114:
106:
253:
238:
On 30 August 1831, the London
Conference proposed settling the issue through territorial partition, which occurred through the Treaty of 15 October 1831. The western part of the Grand Duchy, including Arlon, Bastogne, and Bouillon, would go to Belgium. The eastern part, under the sovereignty of the Grand Duke, would remain a member state of the German Confederation. The Grand Duke would be territorially compensated for the loss of the Walloon part of Luxembourg by receiving territory from the Limburg province located on both sides of the Meuse. This solution would secure necessary communications with the fortress of
17:
218:
war. The
Confederation — eager to contain the conflict — employed procedural means and delayed the decision until 17 November, when it concluded that Luxembourg, being part of the Confederation, could not be included in the arrangement the powers were considering for Belgium. To appease tensions, France communicated to Brussels on 20 November that none of the five powers considered the Confederation's intervention as foreign interference. On 20 January 1831, the
362:
follows: Luxembourg was an independent state, linked to the
Netherlands by a personal union; whereas Limburg was simply a province of the Netherlands. Despite this difference, the two territories, living under different constitutional regimes, were considered a single member of the Confederation, with the singular voice expressed by the diplomatic representative of the King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg.
202:
122:
1830 to 1830, a state of cold war existed between the
Belgian and Dutch administrations; both sides sought to gain advantages through minor skirmishes, abductions of individuals, and incarcerations of individuals with the possibility of prisoner exchanges. These, and the risk of war, and general uncertainty about the future created an atmosphere of insecurity and fear in the population.
242:, but it did not compensate for the loss in terms of territory or population. The division allowed the Grand Duke to choose whether to join Limburg to the Netherlands or to the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. While Belgium accepted this arrangement, the Dutch delayed their response until 15 November 1833, when they expressed agreement with the partition but reserved the Limburg question.
399:
identity and future of the country. The nine years during which
Luxembourg's population was caught between two fronts, which would have liked to join the rebel camp, had a significant consequence, as the country would leave the Dutch sphere of influence and enter that of the Confederation and the powerful hegemonic neighbour that was Prussia.
385:
the genesis of
Luxembourg in 1815 and its preservation in 1839. Indeed, the essential reason for its creation in 1815, the membership in the German Confederation, and the federal nature of the fortress were decisive factors in the state's maintenance, imposed on the Luxembourgers by the European powers.
411:
The question of
Belgium's survival, and consequently the chances of Luxembourg's survival, had been raised in the London negotiations. The French had pushed for them to be divided up, with Prussia receiving Limburg, Liège, and Luxembourg; France getting Namur, Hainaut, and West Flanders; and the rest
375:
The separation between
Belgium and present-day Luxembourg was felt with trepidation by the Belgian people. Belgian annexationism, which would manifest sporadically from 1840 to 1919, i.e., for nearly 80 years, and would evoke sympathy or defense reactions in Luxembourg, initially had a comprehensible
361:
By the same decision on 5 September 1839, the Diet admitted the Duchy of
Limburg to the Confederation, transferring the rights and obligations of the pre-separation Grand Duchy collectively to the diminished Grand Duchy and Limburg. Henceforth, the international status of these two territories was as
428:
The events of 1839 were seen negatively by many in
Luxembourg at the time. Over the course of the years, however, it came to be treated by historians and political leaders as a defining moment for the country's independence. The centenary was celebrated in 1939, in a time of increasing international
384:
The history of the country during the decade from 1830 to 1840 shows that Luxembourg, created by the powers as a distinct state because of its fortress, was maintained by these powers for the same reason. It also illustrates the importance of the military problem—the Allied barrier against France—in
237:
Meanwhile, on 18 March 1831, the King once again insisted on finally obtaining the Confederation's assistance. The Confederation again evaded the decision by deciding to set up an intervention force, but postponing the decision on whether to actually intervene. In the end, there was no intervention.
