review by Arlin Stoltzfus and colleagues concluded that there is strong empirical evidence and theoretical arguments that mutation bias has predictable effects on genetic changes fixed in adaptation.
179:
959:, as a controversy between the early geneticists—the "Mendelians"—including Bateson, Johannsen, de Vries, Morgan, and Punnett, who advocated Mendelism and mutation, and were understood as opponents of Darwin's original gradualist view, and the biometricians such as Pearson and Weldon, who opposed Mendelism and were more faithful to Darwin. In this version, little progress was made during the
995:. In this view, the early geneticists accepted natural selection alongside mutation, but rejected Darwin's non-Mendelian ideas about variation and heredity, and the synthesis began soon after 1900. The traditional claim that Mendelians rejected the idea of continuous variation outright is simply false; as early as 1902, Bateson and
349:
1010:
Historians have interpreted the history of mutationism in different ways.The classical view is that mutationism, opposed to Darwin's gradualism, was an obvious error; the decades-long delay in synthesizing genetics and
Darwinism is an "inexplicable embarrassment"; genetics led logically to the modern
890:
argues instead that the production of more efficient genotypes by mutation is fundamental for evolution, and that evolution is often mutation-limited. Nei's book received thoughtful reviews; while Wright rejected Nei's thinking as mistaken, Brookfield, Galtier, Weiss, Stoltzfus, and Wagner, although
514:
beans appeared to refute this mechanism. Using the true-breeding
Princess variety of bean, carefully inbred within weight classes, Johannsen's work appeared to support de Vries. The offspring had a smooth random distribution. Johanssen believed that his results showed that continuous variability was
652:" in 1918, again showing that continuous variation could readily be produced by multiple Mendelian genes. It showed, too, that Mendelian inheritance had no essential link with mutationism: Fisher stressed that small variations (per gene) would be sufficient for natural selection to drive evolution.
599:
analysed Mendel's theory and showed that given full dominance of one allele over another, a 3:1 ratio of alleles would be sustained indefinitely. This meant that the recessive allele could remain in the population with no need to invoke mutation. He also showed that given multiple factors, Mendel's
134:
as opponents of
Darwinian evolution and rivals of the biometrics school who argued that selection operated on continuous variation. In this portrayal, mutationism was defeated by a synthesis of genetics and natural selection that supposedly started later, around 1918, with work by the mathematician
764:
The understanding that
Mendelian genetics could both preserve discrete variations indefinitely, and support continuous variation for natural selection to work on gradually, meant that most biologists from around 1918 onwards accepted natural selection as the driving force of evolution. Mutationism
632:
respectively, implying two pairs of alleles (two
Mendelian factors); and that crossing a red-grained Swedish velvet wheat with a white one gave in the third (F3) generation the complex signature of ratios expected of three factors at once, with 37 grains giving only red offspring, 8 giving 63:1 in
2691:
Unlike neo-Darwinism, which regards mutation as merely raw material and natural selection as the creative power, Nei's mutationism assumes that the most fundamental process for adaptive evolution is the production of functionally more efficient genotypes by mutation (especially birth and death of
943:
Biologists at the start of the 20th century broadly agreed that evolution occurred, but felt that the mechanisms suggested by Darwin, including natural selection, would be ineffective. Large mutations looked likely to drive evolution quickly, and avoided the difficulty which had rightly worried
934:
who have argued that mutation bias is an entirely novel evolutionary principle. This viewpoint has been criticized by Erik
Svensson. A 2019 review by Svensson and David Berger concluded that "we find little support for mutation bias as an independent force in adaptive evolution, although it can
143:, and built up with theoretical and experimental work in Europe and America. Despite the controversy, the early mutationists had by 1918 already accepted natural selection and explained continuous variation as the result of multiple genes acting on the same characteristic, such as height.
341:, he stated directly that "The progress of evolution is not a smooth and uniform progression, but one that proceeds by jerks, through successive 'sports' (as they are called), some of them implying considerable organic changes; and each in its turn being favoured by Natural Selection".
944:
Darwin, namely that blending inheritance would average out any small favourable changes. Further, large saltatory mutation, able to create species in a single step, offered a ready explanation of why the fossil record should contain large discontinuities and times of rapid change.
474:. In the view of the historian of science Edward Larson, de Vries was the person largely responsible for transforming Victorian era saltationism into early 20th century mutation theory, "and in doing so pushed Darwinism near the verge of extinction as a viable scientific theory".
329:, considered Darwin's evidence for evolution, and came to an opposite conclusion about the type of variation on which natural selection must act. He carried out his own experiments and published a series of papers and books setting out his views. Already by 1869 when he published
231:
endorsed a theory of saltational evolution that "monstrosities could become the founding fathers (or mothers) of new species by instantaneous transition from one form to the next." Geoffroy wrote that environmental pressures could produce sudden transformations to establish new
982:
A more recent view, advocated by the historians Arlin
Stoltzfus and Kele Cable, is that Bateson, de Vries, Morgan and Punnett had by 1918 formed a synthesis of Mendelism and mutationism. The understanding achieved by these geneticists spanned the action of natural selection on
885:
Contemporary biologists accept that mutation and selection both play roles in evolution; the mainstream view is that while mutation supplies material for selection in the form of variation, all non-random outcomes are caused by natural selection.
919:. Futuyma concludes, following other biologists reviewing the field such as K.Sterelny and A. Minelli, that essentially all the claims of evolution driven by large mutations could be explained within the Darwinian evolutionary synthesis.
69:. In the theory, mutation was the source of novelty, creating new forms and new species, potentially instantaneously, in sudden jumps. This was envisaged as driving evolution, which was thought to be limited by the supply of mutations.
911:. Gould's macromutation theory gave a nod to his predecessor with an envisaged "Goldschmidt break" between evolution within a species and speciation. His advocacy of Goldschmidt was attacked with "highly unflattering comments" by
344:
From 1860 to 1880 saltation had been a minority viewpoint, to the extent that Galton felt his writings were being universally ignored. By 1890 it became a widely held theory, and his views helped to launch a major controversy.
600:
theory enabled continuous variation, as indeed Mendel had suggested, removing the central plank of the mutationist theory, and criticised Bateson's confrontational approach. However, the "excellent" paper did not prevent the
715:
showed that these animals had many small Mendelian factors on which Darwinian evolution could work as if variation was fully continuous. The way was open for geneticists to conclude that Mendelism supported Darwinism.
860:
argued for single-step speciation by macromutation, describing the organisms thus produced as "hopeful monsters". Goldschmidt's thesis was universally rejected and widely ridiculed by biologists, who favoured the
620:(Observations on Crosses in Oats and Wheat), that continuous variation could readily be produced by multiple Mendelian genes. He found numerous Mendelian 3:1 ratios, implying a dominant and a recessive allele, in
432:". By this, de Vries meant that a new form of the plant was created in a single step (not the same as a mutation in the modern sense); no long period of natural selection was required for speciation, and nor was
963:, and the debate between mutationist geneticists such as de Vries and biometricians such as Pearson ended with the victory of the modern synthesis between about 1918 and 1950. According to this account, the new
795:
to argue that natural selection had limitations which set a direction for evolution. He claimed that speciation was caused by "mass transformation of a great number of individuals" by directed mass mutations.
264:
acts solely by accumulating slight successive favourable variations, it can produce no great or sudden modification; it can act only by very short steps". Darwin continued in this belief throughout his life.
649:
3085:
428:
showed that distinct new forms could arise suddenly in nature, apparently at random, and could be propagated for many generations without dissipation or blending. He gave such changes the name "
375:
marked the arrival of mutationist thinking, before the rediscovery of Mendel's laws. He examined discontinuous variation (implying a form of saltation) where it occurred naturally, following
752:
In 1927, Fisher explicitly attacked Punnett's 1915 theory of discontinuous evolution of mimicry. Fisher argued that selection acting on genes making small modifications to the butterfly's
2448:
Kutschera, U.; Niklas, K. J. (2008). "Macroevolution via secondary endosymbiosis: a Neo-Goldschmidtian view of unicellular hopeful monsters and Darwin's primordial intermediate form".
415:
The main principle of the mutation theory is that species and varieties have originated by mutation, but are, at present, not known to have originated in any other way. — Hugo de Vries
2197:
158:; mutation took its place as a source of the genetic variation essential for natural selection to work on. However, mutationism did not entirely vanish. In 1940,
5155:
799:
3732:
3312:
Minelli, A. (2010) "Evolutionary developmental biology does not offer a significant challenge to the neo-Darwinian paradigm". In: Ayala, F. J.; Arp, R. (eds)
162:
again argued for single-step speciation by macromutation, describing the organisms thus produced as "hopeful monsters", earning widespread ridicule. In 1987,
3327:
3104:
1830:
504:, to be able to work on a continuously varying characteristic, whereas de Vries argued that selection on such characteristics would be ineffective.
3514:
1308:
979:, was essentially abandoned. This view became dominant in the second half of the 20th century, and was accepted by both biologists and historians.
84:
argued that species could be formed by sudden transformations, or what would later be called macromutation. Darwin opposed saltation, insisting on
515:
not inherited, so evolution must rely on discontinuous mutations, as de Vries had argued. Johanssen published his work in Danish in a 1903 paper
56:
4904:
4204:
923:'s claim that molecular genetics undermines Darwinism has been described as mutationism and an extreme view by the zoologist Andy Gardner.
