636:(SILEX) is well developed and is licensed for commercial operation as of 2012. Separation of isotopes by laser excitation is a very effective and cheap method of uranium separation, able to be done in small facilities requiring much less energy and space than previous separation techniques. The cost of uranium enrichment using laser enrichment technologies is approximately $ 30 per SWU which is less than a third of the price of gas centrifuges, the current standard of enrichment. Separation of isotopes by laser excitation could be done in facilities virtually undetectable by satellites. More than 20 countries have worked with laser separation over the past two decades, the most notable of these countries being Iran and North Korea, though all countries have had very limited success up to this point.
972:
505:
406:. This multi-stage design enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of nuclear weapons, allowing for greater control over the release of energy during detonation. For the secondary of a large nuclear weapon, the higher critical mass of less-enriched uranium can be an advantage as it allows the core at explosion time to contain a larger amount of fuel. This design strategy optimizes the explosive yield and performance of advanced nuclear weapons systems. The U is not said to be fissile but still is fissionable by fast neutrons (>2 MeV) such as the ones produced during
707:(GEH) signed a commercialization agreement with Silex Systems in 2006. GEH has since built a demonstration test loop and announced plans to build an initial commercial facility. Details of the process are classified and restricted by intergovernmental agreements between United States, Australia, and the commercial entities. SILEX has been projected to be an order of magnitude more efficient than existing production techniques but again, the exact figure is classified. In August, 2011 Global Laser Enrichment, a subsidiary of GEH, applied to the U.S.
952:
and 4.5 SWU if the DU stream was allowed to have 0.3% U. On the other hand, if the depleted stream had only 0.2% U, then it would require just 6.7 kilograms of NU, but nearly 5.7 SWU of enrichment. Because the amount of NU required and the number of SWUs required during enrichment change in opposite directions, if NU is cheap and enrichment services are more expensive, then the operators will typically choose to allow more U to be left in the DU stream whereas if NU is more expensive and enrichment is less so, then they would choose the opposite.
79:
734:
808:
608:
1267:), which it intends to pursue through financial investment in a U.S. commercial venture by General Electric, Although SILEX has been granted a license to build a plant, the development is still in its early stages as laser enrichment has yet to be proven to be economically viable, and there is a petition being filed to review the license given to SILEX over nuclear proliferation concerns. It has also been claimed that Israel has a uranium enrichment program housed at the
742:
573:
4550:
4538:
4562:
1222:
nuclear warheads accounted for about 13% of total world requirement for enriched uranium leading up to 2008.This ambitious initiative not only addresses nuclear disarmament goals but also serves as a significant contributor to global energy security and environmental sustainability, effectively repurposing material once intended for destructive purposes into a resource for peaceful energy production.
715:. The fear of nuclear proliferation arose in part due to laser separation technology requiring less than 25% of the space of typical separation techniques, as well as requiring only the energy that would power 12 typical houses, putting a laser separation plant that works by means of laser excitation well below the detection threshold of existing surveillance technologies. Due to these concerns the
317:
912:"Separative work"—the amount of separation done by an enrichment process—is a function of the concentrations of the feedstock, the enriched output, and the depleted tailings; and is expressed in units that are so calculated as to be proportional to the total input (energy / machine operation time) and to the mass processed. Separative work is
785:(UCOR) developed and deployed the continuous Helikon vortex separation cascade for high production rate low-enrichment and the substantially different semi-batch Pelsakon low production rate high enrichment cascade both using a particular vortex tube separator design, and both embodied in industrial plant. A demonstration plant was built in
711:(NRC) for a permit to build a commercial plant. In September 2012, the NRC issued a license for GEH to build and operate a commercial SILEX enrichment plant, although the company had not yet decided whether the project would be profitable enough to begin construction, and despite concerns that the technology could contribute to
528:, gaseous diffusion played a major role as a uranium enrichment technique, and as of 2008 accounted for about 33% of enriched uranium production, but in 2011 was deemed an obsolete technology that is steadily being replaced by the later generations of technology as the diffusion plants reach their ends of life. In 2013, the
948:
on the level of enrichment desired and upon the amount of U that ends up in the depleted uranium. However, unlike the number of SWUs required during enrichment, which increases with decreasing levels of U in the depleted stream, the amount of NU needed will decrease with decreasing levels of U that end up in the DU.
947:
In addition to the separative work units provided by an enrichment facility, the other important parameter to be considered is the mass of natural uranium (NU) that is needed to yield a desired mass of enriched uranium. As with the number of SWUs, the amount of feed material required will also depend
584:
so that the heavier gas molecules containing U move tangentially toward the outside of the cylinder and the lighter gas molecules rich in U collect closer to the center. It requires much less energy to achieve the same separation than the older gaseous diffusion process, which it has largely replaced
1234:
to generate electricity.This innovative program not only facilitated the safe and secure elimination of excess weapons-grade uranium but also contributed to the sustainable operation of civilian nuclear power plants, reducing reliance on newly enriched uranium and promoting non-proliferation efforts
1209:
specifications for nuclear fuel if NU or DU were used. So, the HEU downblending generally cannot contribute to the waste management problem posed by the existing large stockpiles of depleted uranium. Effective management and disposition strategies for depleted uranium are crucial to ensure long-term
967:
The opposite of enriching is downblending; surplus HEU can be downblended to LEU to make it suitable for use in commercial nuclear fuel. Downblending is a key process in nuclear non-proliferation efforts, as it reduces the amount of highly enriched uranium available for potential weaponization while
765:
separation processes depend upon diffusion driven by pressure gradients, as does the gas centrifuge. They in general have the disadvantage of requiring complex systems of cascading of individual separating elements to minimize energy consumption. In effect, aerodynamic processes can be considered as
615:
The Zippe-type centrifuge is an improvement on the standard gas centrifuge, the primary difference being the use of heat. The bottom of the rotating cylinder is heated, producing convection currents that move the U up the cylinder, where it can be collected by scoops. This improved centrifuge design
589:. It has a separation factor per stage of 1.3 relative to gaseous diffusion of 1.005, which translates to about one-fiftieth of the energy requirements. Gas centrifuge techniques produce close to 100% of the world's enriched uranium. The cost per separative work unit is approximately 100 dollars per
951:
For example, in the enrichment of LEU for use in a light water reactor it is typical for the enriched stream to contain 3.6% U (as compared to 0.7% in NU) while the depleted stream contains 0.2% to 0.3% U. In order to produce one kilogram of this LEU it would require approximately 8 kilograms of NU
1221:
converts ex-Soviet weapons-grade HEU to fuel for U.S. commercial power reactors. From 1995 through mid-2005, 250 tonnes of high-enriched uranium (enough for 10,000 warheads) was recycled into low-enriched uranium. The goal is to recycle 500 tonnes by 2013. The decommissioning programme of
Russian
1201:) in special reactors. Understanding and managing the isotopic composition of uranium during downblending processes is essential to ensure the quality and safety of the resulting nuclear fuel, as well as to mitigate potential radiological and proliferation risks associated with unwanted isotopes.