225:
Taking advantage of this preliminary decision, the King of the Netherlands quickly established a separate administration in Luxembourg. In February, he appointed Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar as the governor-general for Luxembourg. He then set up a government commission in the capital, which exercised
233:
Faced with France's armament, on 17 March 1831, the Diet decided to reinforce the garrison in Luxembourg but, to avoid provoking French public opinion, enlisted troops from Waldeck, Lippe, and Schaumburg-Lippe. Undisciplined and poorly commanded, these troops rebelled, expressing their sympathy for
121:
However, the fortress and capital city of Luxembourg, unable to follow suit, led to the division of the country. The territory outside the fortress came under complete Belgian administration, while the Dutch regime, supported by the Dutch-Prussian garrison, retained control in the capital. From the
56:
separation of the country from 1830-1839, when most of it was loyal to and administered by Belgium, while one part retained allegiance to the Netherlands. The situation was resolved in 1839 when the international great powers and William I agreed that Luxembourg would remain in his possession, and
217:
on 15 October 1830 to suppress pro-Belgian disturbances in Luxembourg. While the Confederation was obliged to intervene due to the obligations of the Final Act of the Vienna Congress, the intervention was politically inconvenient because it risked France siding with Belgium, leading to a European
402:
This policy of Germanisation manifested itself on the ground by sending a few German officials—people from Nassau and Hesse—to Luxembourg for high administration and adopting the German language as the administrative language. These two measures obviously aimed to deepen the separation between
398:
conservatives — continued to diverge in their objectives: liberals focused on the constitutional regime to be given to the country, while the Orangists, for whom independence had been a sign of borrowed patriotism, supported William I's policy of Germanisation. In doing so, both questioned the
97:
When the Belgian provinces, unhappy with William I's rule, rose up in rebellion, the Luxembourgers joined them. The provisional government formed in Brussels declared Luxembourg to be an integral part of Belgium, and claimed authority over it. In the whole country, except the capital, Belgian
73:, the great powers of Europe awarded Luxembourg to the Dutch King as his personal possession. Unlike the Netherlands, Luxembourg would also be part of the German Confederation. While it was meant to be a sovereign country in its own right, William I treated it as a province of the
357:
This issue remained unresolved until 15 June 1838, when the Grand Duke agreed to provide territorial compensation to the Confederation. On 5 September 1839, the Grand Duke declared that the newly-formed Duchy of Limburg would join the Confederation, with a population of 145,527.
226:
power only over the territory effectively controlled by the Confederation. This commission, established by William I to salvage what could be saved, and staffed with foreigners, could generously be considered the first Luxembourgish executive. The measure emphasised a
84:
The United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the time included the present-day Netherlands and present-day Belgium. Likewise, the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg was twice as big as currently, as it also included what is now the Belgian province of Luxembourg.
93:
The period from 1830 to 1839 is considered a challenging one in the history of Luxembourg. It was one of the poorest regions in Europe, lacking infrastructure, and characterised by subsistence agriculture and run-down small industrial establishments.
80:
Before 1841, Luxembourgers were considered Dutch citizens. Luxembourg's foreign and military affairs were managed by the Dutch Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of War, respectively. Luxembourgers travelling abroad did so with Dutch passports.
403:
Luxembourg and Belgium but were added to the Germanisation factors inherent in the constitutional problem and the crucial issue of the country's economic ties with its neighbors; enclosed by customs duties, the country risked suffocation.
393:
The path of integrating the country into Belgium was closed by the great powers due to the Treaties of London on 15 November 1831, and 19 April 1839. As a result, Luxembourg's two political forces — the progressive liberals and the
177:
Benefiting from the freedom of the press guaranteed in the liberal Belgian Constitution, this bi-weekly liberal newspaper with liberal tendencies, led by Luxembourger François Dubois, became far more popular than the Orangist
98:
administration was exercised. The Belgians levied taxes, provided the police, and administered justice through courts of law. It was governed by a Belgian governor, whose seat was in
222:
decided regarding the delineation of borders between the Netherlands and Belgium that Luxembourg would remain independent of Belgium, part of the German Confederation.