1007:
combinations might, on seriation, give so near an approach to a continuous curve, that the purity of the elements would be unsuspected".
337:
he argued that natural selection would benefit from accepting that the steps need not, as Darwin had stated, be minute. In his 1892 book
3385:"The Structure of Evolutionary Theory: Beyond Neo-Darwinism, Neo-Lamarckism and Biased Historical Narratives About the Modern Synthesis"
2891:
McCandlish, David M. & Stoltzfus, Arlin (2014). "Modeling Evolution Using the Probability of Fixation: History and Implications".
582:). The alleles of these genes were certainly discontinuous, so Punnett supposed that they must have evolved in discontinuous leaps.
5467:
5408:
4863:
829:
proposed that species were formed by large mutations, not gradual evolution by natural selection, and that evolution was driven by
1817:
493:
In the early 1900s, Darwin's mechanism of natural selection was understood by believers in continuous variation, principally the
4214:
5171:
4931:
4091:
4064:
3996:
3965:
3939:
3404:
3168:
2727:
1251:
1182:
1137:
574:
different host species of butterfly, demonstrated discontinuous evolution in action. The different forms existed in a stable
1760:
Richmond, M. L. (2006). "The 1909 Darwin celebration. Reexamining evolution in the light of Mendel, mutation, and meiosis".
4528:
2558:"Microarray analysis of a salamander hopeful monster reveals transcriptional signatures of paedomorphic brain development"
5254:
4174:
644:
in 1910 showed the same thing for biologists without access to Nilsson-Ehle's work. On the same theme, the mathematician
130:
Understanding of mutationism is clouded by the mid-20th century portrayal of the early mutationists by supporters of the
32:
4916:
4576:
3833:
3641:
3098:
2873:
2749:
2494:
2271:
1426:
1369:
874:
1941:
4029:
260:
denied saltational evolution. He argued that evolutionary transformation always proceeds gradually, never in jumps: "
170:
conclude that essentially all claims of evolution driven by large mutations can be explained by Darwinian evolution.
4983:
3740:
2324:(1923). "The Origin of Species by Large, rather than by Gradual, Change, and by Guppy's Method of Differentiation".
228:
220:
was a gradualist but similar to other scientists of the period had written that saltational evolution was possible.
182:
81:
4988:
4586:
5233:
5223:
5147:
4422:
3366:
1034:
948:
931:
155:
131:
531:
5361:
5228:
5008:
4752:
4550:
4454:
4343:
1442:
Levit, Georgy S.; Meister, Kay; Hoßfeld, Uwe (2008). "Alternative evolutionary theories: A historical survey".
992:
988:
103:
gave the name "mutation" to seemingly new forms that suddenly arose in his experiments on the evening primrose
5472:
5426:
5013:
4757:
4496:
1827:
601:
17:
4958:
3980:
Materials for the Study of Variation: Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species
1891:
1483:
Materials for the Study of Variation, Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species
373:
Materials for the Study of Variation, Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species
139:. However, the alignment of Mendelian genetics and natural selection began as early as 1902 with a paper by
5477:
5366:
4868:
991:, the evolution of continuously-varying traits (like height), and the probability that a new mutation will
903:
notes that since 1970, two very different alternatives to Darwinian gradualism have been proposed, both by
5436:
5030:
3673:
3462:
1593:
1305:
999:
wrote that "If there were even so few as, say, four or five pairs of possible allelomorphs, the various
744:
crossovers accounted for the sudden appearance of traits which had been present in the genes all along.
5132:
4306:
5462:
4926:
4723:
4533:
4301:
4194:
3978:
2556:
Page, Robert B.; Boley, Meredith A.; Smith, Jeramiah J.; Putta, Srikrishna; Voss, Stephen R. (2010).
2423:
1481:
1329:
1016:
968:
607:
409:
384:
4145:
3134:
1361:
1355:
444:
large-scale genetic changes capable of producing a new subspecies, or even species, instantaneously.
5349:
5213:
5185:
5160:
5117:
5020:
4953:
4828:
4701:
4669:
4642:
4632:
1039:
1021:
967:
of the 1940s demonstrated the explanatory power of natural selection, while mutationism, alongside
252:
65:
4833:
3420:
Svensson, Erik I.; Berger, David (1 May 2019). "The Role of Mutation Bias in Adaptive Evolution".
1682:
1208:
1100:
Mendelian inheritance, with discrete alleles, solves Darwin's problem, as blending does not occur.
5354:
5284:
5193:
4921:
4803:
4571:
4167:
3384:
2321:
1553:
1502:"Evolution by Jumps: Francis Galton and William Bateson and the Mechanism of Evolutionary Change"
1283:
976:
826:
803:
697:
297:) who believed that major leaps and cataclysms played a significant role in the history of life.
289:
728:
De Vries's mutationism was dealt a serious if not fatal blow in 1918 by the American geneticist
719:
489:'s "pure line" experiments seemed to show that evolution could not work on continuous variation.
5393:
5042:
4911:
4873:
4774:
4745:
4718:
4713:
4311:
3728:
1198:
996:
740:, showing that they could work the same way. No actual mutations were involved, but infrequent
575:
545:
433:
45:
4899:
3825:
2424:"Homeosis of the angiosperm flower: Studies on three candidate cases of saltational evolution"
2122:"Genetic Variability, Twin Hybrids and Constant Hybrids, in a Case of Balanced Lethal Factors"
1563:
1418:
1411:
1243:
1087:
The changes in the evening primrose were later shown to be caused by chromosome duplications (
306:
93:
44:, the plant which had apparently produced new forms by large mutations in his experiments, by
5334:
5208:
5127:
5122:
5107:
5092:
5082:
4998:
4973:
4808:
4764:
4728:
4696:
4637:
4615:
4596:
4459:
4412:
4363:
4358:
4316:
3508:
3391:. Evolutionary Biology – New Perspectives on Its Development. Vol. 6. pp. 173–217.
2258:
908:
776:
proposed a combination of mutationism and directed (orthogenetic) evolution in his 1922 book
729:
424:
268:
217:
105:
3928:
1235:
185:
believed that "monstrosities" could immediately found new species in a single large jump or
166:
argued controversially that evolution was often mutation-limited. Modern biologists such as
5457:
5308:
5203:
5137:
4938:
4853:
4769:
4681:
4664:
4591:
4581:
4291:
4199:
4183:
2775:
2291:
960:
376:
4943:
4813:
3913:
Generating and Filtering Major Phenotypic Novelties, NeoGoldschmidtian Saltation Revisited
765:
and other alternatives to evolution by natural selection did not however vanish entirely.
8:
5371:
5329:
5279:
5198:
5046:
5038:
4968:
4948:
4894:
4738:
4491:
4434:
4296:
4279:
4257:
1301:
964:
899:
Reviewing the history of macroevolutionary theories, the American evolutionary biologist
891:
not necessarily agreeing with Nei's position, treated it as a relevant alternative view.
857:
808:
The Course of Evolution by Differentiation Or Divergent Mutation Rather Than by Selection
613:
380:
284:
245:
186:
159:
85:
4649:
3491:
3464:
2779:
1202:
5344:
5296:
5289:
4886:
4798:
4659:
4620:
4444:
4388:
4378:
4338:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4160:
4133:
4121:
4053:
3954:
3900:
3706:
3611:
3445:
3358:
3295:
3287:
3252:
3244:
3209:
3201:
3122:
3081:
3061:
3036:
2916:
2844:
2819:
2798:
2763:
2677:
2652:
2636:
2611:
2584:
2557:
2501:
2473:
2337:
2146:
2121:
2051:
2000:
1992:
1910:
1785:
1742:
1648:
1640:
1526:
1459:
912:
900:
712:
692:
688:
637:
510:
167:
120:
1357:
Evolution and the Genetics of Populations: Genetics and Biometric Foundations Volume 1
272:
Rudolph Albert von Kölliker revived Geoffroy's saltationist ideas, calling his theory
5482:
5432:
5386:
5112:
5060:
4838:
4654:
4555:
4518:
4513:
4469:
4464:
4417:
4383:
4125:
4113:
4105:
4097:
4087:
4060:
4025:
3992:
3961:
3935:
3883:
Allen, Garland E. (1968). "Thomas Hunt Morgan and the problem of natural selection".
3863:
3829:
3816:
3784:
3698:
3637:
3634:
What Makes Biology Unique?: Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline
3603:
3599:
3496:
3449:
3437:
3400:
3350:
3346:
3256:
3213:
3164:
3148:
3094:
2957:
2908:
2869:
2849:
2803:
2745:
2723:
2682:
2589:
2538:
2465:
2267:
2254:
2151:
2055:
1871:
1777:
1746:
1604:
1557:
1531:
1463:
1422:
1365:
1325:
1247:
1236:
1178:
1133:
1019:; 50 years later, at the 1959 University of Chicago centennial of the publication of
904:
756:(its appearance) would allow the multiple forms of a polymorphism to be established.