448:
is difficult because two isotopes of the same element have nearly identical chemical properties, and can only be separated gradually using small mass differences. (U is only 1.26% lighter than U.) This problem is compounded because uranium is rarely separated in its atomic form, but instead as a
1249:
The following countries are known to operate enrichment facilities: Argentina, Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, the
Netherlands, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Belgium, Iran, Italy, and Spain hold an investment interest in the French
1229:
has been involved in the disposition of a portion of the 174.3 tonnes of highly enriched uranium (HEU) that the U.S. government declared as surplus military material in 1996. Through the U.S. HEU Downblending
Program, this HEU material, taken primarily from dismantled U.S. nuclear warheads, was
1300:
is still occasionally used to refer to enriched uranium. Its continued usage serves as a historical reminder of the pivotal role of enriched uranium in shaping the course of modern history and its ongoing significance in various nuclear applications, including energy production, medicine, and
1295:
alloy, after the location of the plants where the uranium was enriched. This covert terminology underscores the secrecy and sensitivity surrounding the production of highly enriched uranium during World War II, highlighting the strategic importance of the
Manhattan Project and its role in the
719:
filed a petition with the NRC, asking that before any laser excitation plants are built that they undergo a formal review of proliferation risks. The APS even went as far as calling the technology a "game changer" due to the ability for it to be hidden from any type of detection.
1204:
The blendstock can be NU or DU; however, depending on feedstock quality, SEU at typically 1.5 wt% U may be used as a blendstock to dilute the unwanted byproducts that may be contained in the HEU feed. Concentrations of these isotopes in the LEU product in some cases could exceed
540:
Thermal diffusion uses the transfer of heat across a thin liquid or gas to accomplish isotope separation. The process exploits the fact that the lighter U gas molecules will diffuse toward a hot surface, and the heavier U gas molecules will diffuse toward a cold surface. The
210:
378:(which is standard on all nuclear explosives) can dramatically reduce the critical mass. Because the core was surrounded by a good neutron reflector, at explosion it comprised almost 2.5 critical masses. Neutron reflectors, compressing the fissile core via implosion,
421:, where it often contains at least 50% U, but typically does not exceed 90%. These specialized reactor systems rely on highly enriched uranium for their unique operational requirements, including high neutron flux and precise control over reactor dynamics. The
343:, a minimum of 20% could be sufficient (called weapon-usable) although it would require hundreds of kilograms of material and "would not be practical to design"; even lower enrichment is hypothetically possible, but as the enrichment percentage decreases the
2259:
Becker, E. W.; Ehrfeld, W.; MĂĽnchmeyer, D.; Betz, H.; Heuberger, A.; Pongratz, S.; Glashauser, W.; Michel, H. J.; Siemens, R. (1982). "Production of
Separation-Nozzle Systems for Uranium Enrichment by a Combination of X-Ray Lithography and Galvanoplastics".
178:
while the remainder is U, but in nature, more than 99% of the extracted ore is U. Most nuclear reactors require enriched uranium, which is uranium with higher concentrations of U ranging between 3.5% and 4.5% (although a few reactor designs using a
824:
process (EMIS), metallic uranium is first vaporized, and then ionized to positively charged ions. The cations are then accelerated and subsequently deflected by magnetic fields onto their respective collection targets. A production-scale
1258:
entitling it to 10% of the enriched uranium output. Countries that had enrichment programs in the past include Libya and South Africa, although Libya's facility was never operational. The
Australian company Silex Systems has developed a
1107:
fuel. HEU reprocessed from nuclear weapons material production reactors (with an U assay of approximately 50%) may contain U concentrations as high as 25%, resulting in concentrations of approximately 1.5% in the blended LEU product.
1210:
safety and environmental protection. Innovative approaches such as reprocessing and recycling of depleted uranium could offer sustainable solutions to minimize waste and optimize resource utilization in the nuclear fuel cycle.
841:
in 1945. Properly the term 'Calutron' applies to a multistage device arranged in a large oval around a powerful electromagnet. Electromagnetic isotope separation has been largely abandoned in favour of more effective methods.
390:
that is responsible for the weapon's power. The critical mass for 85% highly enriched uranium is about 50 kilograms (110 lb), which at normal density would be a sphere about 17 centimetres (6.7 in) in diameter.
272:
disposal of nuclear waste. Reprocessed uranium often carries traces of other transuranic elements and fission products, necessitating careful monitoring and management during fuel fabrication and reactor operation.
461:
of identical stages produces successively higher concentrations of U. Each stage passes a slightly more concentrated product to the next stage and returns a slightly less concentrated residue to the previous stage.
898:. France developed its own version of PSP, which it called RCI. Funding for RCI was drastically reduced in 1986, and the program was suspended around 1990, although RCI is still used for stable isotope separation.
437:.The medical industry benefits from the unique properties of highly enriched uranium, which enable the efficient production of critical isotopes essential for diagnostic imaging and therapeutic applications
815:
shows how a strong magnetic field is used to redirect a stream of uranium ions to a target, resulting in a higher concentration of uranium-235 (represented here in dark blue) in the inner fringes of the
632:
Laser processes promise lower energy inputs, lower capital costs and lower tails assays, hence significant economic advantages. Several laser processes have been investigated or are under development.
1963:
850:
One chemical process has been demonstrated to pilot plant stage but not used for production. The French CHEMEX process exploited a very slight difference in the two isotopes' propensity to change
1575:
1905:
2187:
3313:
398:
in the primary stage, but the jacket or tamper secondary stage, which is compressed by the primary nuclear explosion often uses HEU with enrichment between 40% and 80% along with the
793:
that used the separation nozzle process. However, all methods have high energy consumption and substantial requirements for removal of waste heat; none is currently still in use.
790:
3899:
916:
energy. The same amount of separative work will require different amounts of energy depending on the efficiency of the separation technology. Separative work is measured in
331:(HEU) has a 20% or higher concentration of U. This high enrichment level is essential for nuclear weapons and certain specialized reactor designs. The fissile uranium in
4093:
553:
to prepare feed material for the
Electromagnetic isotope separation (EMIS) process, explained later in this article. It was abandoned in favor of gaseous diffusion.
1862:
Von Hippel, Frank N.; Kahn, Laura H. (December 2006). "Feasibility of
Eliminating the Use of Highly Enriched Uranium in the Production of Medical Radioisotopes".
284:(LEU) has a lower than 20% concentration of U; for instance, in commercial LWR, the most prevalent power reactors in the world, uranium is enriched to 3 to 5% U.