412:
going to the Netherlands. These ideas of division were linked to the Allies' negotiations in 1814 and 1815, but they would be revisited in 1866 in the talks between
77:. The Dutch constitution and laws were introduced in Luxembourg, Dutch officials were sent there, and in 1823 the Dutch language was made obligatory in its courts.
136:
In Luxembourg, the majority of the common people, who had nothing to lose, and a significant portion of the leadership were drawn into the "pull" created by the
150:
884:
874:
1398:
125:
During this decade, the fortress walls arbitrarily separated a population that rejected the political partition of its homeland. The historian
1403:
906:
209:
For a few years, Luxembourg became a focal point of international tensions in Europe. The Grand Duke requested immediate assistance from the
148:
The events of the Belgian Revolution provided a huge stimulus to political debates in Luxembourg, and these debates echoed in the press. The
193:. This was futile as it was enough for the city's residents to leave the gates to subscribe at the Belgian post office established in Eich.
798:
1373:
1314:
189:, the head of Luxembourg's armed forces under William I, prohibited the Luxembourg postal service from accepting subscriptions to the
1408:
1072:
210:
1107:
916:
677:"L'organisation judiciaire du Luxembourg au 19ᵉ siècle: un élément de la formation d'un état et d'une administration (1839-1885)"
234:
the Belgian cause. In November 1831, they were repatriated and replaced by reserve Prussian units stationed in the Trier region.
1219:
938:
429:
tensions and when the country's existence seemed threatened by Nazi Germany. The 150-year anniversary was celebrated in 1989.
1143:
1112:
163:. It was also the only newspaper officially tolerated by the government. It would soon, however, no longer hold a monopoly.
1057:
1067:
901:
102:. The Belgian constitution of 7 February 1831 included the entire Grand-Duchy as one of the nine provinces of Belgium.
911:
74:
37:
113:
1294:
1214:
1178:
1153:
1045:
859:
302:
269:
105:
44:
occurred in 1830, most of Luxembourg rallied to this Revolution, and accepted Belgian rule. The exception was the
1082:
987:
791:
205:
Independent Belgium with disputed borders, including the entire historical Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg (1830-1839)
1304:
1289:
1197:
1062:
186:
1388:
1244:
1168:
1019:
977:
762:"La souveraineté nationale et les traités internationaux: au fil de l'histoire luxembourgeoise (1815-1956)"
33:
1393:
1383:
1368:
1007:
968:
958:
889:
1239:
1209:
1158:
879:
784:
133:, and the arrangements on both sides governing contacts between the populations of the two Germanys.
1173:
1138:
1092:
342:
326:
219:
25:
728:"La coopération diplomatique entre les Pays-Bas et le Grand-Duché de Luxembourg de 1841 à nos jours"
630:
1378:
1050:
896:
745:"Die belgische Revolution von 1830 und ihre Ausstrahlung auf den luxemburgisch-deutschen Grenzraum"
727:
438:
761:
744:
693:
676:
613:
1224:
1183:
1077:
943:
926:
869:
854:
710:
646:
252:
70:
29:
1299:
1234:
1097:
1087:
1033:
953:
58:
45:
663:
1333:
1272:
1254:
1126:
948:
816:
395:
334:
156:
711:"Cholera und politische Verfolgung: Das verloren geglaubte Tagebuch des Mathias Wellenstein"
1267:
839:
348:
214:
160:
137:
8:
1342:
1309:
1284:
834:
829:
1277:
1102:
992:
443:
41:
52:, which housed a Dutch-German garrison and remained loyal to William I. This led to a
1347:
864:
824:
417:
642:
126:
117:
The Porte Neuve (New Gate), part of the fortress of Luxembuurg in the 19th century
963:
413:
170:
staunchly defended the policy of William I and entered into competition with the
140:
and the hope that the new state centered around Brussels inspired on all fronts.