661:
505:
486:
261:
89:
3904:
3710:
3615:
3362:
3299:
2920:
2477:
2004:
1789:
1652:
309:
revived Geoffroy's theory that evolution proceeds by large steps, under the name of
4978:
4545:
4523:
4331:
4079:
4015:
4008:
Darwinism's Struggle for Survival: Heredity and the Hypothesis of Natural Selection
3892:
3774:
3688:
3595:
3486:
3476:
3429:
3392:
3342:
3279:
3236:
3193:
3156:
3056:
3048:
3015:
2984:
2947:
2900:
2839:
2831:
2793:
2783:
2715:
2672:
2664:
2631:
2623:
2579:
2569:
2528:
2457:
2392:
2360:
2333:
2303:
2233:
2141:
2133:
2043:
1984:
1905:
1867:
1769:
1734:
1632:
1521:
1513:
1451:
920:
866:
557:
541:
357:
124:
4823:
4078:. Vol. 25. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 1–65.
1517:
1501:
608:
Nilsson-Ehle's experiments on Mendelian inheritance and continuous variation, 1908
595:
The undermining of mutationism began almost at once, in 1902, as the statistician
5339:
4963:
4790:
4779:
4733:
4676:
4625:
4405:
4209:
4019:
3974:
3949:
3923:
3724:
3463:
Cano AV, Gitschlag BL, Rozhoňová H, Stoltzfus A, McCandlish DM, Payne JL (2023).
3396:
2307:
1896:
1847:
1834:
1477:
1312:
1170:
1125:
566:
552:
showed that this could have arisen by small changes in additional modifier genes.
536:
437:
368:
353:
116:
3160:
109:. In the first decade of the 20th century, mutationism, or as de Vries named it
5179:
5051:
4993:
4353:
4348:
4286:
4264:
3433:
3052:
2988:
2668:
2137:
2032:"The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance"
1279:
916:
326:
257:
205:
60:
3779:
3762:
3693:
3389:
Evolutionary Biology: Contemporary and Historical Reflections Upon Core Theory
3240:
3197:
2719:
2461:
2047:
1455:
1204:
From the Greeks to Darwin: An outline of the development of the evolution idea
590:
482:
293:
so unreservedly." Huxley feared this assumption could discourage naturalists (
5451:
5381:
5259:
5218:
5064:
4818:
4486:
4481:
2861:
2815:
2759:
2737:
2714:. Lecture Notes in Biomathematics. Vol. 53. Springer. pp. 214–241.
2707:
2574:
2490:
2221:
1678:
1616:
1589:
1549:
1351:
1059:
952:
927:
887:
870:
862:
845:
650:
The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance
645:
549:
497:
419:
405:
310:
294:
273:
163:
136:
115:, became a rival to Darwinism supported for a while by geneticists including
100:
37:
4109:
3020:
3003:
2835:
2788:
5376:
5324:
5269:
5102:
5097:
4691:
4449:
4117:
4048:
3788:
3702:
3607:
3500:
3481:
3441:
3354:
2961:
2912:
2853:
2807:
2686:
2593:
2542:
2469:
2155:
1781:
1535:
1071:
1004:
972:
830:
820:
784:
616:
demonstrated in 1908, in a paper published in German in a Swedish journal,
501:
494:
453:
314:
277:
209:
199:
151:
73:
947:
These discoveries were often framed by supporters of the mid-20th century
873:. However, interest in Goldschmidt's ideas has reawakened in the field of
287:
warned Darwin that he had taken on "an unnecessary difficulty in adopting
5403:
5003:
4538:
4368:
4274:
4232:
2627:
778:
4843:
2710:(1984). "Genetic Polymorphism and Neomutationism". In G. S. Mani (ed.).
1559:
Age and Area. A Study in Geographical Distribution and Origin of Species
519:(On inheritance in populations and in pure lines), and in his 1905 book
456:
that Hugo de Vries had mistakenly interpreted for the evening primrose,
5264:
5165:
5087:
5074:
4708:
4508:
4395:
4373:
4326:
4321:
4269:
4237:
4152:
4083:
3896:
3629:
3248:
3205:
1996:
1973:"A Mendelian Interpretation of Variation that is Apparently Continuous"
1738:
1725:
Roll-Hansen, N. (1989). "The crucial experiment of Wilhelm Johannsen".
1644:
1088:
1012:
1000:
956:
841:
833:, which he called "differentiation", rather than by natural selection.
741:
707:
213:
147:
97:
77:
3583:
3291:
2952:
2935:
2396:
1058:
The term mutation was not used in biology until the 20th century, but
664:
carried out a long study of the effect of selection on coat colour in
655:
477:
470:(mutation theory) on the creative nature of mutation in his 1905 book
348:
5398:
5249:
4858:
4476:
4224:
4076:
Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology
1892:"Mendel's Laws and their probable relations to inter-racial heredity"
1887:
753:
679:
673:
596:
458:
140:
41:
4041:
The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics, with a new afterword
2533:
2516:
2031:
1972:
1620:
701:
found many small Mendelian factors for natural selection to work on.
540:
has 3 forms with differing wing patterns, here the "Romulus" morph.
448:
The historian of science Betty Smocovitis described mutationism as:
156:
Mendelian genetics and natural selection could readily work together
5301:
4503:
3283:
2904:
2383:
Stoltzfus, Arlin (2014). "In search of mutation-driven evolution".
2364:
2287:
2237:
2198:"'Evolution on Rails' : Mechanisms and Levels of Orthogenesis"
1988:
1773:
1636:
1075:
773:
429:
76:, the possibility of large evolutionary jumps, including immediate
3545:
4686:
4400:
1814:
Johannsen, W. (1903) "Om arvelighed i samfund og i rene linier".
788:
669:
628:; a 15:1 ratio for a cross of oat varieties with black and white
571:
422:'s careful 1901 studies of wild variants of the evening primrose
313:, but this time assuming the influence of a nonmaterial force to
233:
4101:
395:
3817:"Darwinism as an historical entity: A historiographic proposal"
3795:
3270:
Sterelny, K. (2000). "Development, evolution, and adaptation".
2351:
Beal, J. M. (1941). "The Course of Evolution by J. C. Willis".
984:
792:
3328:"Darwinism, not mutationism, explains the design of organisms"
3151:(1987). "Is a New and General Theory of Evolution Emerging?".
239:
4607:
4055:
Monad to Man: the Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology
3763:"Mendelian-Mutationism: The Forgotten Evolutionary Synthesis"
3674:"Mendelian-Mutationism: The Forgotten Evolutionary Synthesis"
3655:
3653:
2260:
The uses of heresy; an introduction to Richard Goldschmidt's
747:
641:
629:
625:
178:
146:
Mutationism, along with other alternatives to Darwinism like
27:
One of several alternatives to evolution by natural selection
3865:
Evolution After Darwin: The University of Chicago Centennial
3562:
3560:
2936:"Mutationism 2.0: Viewing Evolution through Mutation's Lens"
154:, was discarded by most biologists as they came to see that
3584:"Mutationism and the Dual Causation of Evolutionary Change"
2224:(1942). "The Course of Evolution by J. C. Willis. Review".
1923:
1921:
1570:
621:
591:
Yule's analysis of Mendelism and continuous variation, 1902
579:
59:
that have existed both before and after the publication of
3650:
2162:
2089:
2077:
2011:
1952:
1153:
1151:
1149:
363:
333:, he believed in evolution by saltation. In his 1889 book
3842:
3557:
2174:
1796:
1703:
665:
173:
4021:
Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory
3915:. In Cronk, Q. C. B.; Bateman R. M.; Hawkins J. A. eds.
3184:
Charlesworth, B. (1982). "Hopeful monsters cannot fly".
2101:
1918:
1413:
The Simian Tongue: The Long Debate about Animal Language
880:
2403:
2378:
2376:
2374:
1942:"Einige Ergebnisse von Kreuzungen bei Hafer und Weizen"
1146:
836:
3087:
Can Modern Evolutionary Theory Explain Macroevolution?
2975:
Brookfield, J. N. Y. (2014). "How Evolution Happens".
1062:
and saltation are essentially equivalent descriptions.
3533:
3521:
1944:[Observations on Crosses in Oats and Wheat].
1691:
1659:
618:
Einige Ergebnisse von Kreuzungen bei Hafer und Weizen
300:
3960:(Revised ed.). University of California Press.
3860:
3754:
3733:"Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity"
2820:"Selectionism and Neutralism in Molecular Evolution"
2371:
1260:
320:
3911:Bateman, Richard M.; DiMichele, William A. (2002).
3717:
3465:"Mutation bias and the predictability of evolution"
2890:
2555:
2441:
1720:
1718:
1552:(1922). "Age and Area and the Mutation Theory". In
1441:
1215:
732:. He compared the behaviour of balanced lethals in
656:
Castle's selection experiments on hooded rats, 1911
4052:
3953:
3927:
3862:
3815:
2067:
2065:
1410:
1025:, mutationism was no longer seriously considered.
3737:Royal Society. Reports to the Evolution Committee
3577:
3575:
2764:"The new mutation theory of phenotypic evolution"
585:
390:
193:
5449:
3934:(New ed.). University of California Press.
1824:Erblichkeit in Populationen und in reinen Linien
1715:
1582:
1435:
1233:
848:argues that evolution is often mutation-limited.
814:
705:By 1912, after years of work on the genetics of
276:. It depended on a nonmaterial directive force (
5055:
3723:
3227:Templeton, A. (1982). "Why read Goldschmidt?".