3501:
2456:
2241:
232:
Reprocessed uranium (RepU) undergoes a series of chemical and physical treatments to extract usable uranium from spent nuclear fuel. (RepU) is a product of
2326:
3028:
1735:
1564:
1184:, which is not usable in thermal neutron reactors but can be chemically separated from spent fuel to be disposed of as waste or to be transmutated into
3323:
2010:
Lei, Jia; Liu, Huanhuan; Zhou, Li; Wang, Yazhou; Yu, Kaifu; Zhu, Hui; Wang, Bo; Zang, Mengxuan; Zhou, Jian; He, Rong; Zhu, Wenkun (1 September 2023).
1823:
Lei, Jia; Liu, Huanhuan; Zhou, Li; Wang, Yazhou; Yu, Kaifu; Zhu, Hui; Wang, Bo; Zang, Mengxuan; Zhou, Jian; He, Rong; Zhu, Wenkun (1 September 2023).
655:
tuned to frequencies that ionize U atoms and no others. The positively charged U ions are then attracted to a negatively charged plate and collected.
170:, which can be enriched to produce fuel for the majority of types of reactors". Naturally occurring uranium is made of a mixture of U and U. The U is
140:
Uranium as it is taken directly from the Earth is not suitable as fuel for most nuclear reactors and requires additional processes to make it usable (
2507:
1967:
4204:
2624:
928:). Efficient utilization of separative work is crucial for optimizing the economic and operational performance of uranium enrichment facilities.
580:
The gas centrifuge process uses a large number of rotating cylinders in series and parallel formations. Each cylinder's rotation creates a strong
386:
that use less than what would be one bare-sphere critical mass at normal density. The presence of too much of the U isotope inhibits the runaway
4349:
1909:
1444:
3008:
144:
design is a notable exception). Uranium is mined either underground or in an open pit depending on the depth at which it is found. After the
2169:
3330:
2761:
1624:
1059:
over long enough timescales); during the enrichment process, its concentration increases but remains well below 1%. High concentrations of
1945:
3096:
1264:
689:
633:
2374:
1421:
749:
manufacturing process was originally developed at the
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany, to produce nozzles for isotope enrichment.
151:
This is accomplished by a combination of chemical processes with the end product being concentrated uranium oxide, which is known as "
3599:
2679:, by Allan S. Krass, Peter Boskma, Boelie Elzen and Wim A. Smit, 296 pp., published for SIPRI by Taylor and Francis Ltd, London, 1983
1653:
3838:
2669:
2593:
2675:
1751:
The enrichment of the pin and of one of the hemispheres was 97.67 w/o, while the enrichment of the other hemisphere was 97.68 w/o.
4049:
3889:
3828:
3969:
1116:; therefore the actual U concentration in the LEU product must be raised accordingly to compensate for the presence of U. While
611:
Diagram of the principles of a Zippe-type gas centrifuge with U-238 represented in dark blue and U-235 represented in light blue
3794:
2420:
1026:, it is be produced and destroyed at the same rate in a constant steady state equilibrium, bringing any sample with sufficient
781:
as a carrier gas achieving a much higher flow velocity for the gas than could be obtained using pure uranium hexafluoride. The
3023:
1260:
753:
Aerodynamic enrichment processes include the Becker jet nozzle techniques developed by E. W. Becker and associates using the
644:
1989:
1255:
308:
is usually enriched between 12% and 19.75% U; the latter concentration is used to replace HEU fuels when converting to LEU.
3845:
2712:
1226:
17:
2652:
4566:
3762:
3308:
3273:
2660:
737:
Schematic diagram of an aerodynamic nozzle. Many thousands of these small foils would be combined in an enrichment unit.
481:
generation), which consumes only 2% to 2.5% as much energy as gaseous diffusion. Some work is being done that would use
4460:
4044:
1063:
are a byproduct from irradiation in a reactor and may be contained in the HEU, depending on its manufacturing history.
821:
663:
2637:
3124:
3003:
2352:
1417:
1400:
425:
commercial fast reactor prototype used HEU with 26.5% U. Significant quantities of HEU are used in the production of
162:
production. After the milling process is complete, the uranium must next undergo a process of conversion, "to either
1623:. The 27th International Meeting on Reduced Enrichment for Research and Test Reactors (RERTR. Princeton University.
4354:
4219:
2754:
2445:
1592:
971:
4297:
4131:
3733:
3611:
3268:
3129:
2319:
2188:"GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Selects Wilmington, N.C. as Site for Potential Commercial Uranium Enrichment Facility"
529:
485:; however, there is no reliable evidence that any nuclear resonance processes have been scaled up to production.
1716:
4603:
4287:
4136:
3594:
2012:"Progress and perspective in enrichment and separation of radionuclide uranium by biomass functional materials"
1825:"Progress and perspective in enrichment and separation of radionuclide uranium by biomass functional materials"
458:
4061:
3894:
3318:
3246:
2708:"The Military Significance of Small Uranium Enrichment Facilities Fed with Low-Enrichment Uranium (Redacted)"
1268:
1218:
708:
975:
Enriched uranium produced at LLNL plant was collected as nuggets the size and thickness of several quarters.
4404:
4141:
3850:
3604:
3101:
2693:
407:
2392:
532:
facility in the U.S. ceased operating, it was the last commercial U gaseous diffusion plant in the world.
374:
in 1945, used 64 kilograms (141 lb) of 80% enriched uranium. Wrapping the weapon's fissile core in a
166:, which can be used as the fuel for those types of reactors that do not require enriched uranium, or into
4588:
4554:
4467:
4439:
4396:
4361:
4199:
4026:
3964:
3789:
3693:
3579:
3047:
2747:
198:, are capable of operating with natural uranium as fuel). There are two commercial enrichment processes:
206:. Both enrichment processes involve the use of uranium hexafluoride and produce enriched uranium oxide.
4598:
4388:
4247:
3926:
3444:
3401:
3253:
482:
269:
155:", contains roughly 80% uranium whereas the original ore typically contains as little as 0.1% uranium.