49:
1262:
997:
1362:
1229:
16:
305:(in the German Confederacy after 1839 as compensation for Walloon Luxemburg)
159:
in its editorial line, loyal to the government and King-Grand Duke and the
294:
257:
230:
division, preceding the legal separation from Belgium by about a decade.
130:
245:
807:
265:
239:
776:
1163:
1002:
1014:
844:
982:
664:"Le Luxembourg sous le double régime belge et hollandais 1830-1839"
20:
William I, the King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg
1148:
314:
261:
201:
36:. The territory that is now Belgium was similarly part of the
631:"L'Église luxembourgeoise et la Révolution belge (1830-1831)"
99:
196:
614:"Le clergé luxembourgeois de 1815 à 1839 fut-il orangiste?"
548:
546:
544:
591:
589:
587:
585:
490:
488:
541:
582:
531:
529:
527:
525:
523:
485:
463:
461:
459:
88:
521:
519:
517:
515:
513:
511:
509:
507:
505:
503:
370:
246:
1839 resolution: separation of Luxembourg and Belgium
388:
605:
570:
473:
456:
151:
Journal de la ville et du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg
500:
558:
1360:
423:
420:over the annexation of Belgium and Luxembourg.
285:United Kingdom of the Netherlands (until 1830)
907:Orders, decorations, and medals of Luxembourg
792:
611:
379:
799:
785:
708:
552:
109:Fortifications of Luxembourg, 19th century
759:
691:
595:
197:Diplomatic tensions and London Conference
725:
612:Bauler-Margue, Andrée (1 January 1983).
494:
251:
200:
112:
104:
15:
806:
694:"La liberté de la presse au Luxembourg"
647:"Malaise et annexionisme belge en 1867"
406:
337:(Walloon Luxemburg, to Belgium in 1839)
1361:
709:Holzberger, Hiltrud (1 October 1994).
674:
661:
641:
576:
535:
479:
467:
345:(German Luxemburg; borders after 1839)
780:
726:Hoscheit, Jean-Marc (1 April 1992).
628:
564:
742:
692:Grosbusch, André (1 October 2000).
662:Calmes, Christian (14 April 1989).
89:1830-1839: de facto divided country
28:was ruled in personal union by the
13:
760:Pescatore, Pierre (1 April 1967).
371:Belgian reaction and annexationism
155:published in Luxembourg City, was
14:
1420:
1399:History of Luxembourg (1815–1890)
1144:Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union
389:Germanisation policy of William I
166:When the Revolution started, the
75:United Kingdom of the Netherlands
38:United Kingdom of the Netherlands
1404:Luxembourg–Netherlands relations
606:Bibliography and further reading
675:Feltes, Paul (1 January 1998).
61:to the new country of Belgium.
24:In the early 19th century, the
1:
1374:Belgium–Netherlands relations
743:Neu, Peter (1 October 2003).
629:Bour, Jos. (2 October 1980).
449:
424:Commemoration and celebration
64:
1409:Belgium–Luxembourg relations
365:
347:In blue, the borders of the
303:Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)
7:
1008:Valley of the Seven Castles
432:
129:made a comparison with the
10:
1425:
380:Luxembourg as buffer state
295:Kingdom of the Netherlands
1327:
1253:
1205:
1196:
1134:
1125:
1041:
1032:
934:
925:
815:
343:Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
327:Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
26:Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
939:Administrative divisions
439:Partitions of Luxembourg
143:
870:Second Treaty of London
670:(in French). p. 9.
71:Vienna Congress of 1815
30:King of the Netherlands
855:First Treaty of London
687:(1/2): 27–68, 135–176.