2968:
2653:"Molecular Clock: An Anti-neo-Darwinian Legacy"
2447:
2205:Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology
2062:
1684:Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation
1234:Hallgrímsson, Benedikt; Hall, Brian K. (2011).
1120:
1118:
1116:
548:demonstrated discontinuous evolution. However,
472:Species and Varieties: their Origin by Mutation
72:Before Darwin, biologists commonly believed in
3760:
3671:
3572:
3419:
2605:
2603:
2292:"Nomogenesis; or, Evolution Determined by Law"
2036:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
1495:
1493:
57:alternatives to evolution by natural selection
4168:
3314:Contemporary debates in philosophy of biology
2549:
2266:. Yale University Press. pp. xiii–xlii.
1753:
1687:. The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago.
1588:
759:
3513:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3335:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology
3183:
2995:
2612:"The Changing Face of Evolutionary Thinking"
2249:
2247:
1939:
1113:
672:or hooded pattern was recessive to the grey
2927:
2600:
2517:"Evolution: Revenge of the hopeful monster"
2508:
2195:
1724:
1671:
1490:
1470:
768:
564:that the 3 morphs (forms) of the butterfly
240:Darwin's anti-saltationist gradualism, 1859
4175:
4161:
4073:
3919:. London: Taylor and Francis. pp. 109–159.
3917:Developmental Genetics and Plant Evolution
3659:
3084:(2015). Serrelli, E.; Gontier, N. (eds.).
3076:
3074:
3072:
3028:
2974:
2712:Evolutionary Dynamics of Genetic Diversity
2196:Levit, Georgy S.; Olsson, Lennart (2006).
1822:, vol. 3: 247–270 (in Danish). German ed.
1157:
1015:were contrasted with natural selection as
930:are cited by mutationism advocates of the
894:
748:Fisher's explanation of polymorphism, 1927
526:
436:. In the view of the historian of science
212:, believing that species evolved and that
3807:
3778:
3692:
3665:
3581:
3490:
3480:
3226:
3141:
3060:
3019:
2951:
2843:
2797:
2787:
2676:
2635:
2583:
2573:
2532:
2382:
2244:
2145:
1909:
1845:
1525:
478:Johannsen's "pure line" experiments, 1903
5409:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
4182:
3986:
3382:
3269:
2650:
2421:
2216:
2214:
2191:
2189:
1818:Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs
1759:
1677:
1615:
1576:
1548:
840:
798:
720:Muller's balanced lethal explanation of
687:
530:
517:Om arvelighed i samfund og i rene linier
481:
466:De Vries set out his position, known as
347:
267:
177:
31:
4043:. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
4038:
3869:. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
3824:. Princeton University Press. pp.
3566:
3325:
3080:
3069:
3001:
2692:duplicated genes) and by recombination.
2514:
2168:
2095:
2083:
2071:
2017:
1958:
1927:
1866:
1709:
1499:
1476:
1417:. University Of Chicago Press. p.
1396:
1384:
1360:. University of Chicago Press. p.
1318:
1238:Variation: A Central Concept in Biology
1169:
364:Bateson's discontinuous variation, 1894
96:revived Geoffroy's theory. In 1901 the
14:
5450:
4014:
3948:
3922:
3848:
3672:Stoltzfus, Arlin; Cable, Kele (2014).
3551:
3539:
3527:
3041:The American Journal of Human Genetics
2933:
2609:
2320:
2180:
2119:
2029:
1802:
1697:
1665:
1621:"Oenothera rubrinervis; A Half Mutant"
1562:. Cambridge University Press. p.
1500:Gillham, Nicholas W. (December 2001).
1408:
1350:
1278:
1266:
1221:
1197:
1124:
736:with De Vries's supposed mutations in
174:Developments leading up to mutationism
5172:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
4156:
4005:
3882:
3861:Tax, S.; Callender, C., eds. (1960).
3854:
3801:
3147:
3034:
2496:The Monster Is Back, and It's Hopeful
2253:
2220:
2211:
2186:
2107:
1324:
881:Nei's mutation-driven evolution, 1987
223:In 1822, in the second volume of his
4074:Smocovitis, Vassiliki Betty (1996).
4047:
3813:
3628:
2703:Nei's works on this topic include:
2409:
2350:
2286:
1970:
1886:
837:Goldschmidt's hopeful monsters, 1940
2860:
2814:
2758:
2736:
2706:
987:(alternative forms of a gene), the
578:controlled by 2 Mendelian factors (
24:
4577:Evolutionary developmental biology
3469:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
2338:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a089870
1911:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1902.tb07336.x
1595:Die mutationstheorie. Vol I and II
875:evolutionary developmental biology
680:Morgan's small Mendelian genes in
301:von Kölliker's heterogenesis, 1864
25:
5494:
3989:A Guinea Pig's History of Biology
3885:Journal of the History of Biology
3767:Journal of the History of Biology
3761:Stoltzfus, A.; Cable, K. (2014).
3681:Journal of the History of Biology
3422:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2977:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
938:
781:; or, Evolution Determined by Law
440:, De Vries used the term to mean
5431:
5422:
5421:
3956:Evolution:The History of an Idea
3930:Evolution:The History of an Idea
3600:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2006.00101.x
3347:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2012.08.012
2610:Wagner, G. P. (1 January 2013).
1330:"The Return of Hopeful Monsters"
602:Mendelians and the biometricians
5468:Extended evolutionary synthesis
5234:Extended evolutionary synthesis
4423:Gene-centered view of evolution
3622:
3456:
3413:
3376:
3319:
3316:. Wiley, Chichester, pp 213–226
3306:
3263:
3220:
3177:
2884:
2824:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2742:Molecular Evolutionary Genetics
2697:
2644:
2484:
2415:
2344:
2314:
2302:(3880). M.I.T. Press: 684–685.
2280:
2262:The Material Basis of Evolution
2120:Muller, Hermann Joseph (1918).
2113:
2023:
1964:
1933:
1880:
1860:
1839:
1808:
1609:
1542:
1402:
1390:
1378:
1344:
1295:
1094:
1081:
1065:
1035:History of evolutionary thought
932:extended evolutionary synthesis
854:The Material Basis of Evolution
5362:Hologenome theory of evolution
5229:History of molecular evolution
4455:Evolutionarily stable strategy
4344:Last universal common ancestor
3636:. Cambridge University Press.
1272:
1227:
1191:
1163:
1052:
969:other non-Darwinian approaches
586:The undermining of mutationism
508:'s "pure line" experiments on
391:Early 20th century mutationism
315:direct the course of evolution
229:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
194:Geoffroy's monstrosities, 1822
183:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
82:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
13:
1:
5156:Renaissance and Enlightenment
4010:. Cambridge University Press.
2744:. Columbia University Press.
1876:. Cambridge University Press.
1826:(1903) Gustav Fischer, Jena.
1107:
815:Willis's macromutations, 1923
5367:Missing heritability problem
4994:Gamete differentiation/sexes
4059:. Harvard University Press.
3991:. Harvard University Press.
3554:, pp. 127–129, 157–167.
3397:10.1007/978-3-031-22028-9_11
3093:. Springer. pp. 29–85.
2616:Genome Biology and Evolution
2308:10.1126/science.164.3880.684
1091:) rather than gene mutation.
523:(The Elements of Heredity).
216:took place in sudden jumps.
7:
3161:10.1007/978-1-4613-0883-6_7
3037:"Mutation-Driven Evolution"
3004:"Mutation-Driven Evolution"
2893:Quarterly Review of Biology
2868:. Oxford University Press.
2385:Evolution & Development
1849:Arvelighedslærens elementer
1518:10.1093/genetics/159.4.1383
1028:
636:Similar work in America by
521:Arvelighedslærens Elementer
90:geology's uniformitarianism
10:
5499:
4999:Life cycles/nuclear phases
4551:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
3876:
3804:, pp. 289 and passim.
3434:10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.015
3383:Svensson, Erik I. (2023).
3053:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.11.001
3035:Weiss, Kenneth M. (2013).
2989:10.1016/j.tree.2013.12.005
2669:10.1534/genetics.104.75135
2422:Theissen, Guenter (2010).
2030:Fisher, Ronald A. (1918).
1242:. Academic Press. p.
1132:. JHU Press. p. 198.
989:Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
818:
760:Later mutationist theories
403:
243:
197:
40:, making a painting of an
5417:
5317:
5242:
5146:
5073:
5029:
4884:
4788:
4605:
4564:
4497:Parent–offspring conflict
4433:
4302:Earliest known life forms
4223:
4190:
3780:10.1007/s10739-014-9383-2
3694:10.1007/s10739-014-9383-2
3582:Stoltzfus, Arlin (2006).
3241:10.1017/s0094837300007235
3198:10.1017/s0094837300007223
2866:Mutation-Driven Evolution
2720:10.1007/978-3-642-51588-0
2462:10.1007/s12064-008-0046-8
2048:10.1017/s0080456800012163
1940:Nilsson-Ehle, H. (1908).
1846:Johannsen, W. L. (1905).
1602:]. Von Veit, Leipzig.
1456:10.1007/s10818-008-9032-y
1306:Letter to Charles Darwin.