129:
2688:
2011:
1824:
4542:
4224:
3833:
3616:
1764:
1690:
1484:
716:
704:
418:
252:, and therefore could be used to fuel reactors that customarily use natural uranium as fuel, such as
106:
4472:
4314:
4214:
4126:
3335:
3221:
3181:
2993:
2698:
542:
434:
4377:
4344:
4319:
3933:
3710:
3516:
3439:
3396:
3379:
3340:
3263:
2173:
1717:"Detailed Reanalysis of a Benchmark Critical Experiment: Water-Reflected Enriched-Uranium Sphere"
1615:
887:
521:
344:
4302:
2213:
1691:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ, Section 4.1.7.1: Nuclear Design Principles – Highly Enriched Uranium"
4593:
4209:
3496:
3040:
1938:
1310:
879:
859:
387:
82:
Proportions of uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found naturally versus enriched grades
4503:
4239:
4194:
3656:
3584:
3511:
3506:
3471:
3258:
3226:
3013:
2940:
2170:"GE Signs Agreement With Silex Systems of Australia To Develop Uranium Enrichment Technology"
2135:
1390:
907:
712:
678:
648:
647:
employs specially tuned lasers to separate isotopes of uranium using selective ionization of
602:
590:
524:. This produces a slight separation between the molecules containing U and U. Throughout the
383:
340:
301:
2625:
Annotated bibliography on enriched uranium from the Alsos
Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
1875:
858:, using immiscible aqueous and organic phases. An ion-exchange process was developed by the
504:
465:
There are currently two generic commercial methods employed internationally for enrichment:
4414:
4189:
4174:
3491:
3449:
3285:
3191:
3119:
2481:
2378:
2269:
2103:
1871:
1802:
1428:
1292:
1231:
767:
766:
non-rotating centrifuges. Enhancement of the centrifugal forces is achieved by dilution of
693:
667:
546:
513:
414:
356:
237:
167:
27:
Uranium in which isotope separation has been used to increase its proportion of uranium-235
1664:
8:
4513:
4324:
4109:
3703:
3571:
3549:
3374:
3231:
2998:
2960:
2793:
1244:
851:
245:
227:
125:
2273:
2107:
158:
This yellowcake is further processed to obtain the desired form of uranium suitable for
4493:
4229:
4066:
3993:
3804:
3454:
3424:
3408:
3391:
3035:
2925:
2873:
2823:
2770:
2552:
2455:(Report). The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. November 2006. p. 730.
2285:
2218:
2127:
2073:
1887:
1545:
1356:
1143:
445:
321:
233:
203:
64:
44:
1524:"Integral molten salt reactor neutron physics study using Monte Carlo N-particle code"
1464:. U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. June 1999. p. 27
512:
Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce enriched uranium by forcing gaseous
382:, and "tamping", which slows the expansion of the fissioning core with inertia, allow
3561:
3354:
3241:
3216:
3154:
3111:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2788:
2729:
2721:
2556:
2544:
2411:
2131:
2119:
2077:
2031:
1891:
1844:
1784:
1780:
1549:
1504:
1500:
1396:
1320:
1284:
826:
581:
499:
466:
403:
375:
199:
187:
148:
is mined, it must go through a milling process to extract the uranium from the ore.
52:
2526:
2289:
1540:
1523:
4608:
4409:
3464:
3429:
3186:
3176:
3064:
3052:
2893:
2878:
2868:
2863:
2717:
2684:
2534:
2277:
2111:
2063:
2023:
1879:
1836:
1776:
1727:
1535:
1496:
1371:
1128:
891:
426:
305:
117:
110:
2647:
124:
than even natural uranium, though still very dense. Depleted uranium is used as a
4307:
4267:
3721:
3535:
3459:
3434:
3280:
3073:
2975:
2965:
2930:
2808:
2798:
2664:
2641:
1198:
379:
261:
249:
163:
78:
72:
3799:
2732:
2707:
2139:
2094:
Slakey, Francis; Cohen, Linda R. (March 2010). "Stop laser uranium enrichment".
733:
300:
High-assay LEU (HALEU) is enriched between 5% and 20% and is called for in many
4262:
4257:
4252:
4002:
3909:
3878:
3860:
3384:
3290:
3236:
3201:
3134:
3081:
2935:
2828:
2813:
2803:
1427:. Proceedings of international forum on illegal nuclear traffic. Archived from
1375:
1335:
1330:
1113:
883:
593:(SWU), making it about 40% cheaper than standard gaseous diffusion techniques.
567:
474:
399:
332:
91:
4282:
2539:
2068:
2055:
2027:
1883:
1840:
4582:
4447:
3738:
3144:
2985:
2725:
2657:
2548:
2209:
2035:
1848:
1788:
1652:
Forsberg, C. W.; Hopper, C. M.; Richter, J. L.; Vantine, H. C. (March 1998).
1508:
1186:
1173:
866:
that applies similar chemistry but effects separation on a proprietary resin
807:
703:
acquiring and then relinquishing commercialization rights to the technology,
508:
Gaseous diffusion uses semi-permeable membranes to separate enriched uranium.
430:
395:
367:
336:
265:
253:
102:
87:
2670:
A busy year for SWU (a 2008 review of the commercial enrichment marketplace)
1964:"McConnell asks DOE to keep using 60-year-old enrichment plant to save jobs"
1461:
607:
4013:
3149:
3091:
3018:
2970:
2840:
2634:
2355:. Washington DC: Office of Technical Services, Dept of Commerce. p. 29
2325:. Bombay, India: Government of India, Atomic Energy Commission. p. 6.
2296:
2152:
2123:
1415:
1214:
983:
is a minor isotope contained in natural uranium (primarily as a product of
956:
867:
833:
was developed during World War II that provided some of the U used for the
699:. After a protracted development process involving U.S. enrichment company
617:
550:
417:, whose cores require about 20% or more of fissile material, as well as in
348:
159:
2570:
1617:
About the Enrichment Limit for Research Reactor Conversion : Why 20%?
741:
4424:
4071:
3661:
3168:
3139:
2446:
Australia's uranium - Greenhouse friendly fuel for an energy hungry world
1109:
1060:
989:
984:
980:
762:
758:
572:
268:, which would be one of the more mobile and troublesome radionuclides in
257:
184:
145:
121:
60:
56:
48:
40:
878:
Plasma separation process (PSP) describes a technique that makes use of
3777:
2281:
1168:
834:
363:
241:
214:
152:
359:
experiments, enrichment of uranium to over 97% has been accomplished.
4419:
3782:
3772:
2900:
2853:
2818:
2739:
1731:
1001:
838:
684:
371:
4277:
2115:
264:, wasting neutrons (and requiring higher U enrichment) and creating
47:. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes:
4508:
4151:
4146:
4086:
3755:
3683:
3666:
3651:
3626:
3369:
2858:
2594:"Strategic Air Command Declassifies Nuclear Target List from 1950s"
1355:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
1315:
830:
812:
802:
774:
674:
673:, exciting molecules that contain a U atom. A second laser frees a
621:
525:
352:
180:
2410:
Makhijani, Arjun; Chalmers, Lois; Smith, Brice (15 October 2004).
4477:
4429:
4292:
4272:
3671:
3646:
3086:
2917:
2905:
2883:
2848:
2305:
South African Institution of Chemical Engineers – Conference 2000
1462:"Radiological Sources of Potential Exposure and/or Contamination"
1251:
422:
175:
171:
68:
36:
639:
4081:
4076:
4056:
4036:
4021:
3904:
3641:
3621:
3589:
1287:, weapons-grade highly enriched uranium was given the codename
1272:
786:
778:
959:, hex for short) to metal, 0.3% is lost during manufacturing.