352:
335:Province of Luxembourg
206:
118:
110:
21:
1068:Consultative Assembly
1058:Council of Government
329:(borders until 1839)
255:
204:
116:
108:
59:French-speaking parts
19:
1315:World Heritage Sites
902:Military occupations
840:Austrian Netherlands
407:French annexationism
349:German Confederation
215:German Confederation
182:of Luxembourg City.
161:German Confederation
138:Belgian Constitution
1389:1830s in Luxembourg
1305:RTL Télé Lëtzebuerg
1073:Diplomatic missions
1046:Chamber of Deputies
835:Spanish Netherlands
830:House of Luxembourg
1394:1839 in Luxembourg
1384:1830 in Luxembourg
1369:Belgian Revolution
1179:Telecommunications
1154:Electricity sector
993:Luxembourg plateau
988:Little Switzerland
850:Belgian Revolution
668:d'Letzeburger Land
645:(1 October 1969).
444:Belgian Revolution
353:
315:Kingdom of Belgium
207:
119:
111:
42:Belgian Revolution
22:
1356:
1355:
1323:
1322:
1192:
1191:
1121:
1120:
1108:Political parties
1083:Foreign relations
1028:
1027:
865:Luxembourg Crisis
825:Celtic Luxembourg
643:Calmes, Christian
418:Otto von Bismarck
220:London Conference
1416:
1336:
1300:Radio Luxembourg
1290:National symbols
1203:
1202:
1132:
1131:
1063:Council of State
1039:
1038:
932:
931:
880:Second World War
801:
794:
787:
778:
777:
773:
756:
739:
722:
705:
688:
671:
658:
638:
635:Luxemburger Wort
625:
599:
593:
580:
574:
568:
562:
556:
550:
539:
533:
498:
492:
483:
477:
471:
465:
127:Christian Calmes
1424:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1379:1830 in Belgium
1359:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1339:
1332:
1319:
1249:
1188:
1117:
1051:Current members
1024:
964:Luxembourg City
921:
917:Railway history
875:First World War
860:1848 Revolution
811:
805:
608:
603:
602:
594:
583:
575:
571:
563:
559:
553:Holzberger 1994
551:
542:
534:
501:
493:
486:
478:
474:
466:
457:
452:
435:
426:
414:Count Benedetti
409:
391:
382:
373:
368:
355:
354:
346:
338:
330:
318:
306:
298:
286:
273:
248:
199:
191:Journal d'Arlon
172:Journal d'Arlon
146:
91:
67:
50:Luxembourg City
12:
11:
5:
1422:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1338:
1337:
1329:
1328:
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1320:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1265:
1259:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1245:Social welfare
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1174:Stock Exchange
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1115:
1113:Prime Minister
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1042:
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1030:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1000:
998:Moselle Valley
995:
990:
980:
978:Extreme points
975:
974:
973:
972:
971:
961:
956:
951:
946:
935:
929:
923:
922:
920:
919:
914:
912:Jewish history
909:
904:
899:
894:
893:
892:
887:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
821:
819:
813:
812:
810: articles
804:
803:
796:
789:
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757:
740:
723:
706:
689:
672:
659:
639:
626:
607:
604:
601:
600:
598:, p. 455.
596:Grosbusch 2000
581:
569:
557:
555:, p. 702.
540:
499:
497:, p. 203.
484:
472:
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66:
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9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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831:
828:
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823:
822:
820:
818:
814:
809:
802:
797:
795:
790:
788:
783:
782:
779:
771:
768:(in French).
767:
763:
758:
754:
751:(in German).
750:
746:
741:
737:
734:(in French).
733:
729:
724:
720:
717:(in German).
716:
712:
707:
703:
700:(in French).
699:
695:
690:
686:
683:(in French).
682:
678:
673:
669:
665:
660:
656:
653:(in French).
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
627:
623:
620:(in French).
619:
615:
610:
609:
597:
592:
590:
588:
586:
579:, p. 32.
578:
573:
567:, p. 32.