410:Alternatives to Darwinism
385:St. George Jackson Mivart
356:, 1909, by the biologist
5350:Cultural group selection
5214:The eclipse of Darwinism
5186:On the Origin of Species
5161:Transmutation of species
2575:10.1186/1471-2148-10-199
2562:BMC Evolutionary Biology
2515:Chouard, Tanguy (2010).
2138:10.1093/genetics/3.5.422
1854:The elements of heredity
1409:Radick, Gregory (2008).
1285:On the Origin of Species
1177:. Penguin. p. 195.
1130:The Eclipse of Darwinism
1045:
1040:Rapid modes of evolution
1022:On the Origin of Species
865:explanations of Fisher,
856:, the German geneticist
783:. He used evidence from
769:Berg's nomogenesis, 1922
253:On the Origin of Species
208:, most naturalists were
66:On the Origin of Species
5355:Dual inheritance theory
5194:History of paleontology
4039:Provine, W. B. (2001).
3153:Self-Organizing Systems
2789:10.1073/pnas.0703349104
2226:The American Naturalist
1444:Journal of Bioeconomics
1199:Osborn, Henry Fairfield
895:Contemporary approaches
827:John Christopher Willis
804:John Christopher Willis
698:Drosophila melanogaster
612:The Swedish geneticist
527:Punnett's mimicry, 1915
396:De Vries and Mendelian
321:Galton's "sports", 1892
290:Natura non facit saltum
80:. For example, in 1822
5043:Punctuated equilibrium
4364:Non-adaptive radiation
4312:Evolutionary arms race
3987:Endersby, Jim (2007).
3822:The Darwinian Heritage
3482:10.1098/rstb.2022.0055
3326:Gardner, Andy (2012).
2934:Wright, S. I. (2014).
2437:(Supplement): 131–139.
1873:Mimicry in Butterflies
1727:Biology and Philosophy
1207:. Macmillan. pp.
849:
825:In 1923, the botanist
811:
702:
562:Mimicry in Butterflies
553:
490:
464:
452:the case of purported
446:
434:reproductive isolation
417:
360:
281:
225:Philosophie anatomique
190:
49:
5335:Evolutionary medicine
5209:Mendelian inheritance
4917:Biological complexity
4905:Programmed cell death
4597:Phenotypic plasticity
4317:Evolutionary pressure
4307:Evidence of evolution
4205:Timeline of evolution
3820:. In Kohn, D. (ed.).
3272:Philosophy of Science
3021:10.1093/sysbio/syt055
2836:10.1093/molbev/msi242
2651:Takahata, N. (2007).
2450:Theory in Biosciences
1971:East, Edward (1910).
1948:(in German): 257–294.
1175:Unweaving the Rainbow
909:punctuated equilibria
844:
819:Further information:
802:
730:Hermann Joseph Muller
691:
534:
485:
450:
442:
425:Oenothera lamarckiana
413:
404:Further information:
351:
271:
244:Further information:
218:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
198:Further information:
181:
106:Oenothera lamarckiana
35:
5473:Evolutionary biology
5309:Teleology in biology
5204:Blending inheritance
4582:Genetic assimilation
4445:Artificial selection
4184:Evolutionary biology
3814:Hull, D. L. (1985).
3155:. pp. 113–130.
3002:Galtier, N. (2013).
1868:Punnett, Reginald C.
961:eclipse of Darwinism
377:William Keith Brooks
5478:Molecular evolution
5372:Molecular evolution
5330:Ecological genetics
5199:Transitional fossil
4989:Sexual reproduction
4829:endomembrane system
4758:pollinator-mediated
4714:dolphins and whales
4492:Parental investment
3851:, pp. 276–281.
3082:Futuyma, Douglas J.
2780:2007PNAS..10412235N
2774:(30): 12235–12242.
2412:, pp. 412–413.
2183:, pp. 307–308.
2171:, pp. 121–122.
2110:, pp. 113–139.
2098:, pp. 120–121.
2086:, pp. 109–114.
2020:, pp. 118–120.
1977:American Naturalist
1961:, pp. 114–118.
1805:, pp. 265–270.
1600:The Mutation Theory
1579:, pp. 202–205.
1302:Thomas Henry Huxley
965:population genetics
907:: mutationism, and
858:Richard Goldschmidt
560:argued in his book
454:saltatory evolution
381:Thomas Henry Huxley
335:Natural Inheritance
307:Albert von Kölliker
285:Thomas Henry Huxley
246:Phyletic gradualism
160:Richard Goldschmidt
94:Albert von Kölliker
5345:Cultural evolution
4460:Fisher's principle
4389:Handicap principle
4379:Parallel evolution
4243:Adaptive radiation
4084:10.1007/bf01947504
4006:Gayon, J. (1988).
3897:10.1007/BF00149778
3569:, pp. 56–107.
3475:(1877): 20220055.
2628:10.1093/gbe/evt150
2502:The New York Times
2074:, pp. 140–154
1856:] (in Danish).
1833:2009-05-30 at the
1828:Scanned full text.
1816:Oversigt over det
1739:10.1007/bf02426630
1712:, pp. 92–100.
1311:2008-01-31 at the
913:Brian Charlesworth
901:Douglas J. Futuyma
850:
812:
713:Thomas Hunt Morgan
703:
693:Thomas Hunt Morgan
660:Starting in 1906,
604:from falling out.
554:
511:Phaseolus vulgaris
491:
361:
282:
191:
168:Douglas J. Futuyma
121:Thomas Hunt Morgan
55:is one of several
50:
5445:
5444:
5061:Uniformitarianism
5014:Sex-determination
4519:Sexual dimorphism
4514:Natural selection
4418:Unit of selection
4384:Signalling theory
4093:978-0-691-03343-3
4066:978-0-674-03248-4
4016:Larson, Edward J.
3998:978-0-674-02713-8
3967:978-0-520-06386-0
3941:978-0-520-23693-6
3406:978-3-031-22027-2
3170:978-1-4612-8227-3
3149:Gould, Stephen J.
2953:10.1111/evo.12369
2830:(12): 2318–2342.
2729:978-3-540-12903-5
2622:(10): 2006–2007.
2527:(7283): 864–867.
2397:10.1111/ede.12062
2353:Botanical Gazette
2255:Gould, Stephen J.
1946:Botaniska Notiser
1930:, pp. 81–82.
1625:Botanical Gazette
1326:Gould, Stephen J.
1253:978-0-12-088777-4
1184:978-0-14-026408-1
1139:978-0-8018-4391-4
905:Stephen Jay Gould
852:In his 1940 book
724:"mutations", 1918
544:argued that this
506:Wilhelm Johannsen
487:Wilhelm Johannsen
331:Hereditary Genius
325:Darwin's cousin,
262:natural selection
250:In his 1859 book
236:instantaneously.
46:Thérèse Schwartze
16:(Redirected from
5490:
5463:Biology theories
5435:
5425:
5424:
5224:Modern synthesis
4984:Multicellularity
4979:Mosaic evolution
4864:auditory ossicle
4546:Social selection
4529:Flowering plants
4524:Sexual selection
4177:
4170:
4163:
4154:
4153:
4149:
4143:
4139:
4137:
4129:
4070:
4058:
4044:
4035:
4024:. Random House.
4011:
4002:
3975:Bateson, William
3971:
3959:
3950:Bowler, Peter J.
3945:
3933:
3924:Bowler, Peter J.
3908:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3858:
3852:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3819:
3811:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3782:
3758:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3739:. Archived from
3725:Bateson, William
3721:
3715:
3714:
3696:
3678:
3669:
3663:
3662:, pp. 1–65.
3657:
3648:
3647:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3579:
3570:
3564:
3555:
3549:
3543:
3537:
3531:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3512:
3504:
3494:
3484:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3365:. Archived from
3332:
3323:
3317:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3145:
3139:
3138:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3109:
3103:. Archived from
3092:
3078:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2955:
2946:(4): 1225–1227.
2931:
2925:
2924:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2857:
2847:
2811:
2801:
2791:
2755:
2733:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2680:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2607:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2577:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2536:
2512:
2506:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2428:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2380:
2369:
2368:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2332:(148): 605–628.
2326:Annals of Botany
2318:
2312:
2311:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2251:
2242:
2241:
2218:
2209:
2208:
2202:
2193:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2149:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1843:
1837:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1722:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1619:(January 1919).
1613:
1607:
1603:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1529:
1512:(4): 1383–1392.
1497:
1488:
1487:
1478:Bateson, William
1474:
1468:
1467:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1416:
1406:
1400:
1399:, pp. 14–24
1394:
1388:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1322:
1316:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1241:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1171:Dawkins, Richard
1167:
1161:
1155:
1144:
1143:
1126:Bowler, Peter J.
1122:
1101:
1098:
1092:
1085:
1079:
1069:
1063:
1056:
949:modern synthesis
921:James A. Shapiro
867:J. B. S. Haldane
558:Reginald Punnett
542:Reginald Punnett
468:Mutationstheorie
398:mutationstheorie
358:Dennis G. Lillie
132:modern synthesis
125:Reginald Punnett
112:mutationstheorie
88:in evolution as
42:evening primrose
21:
5498:
5497:
5493:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5488:
5487:
5448:
5447:
5446:
5441:
5413:
5340:Group selection
5313:
5238:
5142:
5069:
5031:Tempo and modes
5025:
4880:
4784:
4601:
4560:
4436:
4429:
4406:Species complex
4219:
4210:History of life
4186:
4181:
4141:
4140:
4131:
4130:
4094:
4067:
4032:
3999:
3968:
3942:
3879:
3874:
3859:
3855:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3812:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3759:
3755:
3746:
3744:
3729:Saunders, E. R.