4498:
4455:
4118:
3974:
3767:
3631:
1325:
863:
855:
782:
652:
316:
195:
141:
101:
of highly enriched uranium in the world, produced mostly for
98:
1990:"Paducah enrichment plant to be closed - World Nuclear News"
1651:
658:
209:
3979:
3868:
3678:
3636:
2350:
2258:
1206:
754:
746:
700:
191:
2629:
2089:
2087:
1388:
1085:
absorbs a neutron and does not fission. The production of
3952:
3816:
2242:"Uranium Plant Using Laser Technology Wins U.S. Approval"
979:
The HEU feedstock can contain unwanted uranium isotopes:
895:
248:(LWR) spent fuel typically contains slightly more U than
1765:"The theory of uranium enrichment by the gas centrifuge"
1485:"The theory of uranium enrichment by the gas centrifuge"
1422:"Safeguarding Nuclear Weapon-Usable Materials in Russia"
1096:
is thus unavoidable in any thermal neutron reactor with
86:
Enriched uranium is a critical component for both civil
2609:
Oralloy was a term of art for highly enriched uranium.
2375:"Status Report: USEC-DOE Megatons to Megawatts Program"
2172:(Press release). GE Energy. 22 May 2006. Archived from
2084:
1230:
recycled into low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel, used by
576:
A cascade of gas centrifuges at a U.S. enrichment plant
2409:
1939:"Lodge Partners Mid-Cap Conference 11 April 2008"
43:(written U) has been increased through the process of
2672:, Nuclear Engineering International, 1 September 2008
2005:
2003:
811:
Schematic diagram of uranium isotope separation in a
796:
585:
and so is the current method of choice and is termed
335:
primaries usually contains 85% or more of U known as
1354:
2677:
Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation
2419:. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research.
890:is used to selectively energize the U isotope in a
3502:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
2508:"Laser enrichment could cut cost of nuclear power"
2302:
2000:
685:Separation of isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX)
2214:"Laser Advances in Nuclear Fuel Stir Terror Fear"
2049:
2047:
2045:
1663:. Oak Ridge National Laboratories. Archived from
1595:. Nuclear Engineering International. 30 June 2024
1357:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
4580:
2527:"US grants licence for uranium laser enrichment"
2239:
2056:"US grants licence for uranium laser enrichment"
1647:
1645:
311:
1522:Carter, John P.; Borrelli, R.A. (August 2020).
1238:
2042:
2009:
1861:
1822:
1521:
1451:. World Nuclear Association, update April 2021
783:Uranium Enrichment Corporation of South Africa
4205:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
2755:
2705:
1642:
1157:absorbs a neutron, the resulting short-lived
640:Atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS)
276:
221:
116:The U remaining after enrichment is known as
2563:
2453:Standing Committee on Industry and Resources
2351:US Atomic Energy Commission (January 1961).
2317:
2303:Smith, Michael; Jackson A G M (2000). "Dr".
692:is an Australian development that also uses
2648:Overview and history of U.S. HEU production
2252:
2093:
1585:
256:. It also contains the undesirable isotope
2762:
2748:
2573:. Nuclear Weapon Archive. 10 December 1997
2524:
2053:
1654:"Definition of Weapons-Usable Uranium-233"
1265:separation of isotopes by laser excitation
690:Separation of isotopes by laser excitation
681:, which then precipitates out of the gas.
634:Separation of isotopes by laser excitation
2706:Gilinsky, V.; Hoehn, W. (December 1969).
2683:
2538:
2403:
2067:
1714:
1539:
1348:
1296:development of nuclear weapons. The term
659:Molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS)
295:
4117:
2525:Weinberger, Sharon (28 September 2012).
2054:Weinberger, Sharon (28 September 2012).
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1688:
970:
806:
740:
732:
728:
620:to produce nuclear fuel and was used by
606:
571:
556:
503:
351:rapidly increases, with for example, an
315:
208:
77:
1762:
1562:
1482:
920:SWU, kg SW, or kg UTA (from the German
901:
488:
394:Later U.S. nuclear weapons usually use
14:
4581:
4132:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
2769:
2377:. USEC.com. 1 May 2000. Archived from
2240:Associated Press (27 September 2012).
1613:
968:repurposing it for peaceful purposes.
4374:
4137:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
3546:
3533:
2743:
2320:"Economics of blending, a case study"
2208:
2159:(Academic, New York, 1990) Chapter 9.
1961:
1924:
1763:Olander, Donald R. (1 January 1981).
1682:
1614:Glaser, Alexander (6 November 2005).
1483:Olander, Donald R. (1 January 1981).
837:nuclear bomb, which was dropped over
645:Atomic vapor laser isotope separation
440:
292:) has a concentration of under 2% U.
4561:
3534:
2713:Defense Technical Information Center
2658:Nuclear Chemistry-Uranium Enrichment
2591:
1951:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1593:"HALEU UF6 and SMR fuel fabrication"
1581:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1227:United States Enrichment Corporation
932:1 SWU = 1 kg SW = 1 kg UTA
886:. In this process, the principle of
873:
535:
493:
67:(in any appreciable amount) that is
39:in which the percent composition of
4142:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
2653:News Resource on Uranium Enrichment
2462:from the original on 9 October 2022
2426:from the original on 9 October 2022
2332:from the original on 9 October 2022
1908:. world-nuclear.org. Archived from
1741:from the original on 9 October 2022
1630:from the original on 9 October 2022
1389:OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (2003).
845:
723:
666:uses an infrared laser directed at
627:
596:
355:mass of 5.4% U being required. For
217:(a mixture of uranium precipitates)
63:(U, 0.0049–0.0059%). U is the only
24:
3951:
3102:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
2592:Burr, William (22 December 2015).
2571:"Israel's Nuclear Weapons Program"
2518:
1689:Sublette, Carey (4 October 1996).
1563:Herczeg, John W. (28 March 2019).
822:electromagnetic isotope separation
797:Electromagnetic isotope separation
664:Molecular laser isotope separation
624:in their nuclear weapons program.
174:, meaning it is easily split with
25:
4620:
3125:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
3024:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
2618:
1966:. Atomic Insights. Archived from
1565:"High-assay low enriched uranium"
1418:Natural Resources Defense Council
561:
304:(SMR) designs. Fresh LEU used in
4560:
4549:
4548:
4536:
4225:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
324:of highly enriched uranium metal
3314:Historical stockpiles and tests
2585:
2500:
2474:
2438:
2385:
2367:
2344:
2311:
2233:
2202:
2180:
2162:
2146:
1982:
1955:
1898:
1855:
1816:
1795:
1756:
1708:
1607:
1541:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2020.110718
1395:. OECD Publishing. p. 25.