566:
561:
554:
549:
547:
545:
537:
532:
530:
528:
526:
524:
522:
520:
518:
516:
514:
512:
510:
508:
506:
504:
496:
495:Hoscheit 1992
491:
489:
482:, p. 27.
481:
476:
470:, p. 30.
469:
464:
462:
460:
455:
445:
442:
440:
437:
436:
430:
421:
419:
415:
404:
400:
397:
386:
377:
363:
359:
350:
344:
341:
336:
333:
328:
325:
321:
316:
313:
309:
304:
301:
296:
293:
289:
284:
280:
276:
271:
267:
263:
259:
254:
243:
241:
235:
231:
229:
223:
221:
216:
212:
203:
194:
192:
188:
183:
181:
175:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
152:
141:
139:
134:
132:
128:
123:
115:
107:
103:
101:
95:
86:
82:
78:
76:
72:
62:
60:
55:
51:
48:and capital,
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
18:
1240:Social class
1210:Demographics
849:
769:
765:
752:
748:
735:
731:
718:
714:
701:
697:
684:
680:
667:
654:
650:
637:(in French).
634:
621:
617:
572:
560:
538:, p. 9.
475:
427:
410:
401:
392:
383:
374:
360:
356:
339:
331:
323:
319:
317:(after 1839)
311:
307:
299:
297:(after 1839)
291:
287:
282:
278:
274:
236:
232:
227:
224:
208:
190:
184:
179:
176:
171:
167:
165:
149:
147:
135:
124:
120:
96:
92:
83:
79:
68:
53:
23:
1139:Accountancy
1093:LGBT rights
772:(2): 129ff.
755:(4): 525ff.
738:(2): 201ff.
721:(4): 699ff.
704:(4): 453ff.
657:(4): 373ff.
577:Feltes 1998
536:Calmes 1989
480:Feltes 1998
468:Feltes 1998
258:Netherlands
131:Berlin Wall
40:. When the
1363:Categories
1295:Newspapers
1220:Euthanasia
1159:Euro coins
897:Partitions
885:Occupation
808:Luxembourg
624:(1): 53ff.
450:References
266:Luxembourg
240:Maastricht
65:Background
1225:Languages
1215:Education
1184:Transport
1164:RTL Group
1078:Elections
1003:Red Lands
944:Districts
927:Geography
890:Holocaust
565:Bour 1980
366:Aftermath
57:lose its
34:William I
1343:Category
1235:Religion
1098:Military
1088:Monarchy
1034:Politics
983:Guttland
969:quarters
954:Communes
433:See also
396:Orangist
376:origin.
228:de facto
187:Goedecke
185:General
157:Orangist
54:de facto
46:fortress
1334:Outline
1273:Cuisine
1255:Culture
1198:Society
1149:Benelux
1127:Economy
949:Cantons
817:History
766:HĂ©mecht
749:HĂ©mecht
732:HĂ©mecht
715:HĂ©mecht
698:HĂ©mecht
681:HĂ©mecht
651:HĂ©mecht
618:HĂ©mecht
272:in 1839
270:Limburg
262:Belgium
213:of the
180:Journal
168:Journal
69:At the
1348:Portal
1268:Cinema
1230:People
1103:Police
1020:Rivers
1015:Éislek
845:ForĂŞts
1310:Sport
1285:Music
1169:Steel
959:Towns
144:Press
100:Arlon
1278:Wine
416:and
322:and
310:and
290:and
281:and
268:and
256:The
211:Diet
1263:Art
1365::
770:19
764:.
753:55
747:.
736:44
730:.
719:46
713:.
702:52
696:.
685:50
679:.
666:.
655:21
649:.
633:.
622:35
616:.
584:^
543:^
502:^
487:^
458:^
277:,
264:,
260:,
174:.
32:,
800:e
793:t
786:v
351:.
340:5
332:4
324:5
320:4
312:4
308:3
300:2
292:2
288:1
283:3
279:2
275:1
153:,
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