3722:
3718:
3676:
3670:
3666:
3660:Smocovitis 1996
3658:
3651:
3644:
3627:
3623:
3580:
3573:
3565:
3558:
3550:
3546:
3538:
3534:
3526:
3522:
3506:
3505:
3461:
3457:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3381:
3377:
3369:
3330:
3324:
3320:
3311:
3307:
3268:
3264:
3225:
3221:
3182:
3178:
3171:
3146:
3142:
3130:
3129:
3120:
3119:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3090:
3079:
3070:
3047:(6): 999–1000.
3033:
3029:
3000:
2996:
2973:
2969:
2932:
2928:
2889:
2885:
2876:
2760:Nei, Masatoshii
2752:
2730:
2702:
2698:
2649:
2645:
2608:
2601:
2554:
2550:
2534:10.1038/463864a
2513:
2509:
2489:
2485:
2446:
2442:
2431:Palaeodiversity
2426:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2381:
2372:
2349:
2345:
2319:
2315:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2252:
2245:
2232:(762): 96–101.
2219:
2212:
2200:
2194:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2163:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2094:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2063:
2028:
2024:
2016:
2012:
1969:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1938:
1934:
1926:
1919:
1904:(10): 226–227.
1897:New Phytologist
1885:
1881:
1865:
1861:
1844:
1840:
1835:Wayback Machine
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1758:
1754:
1723:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1676:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1614:
1610:
1587:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1547:
1543:
1498:
1491:
1475:
1471:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1407:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1349:
1345:
1334:Natural History
1323:
1319:
1313:Wayback Machine
1300:
1296:
1288:
1280:Darwin, Charles
1277:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1168:
1164:
1158:Smocovitis 1996
1156:
1147:
1140:
1123:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1086:
1082:
1070:
1066:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1031:
1017:competing ideas
941:
897:
883:
839:
823:
817:
771:
762:
750:
726:
686:
658:
614:H. Nilsson-Ehle
610:
593:
588:
567:Papilio polytes
537:Papilio polytes
529:
480:
438:Peter J. Bowler
412:
402:
393:
369:William Bateson
366:
354:William Bateson
323:
303:
248:
242:
202:
196:
176:
117:William Bateson
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5496:
5486:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5439:
5429:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5390:
5389:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5321:
5319:
5315:
5314:
5312:
5311:
5306:
5305:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5293:
5292:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5252:
5246:
5244:
5240:
5239:
5237:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5190:
5189:
5180:Charles Darwin
5177:
5176:
5175:
5163:
5158:
5152:
5150:
5144:
5143:
5141:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5118:Non-ecological
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5079:
5077:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5067:
5058:
5049:
5035:
5033:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5023:
5018:
5017:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4935:
4934:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4908:
4907:
4902:
4891:
4889:
4882:
4881:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4876:
4871:
4869:nervous system
4866:
4861:
4856:
4848:
4847:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4795:
4793:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4736:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4689:
4679:
4674:
4673:
4672:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4646:
4645:
4635:
4630:
4629:
4628:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4568:
4566:
4562:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4494:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4441:
4439:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4403:
4393:
4392:
4391:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4369:Origin of life
4366:
4361:
4356:
4354:Microevolution
4351:
4349:Macroevolution
4346:
4341:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4287:Common descent
4284:
4283:
4282:
4272:
4267:
4265:Baldwin effect
4262:
4261:
4260:
4255:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4229:
4227:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4180:
4179:
4172:
4165:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4142:|journal=
4092:
4071:
4065:
4045:
4036:
4030:
4012:
4003:
3997:
3984:
3972:
3966:
3946:
3940:
3920:
3909:
3891:(1): 113–139.
3878:
3875:
3873:
3872:
3853:
3841:
3835:978-0691633657
3834:
3806:
3794:
3773:(4): 501–546.
3753:
3716:
3687:(4): 501–546.
3664:
3649:
3643:978-0521841146
3642:
3621:
3594:(3): 304–317.
3571:
3556:
3544:
3542:, p. 121.
3532:
3530:, p. 210.
3520:
3455:
3428:(5): 422–434.
3412:
3405:
3375:
3372:on 2017-08-29.
3341:(2–3): 97–98.
3318:
3305:
3284:10.1086/392832
3262:
3235:(4): 474–481.
3219:
3192:(4): 469–474.
3176:
3169:
3140:
3100:978-3319150444
3099:
3068:
3027:
2994:
2967:
2926:
2905:10.1086/677571
2899:(3): 225–252.
2883:
2881:
2880:
2875:978-0199661732
2874:
2862:Nei, Masatoshi
2858:
2816:Nei, Masatoshi
2812:
2756:
2751:978-0231063210
2750:
2738:Nei, Masatoshi
2734:
2728:
2708:Nei, Masatoshi
2696:
2643:
2599:
2548:
2507:
2491:Judson, Olivia
2483:
2456:(3): 277–289.
2440:
2414:
2402:
2370:
2365:10.1086/334994
2343:
2313:
2279:
2273:978-0300028232
2272:
2243:
2238:10.1086/281018
2222:Hubbs, Carl L.
2210:
2207:(11): 112–113.
2185:
2173:
2161:
2112:
2100:
2088:
2076:
2061:
2042:(2): 399–433.
2022:
2010:
1989:10.1086/279117
1983:(518): 65–82.
1963:
1951:
1932:
1917:
1879:
1859:
1838:
1807:
1795:
1774:10.1086/508076
1768:(3): 447–484.
1752:
1733:(3): 303–329.
1714:
1702:
1700:, p. 128.
1690:
1679:De Vries, Hugo
1670:
1668:, p. 276.
1658:
1637:10.1086/332396
1617:De Vries, Hugo
1608:
1590:De Vries, Hugo
1581:
1569:
1550:De Vries, Hugo
1541:
1489:
1469:
1434:
1428:978-0226702247
1427:
1401:
1389:
1377:
1371:978-0226910383
1370:
1352:Wright, Sewall
1343:
1317:
1315:Nov. 23, 1859.
1294:
1291:. p. 471.
1271:
1269:, p. 127.
1259:
1252:
1226:
1214:
1190:
1183:
1162:
1145:
1138:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1093:
1080:
1064:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1030:
1027:
997:Edith Saunders
940:
939:Historiography
937:
917:Alan Templeton
896:
893:
882:
879:
838:
835:
816:
813:
770:
767:
761:
758:
749:
746:
725:
718:
685:
678:
662:William Castle
657:
654:
609:
606:
592:
589:
587:
584:
528:
525:
479:
476:
401:
394:
392:
389:
365:
362:
327:Francis Galton
322:
319:
302:
299:
295:catastrophists
258:Charles Darwin
241:
238:
206:Charles Darwin
195:
192:
175:
172:
61:Charles Darwin
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5495:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5455:
5453:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5428:
5420:
5419:
5416:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5383:
5382:Phylogenetics
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5342:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5322:
5320:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5291:
5288:
5287:
5286:
5285:Structuralism
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5260:Catastrophism
5258:
5257:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5247:
5245:
5241:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5219:Neo-Darwinism
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5188:
5187:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5178:
5174:
5173:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5153:
5151:
5149:
5145:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5133:Reinforcement
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5080:
5078:
5076:
5072:
5066:
5065:Catastrophism
5062:
5059:
5057:
5056:Macromutation
5053:
5052:Micromutation
5050:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5022:
5019:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4959:Immune system
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4929:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4888:
4883:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4819:symbiogenesis
4817:
4816:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4787:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4644:
4641:
4640:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4627:
4624:
4623:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4604:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4487:Kin selection
4485:
4483:
4482:Genetic drift
4480:
4478:
4475:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4432:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4394:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4173:
4171:
4166:
4164:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4147:
4135:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4062:
4057:
4056:
4050:
4049:Ruse, Michael
4046:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4031:9781588365385
4027:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3994:
3990:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3958:
3957:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3937:
3932:
3931:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3881:
3880:
3867:
3866:
3857:
3850:
3845:
3837:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3810:
3803:
3798:
3790:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3743:on 2020-04-23
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3720:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3656:
3654:
3645:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3576:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3553:
3548:
3541:
3536:
3529:
3524:
3516:
3510:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3408:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3379:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3322:
3315:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3278:: S369–S387.
3277:
3273:
3266:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3223:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3172:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3136:
3124:
3110:on 2020-02-23
3106:
3102:
3096:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2688:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2604:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2552:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2418:
2411:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2322:Willis, J. C.
2317:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2275:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2206:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2182:
2177:
2170:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2132:(5): 422–99.
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2109:
2104:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1960:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1888:Yule, G. Udny
1883:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1842:
1836:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:Forhandlinger
1819:
1811:
1804:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1699:
1694:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1674:
1667:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1596:
1592:(1901–1903).
1591:
1585:
1578:
1577:Endersby 2007
1573:
1565:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1554:Willis, J. C.