1127:also absorbs neutrons, it is a
962:
789:by NUCLEI, a consortium led by
120:(DU), and is considerably less
4215:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
3097:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
2190:. Business Wire. 30 April 2008
1556:
1528:Nuclear Engineering and Design
1515:
1476:
1454:
1438:
1409:
1382:
942:
791:Industrias Nucleares do Brasil
453:is only 0.852% lighter than UF
339:, though theoretically for an
13:
1:
4543:Nuclear technology portal
2482:"Q&A: Uranium enrichment"
1864:Science & Global Security
1420:), Thomas B. (12 June 1997).
1341:
1269:Negev Nuclear Research Center
1219:Megatons to Megawatts Program
1037:content to a stable ratio of
709:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
312:Highly enriched uranium (HEU)
109:, and smaller quantities for
4405:Field-reversed configuration
4015:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
2694:The Periodic Table of Videos
2689:"How do you enrich Uranium?"
2318:Balakrishnan, M. R. (1971).
2016:Chemical Engineering Journal
1944:. Silex Ltd. 11 April 2008.
1829:Chemical Engineering Journal
1781:10.1016/0149-1970(81)90026-3
1501:10.1016/0149-1970(81)90026-3
1239:Global enrichment facilities
1131:that is turned into fissile
1015:is much larger than that of
7:
4362:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
3547:
3309:States with nuclear weapons
2644:, World Nuclear Association
1445:Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview
1304:
1278:
1074:is produced primarily when
97:There are about 2,000
10:
4625:
4375:
4200:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
3324:Tests in the United States
2155:and L. W. Hillman (Eds.),
1994:www.world-nuclear-news.org
1962:Adams, Rod (24 May 2011).
1769:Progress in Nuclear Energy
1724:Los Alamos Technical Paper
1489:Progress in Nuclear Energy
1242:
938:1 MSWU = 1 ktSW = 1 kt UTA
905:
800:
761:separation process. These
600:
565:
497:
277:Low-enriched uranium (LEU)
270:deep geological repository
225:
222:Reprocessed uranium (RepU)
65:nuclide existing in nature
4530:
4486:
4438:
4395:
4385:
4337:
4325:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
4238:
4220:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
4185:
4168:
4108:
4035:
4027:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
4001:
3992:
3944:
3924:
3877:
3859:
3815:
3720:
3702:
3570:
3557:
3542:
3529:
3484:
3417:
3362:
3353:
3301:
3209:
3200:
3167:
3110:
3072:
3063:
2984:
2916:
2839:
2781:
2777:
2540:10.1038/nature.2012.11502
2512:The Sydney Morning Herald
2069:10.1038/nature.2012.11502
2028:10.1016/j.cej.2023.144586
1884:10.1080/08929880600993071
1841:10.1016/j.cej.2023.144586
1291:, a shortened version of
955:When converting uranium (
717:American Physical Society
705:GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy
435:technetium-99m generators
286:Slightly enriched uranium
135:
130:armor-penetrating weapons
59:(U, 0.7198–0.7210%), and
51:(U with 99.2732–99.2752%
4230:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3846:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
3182:Electron-beam processing
2699:University of Nottingham
2353:"Costs of nuclear power"
1715:Mosteller, R.D. (1994).
1376:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
1263:process known as SILEX (
935:1 kSWU = 1 tSW = 1 t UTA
616:is used commercially by
522:semi-permeable membranes
362:The first uranium bomb,
90:generation and military
4345:Organic nuclear reactor
3517:Nuclear power phase-out
3440:Nuclear decommissioning
3380:Reactor-grade plutonium
3130:Targeted alpha-particle
3009:Accidents and incidents
2663:15 October 2008 at the
2640:2 December 2010 at the
2488:. BBC. 1 September 2006
2393:"Megatons to Megawatts"
1876:2006S&GS...14..151V
1254:enrichment plant, with
1217:undertaking called the
926:uranium separation work
888:ion cyclotron resonance
880:superconducting magnets
329:Highly enriched uranium
1870:(2 & 3): 151–162.
1311:List of laser articles
976:
860:Asahi Chemical Company
817:
750:
738:
612:
577:
509:
388:nuclear chain reaction
384:nuclear weapon designs
325:
296:High-assay LEU (HALEU)
244:. RepU recovered from
218:
83:
4604:Nuclear weapon design
3507:Anti-nuclear movement
2062:: nature.2012.11502.
1803:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ"
1301:scientific research.
974:
918:Separative work units
908:Separative work units
906:Further information:
810:
744:
736:
729:Aerodynamic processes
713:nuclear proliferation
679:uranium pentafluoride
651:. The technique uses
649:hyperfine transitions
610:
603:Zippe-type centrifuge
591:Separative Work Units
575:
557:Centrifuge techniques
507:
415:fast neutron reactors
319:
302:small modular reactor
212:
81:
4415:Reversed field pinch
4210:Traveling-wave (TWR)
3694:Supercritical (SCWR)
3192:Gemstone irradiation
2157:Dye Laser Principles
1906:"Uranium Enrichment"
1726:(LA–UR–93–4097): 2.
1392:Nuclear Energy Today
1232:nuclear power plants
902:Separative work unit
894:containing a mix of
547:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
514:uranium hexafluoride
489:Diffusion techniques
413:HEU is also used in
282:Low-enriched uranium
238:nuclear reprocessing
168:uranium hexafluoride
18:Low-enriched uranium
3580:Aqueous homogeneous
3375:Reprocessed uranium
3048:Safety and security
2274:1982NW.....69..520B
2262:Naturwissenschaften
2108:2010Natur.464...32S
1695:Nuclear Weapons FAQ
1245:Georges-Besse plant
856:oxidation/reduction
246:light water reactor
234:nuclear fuel cycles
228:Reprocessed uranium
126:radiation shielding
105:, nuclear weapons,
4589:Isotope separation
4494:Dense plasma focus
3409:Actinide chemistry
2874:Isotope separation
2771:Nuclear technology
2635:Uranium Enrichment
2598:nsarchive2.gwu.edu
2413:Uranium enrichment
2282:10.1007/BF00463495
2246:The New York Times
2219:The New York Times
2212:(20 August 2011).
1970:on 28 January 2013
1670:on 2 November 2013
1144:neutron absorption
977:
818:
751:
739:
613:
578:
549:, was used during
510:
446:Isotope separation
441:Enrichment methods
326:
260:, which undergoes
219:
204:gas centrifugation
84:
45:isotope separation
4599:Nuclear materials
4576:
4575:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4473:Magnetized-target
4370:
4369:
4333:
4332:
4164:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4104:
4103:
3988:
3987:
3920:
3919:
3525:
3524:
3480:
3479:
3349:
3348:
3336:Weapon-free zones
3163:
3162:
3155:Radiopharmacology
2685:Poliakoff, Martyn
2630:Silex Systems Ltd
2397:centrusenergy.com
2210:Broad, William J.