1551:
1545:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1494:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1430:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1405:
1398:
1393:
1386:
1381:
1373:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1275:
1268:
1263:
1255:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1239:
1230:
1224:, p. 83.
1223:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1194:
1186:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1160:, p. 56.
1159:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1141:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1112:
1097:
1090:
1084:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1061:
1060:macromutation
1055:
1051:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1006:
1005:hetero-zygous
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
980:
978:
977:structuralism
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
953:Julian Huxley
950:
945:
936:
933:
929:
928:mutation bias
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
892:
889:
888:Masatoshi Nei
878:
876:
872:
871:Sewall Wright
868:
864:
863:neo-Darwinian
859:
855:
847:
846:Masatoshi Nei
843:
834:
832:
828:
822:
809:
805:
801:
797:
794:
790:
786:
782:
780:
775:
766:
757:
755:
745:
743:
739:
735:
731:
723:
717:
714:
711:fruit flies,
710:
709:
700:
699:
694:
690:
683:
677:
675:
671:
667:
663:
653:
651:
647:
646:Ronald Fisher
643:
639:
634:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
605:
603:
598:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
568:
563:
559:
551:
550:Ronald Fisher
547:
543:
539:
538:
533:
524:
522:
518:
513:
512:
507:
503:
499:
498:Walter Weldon
496:
495:biometricians
488:
484:
475:
473:
469:
463:
461:
460:
455:
449:
445:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
426:
421:
420:Hugo de Vries
416:
411:
407:
406:Hugo de Vries
399:
388:
386:
382:
378:
374:
371:'s 1894 book
370:
359:
355:
350:
346:
342:
340:
339:Finger Prints
336:
332:
328:
318:
316:
312:
311:heterogenesis
308:
298:
296:
292:
291:
286:
279:
275:
274:heterogenesis
270:
266:
263:
259:
255:
254:
247:
237:
235:
230:
226:
221:
219:
215:
211:
210:saltationists
207:
201:
188:
184:
180:
171:
169:
165:
164:Masatoshi Nei
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
142:
138:
137:Ronald Fisher
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:
108:
107:
102:
101:Hugo de Vries
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
70:
68:
67:
63:'s 1859 book
62:
58:
54:
47:
43:
39:
38:Hugo de Vries
34:
30:
19:
18:Macromutation
5394:Polymorphism
5377:Astrobiology
5325:Biogeography
5280:Saltationism
5274:
5270:Orthogenesis
5255:Alternatives
5184:
5170:
5103:Cospeciation
5098:Cladogenesis
5047:Saltationism
5004:Mating types
4927:Color vision
4912:Avian flight
4834:mitochondria
4572:Canalisation
4450:Biodiversity
4195:Introduction
4075:
4054:
4040:
4020:
4007:
3988:
3983:. Macmillan.
3979:
3955:
3929:
3916:
3912:
3888:
3884:
3864:
3856:
3844:
3821:
3809:
3797:
3770:
3766:
3756:
3745:. Retrieved
3741:the original
3736:
3719:
3684:
3680:
3667:
3633:
3624:
3591:
3587:
3567:Provine 2001
3547:
3535:
3523:
3509:cite journal
3472:
3468:
3458:
3425:
3421:
3415:
3388:
3378:
3367:the original
3338:
3334:
3321:
3313:
3308:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3232:
3229:Paleobiology
3228:
3222:
3189:
3186:Paleobiology
3185:
3179:
3152:
3143:
3112:. Retrieved
3105:the original
3086:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3011:
3007:
2997:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2943:
2939:
2929:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2865:
2827:
2823:
2771:
2767:
2741:
2711:
2699:
2690:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2619:
2615:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2500:
2495:
2486:
2453:
2449:
2443:
2434:
2430:
2417:
2405:
2388:
2384:
2356:
2352:
2346:
2329:
2325:
2316:
2299:
2295:
2282:
2263:
2259:
2229:
2225:
2204:
2176:
2169:Provine 2001
2164:
2129:
2125:
2115:
2103:
2096:Provine 2001
2091:
2084:Provine 2001
2079:
2072:Provine 2001
2039:
2035:
2025:
2018:Provine 2001
2013:
1980:
1976:
1966:
1959:Provine 2001
1954:
1945:
1935:
1928:Provine 2001
1901:
1895:
1882:
1872:
1862:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1823:
1815:
1810:
1798:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1730:
1726:
1710:Provine 2001
1705:
1693:
1683:
1673:
1661:
1628:
1624:
1611:
1605:Part 2, 1903
1599:
1594:
1584:
1572:
1558:
1544:
1509:
1505:
1486:. Macmillan.
1482:
1472:
1450:(1): 71–96.
1447:
1443:
1437:
1412:
1404:
1397:Provine 2001
1392:
1387:, p. 24
1385:Provine 2001
1380:
1356:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1320:
1297:
1284:
1274:
1262:
1237:
1229:
1217:
1203:
1193:
1174:
1165:
1129:
1096:
1083:
1072:Orthogenesis
1067:
1054:
1020:
1009:
993:become fixed
981:
973:orthogenesis
946:
942:
925:
898:
884:
853:
851:
831:orthogenesis
824:
821:Orthogenesis
807:
785:paleontology
777:
772:
763:
751:
737:
733:
727:
721:
706:
704:
696:
681:
659:
635:
617:
611:
594:
576:polymorphism
565:
561:
555:
546:polymorphism
535:
520:
516:
509:
502:Karl Pearson
492:
471:
467:
465:
457:
451:
447:
443:
423:
418:
414:
397:
372:
367:
343:
338:
334:
330:
324:
304:
288:
283:
278:orthogenesis
251:
249:
224:
222:
203:
200:Saltationism
152:orthogenesis
145:
129:
111:
110:
104:
74:saltationism
71:
64:
52:
51:
36:Painting of
29:
5458:Mutationism
5404:Systematics
5275:Mutationism
5093:Catagenesis
5021:Snake venom
4954:Eusociality
4932:in primates
4922:Cooperation
4850:In animals
4670:butterflies
4643:Cephalopods
4633:Brachiopods
4565:Development
4539:Mate choice
4292:Convergence
4275:Coevolution
4233:Abiogenesis
3849:Bowler 1989
3630:Mayr, Ernst
3552:Larson 2004
3540:Larson 2004
3528:Bowler 1989
3131:|work=
3014:: 113–114.
2181:Bowler 2003
1803:Bowler 2003
1698:Larson 2004
1666:Bowler 2003
1631:(1): 1–26.
1267:Bowler 2003
1222:Bowler 1989
1074:, possibly
779:Nomogenesis
695:'s work on
648:published "
638:Edward East
352:Drawing of
92:. In 1864,
53:Mutationism
5452:Categories
5265:Lamarckism
5243:Philosophy
5166:David Hume
5128:Peripatric
5123:Parapatric
5108:Ecological
5088:Anagenesis
5083:Allopatric
5075:Speciation
5039:Gradualism
4964:Metabolism
4824:chromosome
4814:Eukaryotes
4592:Modularity
4509:Population
4435:Population
4396:Speciation
4374:Panspermia
4327:Extinction
4322:Exaptation
4297:Divergence
4270:Cladistics
4258:Reciprocal
4238:Adaptation
3977:. (1894).
3802:Gayon 1988
3747:2017-08-23
3114:2017-09-05
2983:(4): 189.
2663:(1): 1–6.
2568:(1): 199.
2493:. (2008).
2359:(3): 638.
2108:Allen 1968
1304:. (1859).
1108:References
1089:polyploidy
1013:Lamarckism
957:Ernst Mayr
951:, such as
742:chromosome
734:Drosophila
708:Drosophila
682:Drosophila
379:, Galton,
214:speciation
148:Lamarckism
98:geneticist
86:gradualism
78:speciation
5399:Protocell
5250:Darwinism
5138:Sympatric
4887:processes
4775:Tetrapods
4724:Kangaroos
4650:Dinosaurs
4587:Inversion
4556:Variation
4477:Gene flow
4470:Inclusive
4280:Mutualism
4225:Evolution
4144:ignored (
4134:cite book
4126:189833728
3952:(1989) .
3926:(2003) .
3450:125066709
3257:163866832
3214:163847899
3133:ignored (
3123:cite book
3008:Syst Biol
2940:Evolution
2410:Ruse 1996
2391:: 57–59.
2290:(1969) .
2288:Berg, Lev
2056:181213898
1747:170325857
1464:145540549
1340:(24): 30.
1173:(1999) .
1128:(1992) .
926:Cases of
754:phenotype
738:Oenothera
722:Oenothera
674:wild type
597:Udny Yule
556:In 1915,
459:Oenothera
204:Prior to
187:saltation
141:Udny Yule
5483:Mutation
5427:Category
5302:Vitalism
5297:Theistic
5290:Spandrel
4974:Morality
4969:Monogamy
4844:plastids
4809:Flagella
4765:Reptiles
4746:sea cows
4729:primates
4638:Molluscs
4616:Bacteria
4504:Mutation
4437:genetics
4413:Taxonomy
4359:Mismatch
4339:Homology
4253:Cheating
4248:Altruism
4118:11623198
4110:34411399
4102:96005605
4051:(1996).
4018:(2004).
3905:84932356
3789:24811736
3731:(1902).