1364:Chinese Physics C
1321:Nuclear fuel bank
1285:Manhattan Project
1199:nuclear batteries
874:Plasma separation
827:mass spectrometer
587:second generation
582:centripetal force
536:Thermal diffusion
500:Gaseous diffusion
494:Gaseous diffusion
483:nuclear resonance
467:gaseous diffusion
404:lithium deuteride
376:neutron reflector
366:, dropped by the
306:research reactors
200:gaseous diffusion
128:material and for
111:research reactors
53:natural abundance
16:(Redirected from
4616:
4564:
4563:
4552:
4551:
4541:
4540:
4539:
4451:
4410:Levitated dipole
4380:
4372:
4371:
4320:Helium gas (GFR)
4183:
4182:
4178:
4115:
4114:
3999:
3998:
3949:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3718:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3552:
3544:
3543:
3536:Nuclear reactors
3531:
3530:
3430:High-level (HLW)
3360:
3359:
3207:
3206:
3187:Food irradiation
3177:Atomic gardening
3070:
3069:
3053:Nuclear meltdown
2879:Nuclear material
2869:Fissile material
2864:Fertile material
2779:
2778:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2718:RAND Corporation
2702:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2604:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2542:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2461:
2450:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2425:
2418:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2399:. December 2013.
2389:
2383:
2382:
2381:on 6 April 2001.
2371:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2331:
2324:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2176:on 14 June 2006.
2166:
2160:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2091:
2082:
2081:
2071:
2051:
2040:
2039:
2007:
1998:
1997:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1746:
1740:
1732:10.2172/10120434
1721:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1669:
1658:
1649:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1629:
1622:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1569:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1543:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1458:
1452:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1434:on 22 July 2012.
1433:
1426:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1361:
1352:
1261:laser enrichment
1196:
1193:
1192:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1129:fertile material
1126:
1124:
1123:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1014:
1012:
1011:
999:
996:
995:
846:Chemical methods
757:process and the
745:The X-ray-based
724:Other techniques
628:Laser techniques
597:Zippe centrifuge
473:generation) and
469:(referred to as
427:medical isotopes
347:for unmoderated
341:implosion design
118:depleted uranium
107:naval propulsion
73:thermal neutrons
33:Enriched uranium
21:
4624:
4623:
4619:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4537:
4535:
4518:
4482:
4449:
4434:
4391:
4381:
4376:
4366:
4329:
4234:
4179:
4172:
4171:
4156:
4100:
4031:
4006:
3984:
3956:
3938:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3916:
3882:
3873:
3855:
3820:
3811:
3725:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3698:
3612:Natural fission
3566:
3565:
3553:
3548:
3538:
3521:
3497:Nuclear weapons
3476:
3435:Low-level (LLW)
3413:
3345:
3297:
3196:
3159:
3106:
3059:
2980:
2912:
2835:
2773:
2768:
2665:Wayback Machine
2642:Wayback Machine
2621:
2616:
2615:
2602:
2600:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2523:
2519:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2489:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2356:
2349:
2345:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2316:
2312:
2301:
2297:
2268:(11): 520–523.
2257:
2253:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2222:
2207:
2203:
2193:
2191:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2168:
2167:
2163:
2151:
2147:
2116:10.1038/464032a
2102:(7285): 32–33.
2092:
2085:
2052:
2043:
2008:
2001:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1960:
1956:
1948:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1925:
1915:
1913:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1860:
1856:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1761:
1757:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1687:
1683:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1656:
1650:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1598:
1596:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1567:
1561:
1557:
1520:
1516:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1449:Uranium milling
1443:
1439:
1431:
1424:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1387:
1383:
1359:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1307:
1281:
1247:
1241:
1191:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1137:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1080:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1069:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1005:
994:
992:
991:
990:
988:
965:
945:
922:Urantrennarbeit
910:
904:
876:
848:
805:
799:
771:
731:
726:
697:
687:
671:
661:
642:
630:
605:
599:
570:
564:
559:
538:
502:
496:
491:
456:
452:
443:
380:fusion boosting
314:
298:
279:
262:neutron capture
250:natural uranium
230:
224:
164:uranium dioxide
138:
92:nuclear weapons
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4622:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4574:
4573:
4571:
4570:
4558:
4546:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4504:Muon-catalyzed
4501:
4496:
4490:
4488:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4453:
4444:
4442:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4401:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4368:
4367:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4358:
4357:
4352:
4341:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4244:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4195:Integral (IFR)
4192:
4186:
4180:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4123:
4121:
4112:
4106:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4096:
4091:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4059:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4041:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4010:
4008:
4004:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3961:
3959:
3954:
3946:
3939:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3886:
3884:
3880:
3875:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3865:
3863:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3836:
3825:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3765:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3730:
3728:
3723:
3715:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3696:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3614:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3559:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3540:
3539:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3512:Uranium mining
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3421:
3419:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3394:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3385:Minor actinide
3382:
3377:
3366:
3364:
3357:
3351:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3321:
3311:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3213:
3211:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3173:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3116:
3114:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3082:Autoradiograph
3078:
3076:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2990:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2922:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2804:Atomic nucleus
2801:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2783:
2775:
2774:
2767:
2766:
2759:
2752:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2703:
2681:
2673:
2667:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2632:
2627:
2620:
2619:External links
2617:
2614:
2613:
2584:
2562:
2517:
2514:. 26 May 2006.