3711:23263558
3703:24811736
3632:(2007).
3616:10469049
3608:16686641
3588:Evol Dev
3501:37004719
3492:10067271
3442:31003616
3363:28316833
3355:23000353
3300:85008221
2962:24673244
2921:19619966
2913:25195318
2864:(2013).
2854:16120807
2818:(2005).
2808:17640887
2762:(2007).
2740:(1987).
2687:17513888
2657:Genetics
2594:20584293
2543:20164895
2478:13372946
2470:18581157
2257:(1982).
2156:17245914
2126:Genetics
2005:85340555
1890:(1902).
1870:(1915).
1831:Archived
1790:24783737
1782:17059108
1681:(1905).
1653:83752035
1536:11779782
1506:Genetics
1480:(1894).
1354:(1984).
1328:(1977).
1309:Archived
1282:(1859).
1201:(1894).
1076:vitalism
1029:See also
971:such as
774:Lev Berg
570:, which
430:mutation
305:In 1864
5318:Related
5148:History
5009:Meiosis
4944:Empathy
4939:Emotion
4839:nucleus
4780:Viruses
4770:Spiders
4682:Mammals
4665:Insects
4465:Fitness
4401:Species
4200:Outline
3877:Sources
3826:773–812
3249:2400726
3206:2400725
3062:3852927
2845:1513187
2799:1941456
2776:Bibcode
2678:1893057
2637:3814208
2585:2900274
2296:Science
2147:1200446
1997:2455657
1645:2468868
1556:(ed.).
1527:1461897
985:alleles
789:zoology
670:piebald
234:species
5437:Portal
5113:Hybrid
4949:Ethics
4791:organs
4753:Plants
4739:lemurs
4734:humans
4719:horses
4709:hyenas
4697:wolves
4692:canids
4626:origin
4124:
4116:
4108:
4100:
4090:
4063:
4028:
3995:
3964:
3938:
3903:
3832:
3787:
3709:
3701:
3640:
3614:
3606:
3499:
3489:
3448:
3440:
3403:
3361:
3353:
3298:
3292:188681
3290:
3255:
3247:
3212:
3204:
3167:
3097:
3059:
2960:
2919:
2911:
2872:
2852:
2842:
2806:
2796:
2748:
2726:
2685:
2675:
2634:
2592:
2582:
2541:
2521:Nature
2476:
2468:
2270:
2154:
2144:
2054:
2003:
1995:
1788:
1780:
1745:
1651:
1643:
1534:
1524:
1462:
1425:
1368:
1250:
1181:
1136:
810:, 1940
793:botany
791:, and
684:, 1912
668:. The
630:glumes
400:, 1901
123:, and
48:, 1918
4900:Death
4895:Aging
4874:brain
4660:Fungi
4621:Birds
4534:Fungi
4332:Event
4215:Index
4122:S2CID
3901:S2CID
3707:S2CID
3677:(PDF)
3612:S2CID
3446:S2CID
3370:(PDF)
3359:S2CID
3331:(PDF)
3296:S2CID
3288:JSTOR
3253:S2CID
3245:JSTOR
3210:S2CID
3202:JSTOR
3108:(PDF)
3091:(PDF)
2917:S2CID
2474:S2CID
2427:(PDF)
2201:(PDF)
2052:S2CID
2001:S2CID
1993:JSTOR
1852:[
1786:S2CID
1743:S2CID
1649:S2CID
1641:JSTOR
1598:[
1460:S2CID
1289:(PDF)
1211:–250.
1046:Notes
1001:homo-
642:maize
626:wheat
580:genes
572:mimic
5387:Tree
4859:hair
4799:Cell
4702:dogs
4687:cats
4677:Life
4655:Fish
4608:taxa
4146:help
4114:PMID
4106:OCLC
4098:LCCN
4088:ISBN
4061:ISBN
4026:ISBN
3993:ISBN
3962:ISBN
3936:ISBN
3830:ISBN
3785:PMID
3699:PMID
3638:ISBN
3604:PMID
3515:link
3497:PMID
3438:PMID
3401:ISBN
3351:PMID
3165:ISBN
3135:help
3095:ISBN
2958:PMID
2909:PMID
2870:ISBN
2850:PMID
2804:PMID
2768:PNAS
2746:ISBN
2724:ISBN
2683:PMID
2590:PMID
2539:PMID
2466:PMID
2268:ISBN
2152:PMID
1778:PMID
1762:Isis
1532:PMID
1423:ISBN
1366:ISBN
1248:ISBN
1179:ISBN
1134:ISBN
1003:and
975:and
955:and
915:and
869:and
666:rats
624:and
622:oats
500:and
408:and
383:and
150:and
4885:Of
4854:eye
4804:DNA
4789:Of
4606:Of
4080:doi
3893:doi
3775:doi
3689:doi
3596:doi
3487:PMC
3477:doi
3473:378
3430:doi
3393:doi
3343:doi
3339:111
3280:doi
3237:doi
3194:doi
3157:doi
3057:PMC
3049:doi
3016:doi
2985:doi
2948:doi
2901:doi
2840:PMC
2832:doi
2794:PMC
2784:doi
2772:104
2716:doi
2673:PMC
2665:doi
2661:176
2632:PMC
2624:doi
2580:PMC
2570:doi
2529:doi
2525:463
2458:doi
2454:127
2393:doi
2361:doi
2357:102
2334:doi
2304:doi
2300:164
2234:doi
2142:PMC
2134:doi
2044:doi
1985:doi
1906:doi
1770:doi
1735:doi
1633:doi
1564:222
1522:PMC
1514:doi
1510:159
1452:doi
1419:368
1209:228
806:'s
640:on
5454::
4138::
4136:}}
4132:{{
4120:.
4112:.
4104:.
4096:.
4086:.
3899:.
3887:.
3828:.
3783:.
3771:47
3769:.
3765:.
3735:.
3727:;
3705:.
3697:.
3685:47
3683:.
3679:.
3652:^
3610:.
3602:.
3590:.
3586:.
3574:^
3559:^
3511:}}
3507:{{
3495:.
3485:.
3471:.
3467:.
3444:.
3436:.
3426:34
3424:.
3399:.
3387:.
3357:.
3349:.
3337:.
3333:.
3294:.
3286:.
3276:67
3274:.
3251:.
3243:.
3231:.
3208:.
3200:.
3188:.
3163:.
3127::
3125:}}
3121:{{
3071:^
3055:.
3045:93
3043:.
3039:.
3012:63
3010:.
3006:.
2981:29
2979:.
2956:.
2944:68
2942:.
2938:.
2915:.
2907:.
2897:89
2895:.
2848:.
2838:.
2828:22
2826:.
2822:.
2802:.
2792:.
2782:.
2770:.
2766:.
2722:.
2689:.
2681:.
2671:.
2659:.
2655:.
2630:.
2618:.
2614:.
2602:^
2588:.
2578:.
2566:10
2564:.
2560:.
2537:.
2523:.
2519:.
2499:.
2472:.
2464:.
2452:.
2433:.
2429:.
2389:16
2387:.
2373:^
2355:.
2330:37
2328:.
2298:.
2294:.
2246:^
2230:76
2228:.
2213:^
2203:.
2188:^
2150:.
2140:.
2128:.
2124:.
2064:^
2050:.
2040:52
2038:.
2034:.
1999:.
1991:.
1981:44
1979:.
1975:.
1920:^
1900:.
1894:.
1784:.
1776:.
1766:97
1764:.
1741:.
1729:.
1717:^
1647:.
1639:.
1629:67
1627:.
1623:.
1530:.
1520:.
1508:.
1504:.
1492:^
1458:.
1448:10
1446:.
1421:.
1364:.
1362:10
1338:86
1336:.
1332:.
1246:.
1244:18
1148:^
1115:^
877:.
787:,
387:.
317:.
280:).
256:,
227:,
127:.
119:,
5063:/
5054:/
5045:/
5041:/
4176:e
4169:t
4162:v
4148:)
4128:.
4082::
4069:.
4034:.
4001:.
3970:.
3944:.
3907:.
3895::
3889:1
3838:.
3791:.
3777::
3750:.
3713:.
3691::
3646:.
3618:.
3598::
3592:8
3517:)
3503:.
3479::
3452:.
3432::
3409:.
3395::
3345::
3302:.
3282::
3259:.
3239::
3233:8
3216:.
3196::
3190:8
3173:.
3159::
3137:)
3117:.
3065:.
3051::
3024:.
3018::
2991:.
2987::
2964:.
2950::
2923:.
2903::
2878:.
2856:.
2834::
2810:.
2786::
2778::
2754:.
2732:.
2718::
2667::
2640:.
2626::
2620:5
2596:.
2572::
2545:.
2531::
2505:.
2480:.
2460::
2435:3
2399:.
2395::
2367:.
2363::
2340:.
2336::
2310:.
2306::
2276:.
2240:.
2236::
2158:.
2136::
2130:2
2058:.
2046::
2007:.
1987::
1914:.
1908::
1902:1
1792:.
1772::
1749:.
1737::
1731:4
1655:.
1635::
1566:.
1538:.
1516::
1466:.
1454::
1431:.
1374:.
1256:.
1187:.
1142:.
1078:.
462:.
189:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
,_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_(1851-1918).jpg)