2499:
2473:
2437:
2402:
2384:
2366:
2343:
2310:
2295:
2251:
2232:
2201:
2179:
2161:
2145:
2083:
2041:
1999:
1981:
1954:
1923:
1912:on 1 July 2013
1897:
1854:
1815:
1794:
1755:
1707:
1681:
1641:
1606:
1584:
1555:
1514:
1475:
1453:
1437:
1408:
1401:
1381:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1336:Uranium mining
1333:
1331:Uranium market
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1280:
1277:
1256:Iran's holding
1240:
1237:
1190:
1177:
1162:
1151:
1136:
1121:
1114:neutron poison
1101:
1090:
1079:
1068:
1053:
1042:
1031:
1020:
1009:
993:
964:
961:
944:
941:
940:
939:
936:
933:
903:
900:
884:plasma physics
875:
872:
847:
844:
801:Main article:
798:
795:
769:
730:
727:
725:
722:
695:
686:
683:
677:atom, leaving
669:
660:
657:
641:
638:
629:
626:
601:Main article:
598:
595:
568:Gas centrifuge
566:Main article:
563:
562:Gas centrifuge
560:
558:
555:
537:
534:
498:Main article:
495:
492:
490:
487:
475:gas centrifuge
454:
450:
442:
439:
429:, for example
419:naval reactors
333:nuclear weapon
313:
310:
297:
294:
278:
275:
254:CANDU reactors
226:Main article:
223:
220:
190:, such as the
137:
134:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4621:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:Nuclear fuels
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4569:
4568:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4533:
4532:
4529:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4462:
4461:electrostatic
4459:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4384:
4379:
4373:
4363:
4360:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4336:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4241:
4240:Generation IV
4237:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4190:Breeder (FBR)
4188:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4176:
4167:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4095:
4092:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4068:
4065:
4064:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4007:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3991:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3935:
3928:
3923:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3876:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3814:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3770:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3564:
3563:
3556:
3551:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3492:Nuclear power
3490:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3473:
3472:Transmutation
3470:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3300:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3269:high-altitude
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3259:Proliferation
3257:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3145:Brachytherapy
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2941:Cross section
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2915:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2760:
2758:
2753:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2610:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2572:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2441:
2422:
2415:
2414:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2370:
2354:
2347:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2306:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2205:
2189:
2183:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2088:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
2004:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1947:
1940:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1804:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1752:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1711:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1666:
1662:
1661:ORNL/TM-13517
1655:
1648:
1646:
1626:
1619:
1618:
1610:
1594:
1588:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1463:
1457:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1430:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1404:
1402:9789264103283
1398:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1377:
1373:
1370:(3): 030001.
1369:
1365:
1358:
1351:
1347:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1246:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1202:
1200:
1195:
1182:
1170:
1145:
1130:
1115:
1111:
1062:
1003:
1000:—because the
998:
986:
982:
973:
969:
960:
958:
953:
949:
937:
934:
931:
930:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
909:
899:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
843:
840:
836:
832:
828:
823:
814:
809:
804:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
764:
760:
756:
748:
743:
735:
721:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
691:
682:
680:
676:
672:
665:
656:
654:
650:
646:
637:
635:
625:
623:
619:
609:
604:
594:
592:
588:
583:
574:
569:
554:
552:
548:
544:
533:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
506:
501:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
463:
460:
447:
438:
436:
432:
431:molybdenum-99
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
396:plutonium-239
392:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
368:United States
365:
360:
358:
354:
350:
349:fast neutrons
346:
345:critical mass
342:
338:
337:weapons grade
334:
330:
323:
318:
309:
307:
303:
293:
291:
287:
283:
274:
271:
267:
266:neptunium-237
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
229:
216:
211:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
186:
182:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
156:
154:
149:
147:
143:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
103:nuclear power
100:
95:
93:
89:
88:nuclear power
80:
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
35:is a type of
34:
30:
19:
4565:
4553:
4534:
4514:Pyroelectric
4468:Laser-driven
4248:Sodium (SFR)
4175:fast-neutron
4014:
3560:
3450:Reprocessing
3331:WMD treaties
3150:Radiosurgery
3120:Fast-neutron
3092:Scintigraphy
2888:
2711:
2692:
2676:
2608:
2601:. Retrieved
2597:
2587:
2575:. Retrieved
2565:
2530:
2520:
2511:
2502:
2490:. Retrieved
2485:
2476:
2464:. Retrieved
2452:
2440:
2428:. Retrieved
2412:
2405:
2396:
2387:
2379:the original
2369:
2357:. Retrieved
2346:
2334:. Retrieved
2313:
2304:
2298:
2265:
2261:
2254:
2245:
2235:
2223:. Retrieved
2217:
2204:
2194:30 September
2192:. Retrieved
2182:
2174:the original
2164:
2156:
2153:F. J. Duarte
2148:
2099:
2095:
2059:
2019:
2015:
1993:
1984:
1972:. Retrieved
1968:the original
1957:
1914:. Retrieved
1910:the original
1900:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1832:
1828:
1818:
1806:. Retrieved
1797:
1772:
1768:
1758:
1750:
1743:. Retrieved
1723:
1710:
1698:. Retrieved
1694:
1684:
1672:. Retrieved
1665:the original
1660:
1632:. Retrieved
1616:
1609:
1597:. Retrieved
1587:
1571:
1558:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1492:
1488:
1478:
1466:. Retrieved
1456:
1448:
1440:
1429:the original
1411:
1391:
1384:
1367:
1363:
1350:
1297:
1288:
1282:
1248:
1224:
1215:downblending
1212:
1203:
1197:(for use in
978:
966:
963:Downblending
957:hexafluoride
954:
950:
946:
925:
924:– literally
921:
917:
913:
911:
877:
868:ion-exchange
849:
819:
752:
688:
662:
643:
631:
614:
586:
579:
551:World War II
539:
517:
511:
478:
470:
464:
449:compound (UF
444:
412:
393:
361:
328:
327:
299:
289:
285:
281:
280:
231:
160:nuclear fuel
157:
150:
139:
115:
96:
85:
32:
31:
29:
4425:Stellarator
4389:confinement
4283:Superphénix
4110:Molten-salt
4062:VHTR (HTGR)
3839:HW BLWR 250
3805:R4 Marviken
3734:Pressurized
3704:Heavy water
3688:many others
3617:Pressurized
3572:Light water
3274:underground
3232:Disarmament
3140:Tomotherapy
3135:Proton-beam
2999:Power plant
2961:Temperature
2794:Engineering
2603:27 November
2430:21 November
1775:(1): 1–33.
1745:19 December
1495:(1): 1–33.
1283:During the
1169:beta decays
985:alpha decay
943:Cost issues
763:aerodynamic
759:vortex tube
357:criticality
258:uranium-236
185:heavy water
146:uranium ore
122:radioactive
61:uranium-234
57:uranium-235
49:uranium-238
41:uranium-235
4583:Categories
4450:(acoustic)
4067:PBR (PBMR)
3455:Spent fuel
3445:Repository
3425:Fuel cycle
3392:Activation
3169:Processing
3036:Propulsion
2994:by country
2926:Activation
2359:7 November
2336:7 November
2307:: 280–289.
2022:: 144586.
1974:26 January
1835:: 144586.
1808:26 January
1674:30 October
1572:energy.gov
1534:: 110718.
1342:References
1271:site near
1243:See also:
835:Little Boy
829:named the
520:) through
408:D–T fusion
364:Little Boy
242:spent fuel
236:involving
215:yellowcake
213:A drum of
153:yellowcake
4420:Spheromak
4119:Fluorides
3783:IPHWR-700
3778:IPHWR-540
3773:IPHWR-220
3562:Moderator
3242:Explosion
3217:Arms race
3004:Economics
2956:Reflector
2951:Radiation
2946:Generator
2901:Plutonium
2854:Deuterium
2819:Radiation
2789:Chemistry
2733:ADA613260
2726:913595660
2577:7 October
2557:100862135
2549:1476-4687
2492:3 January
2225:21 August
2140:204555310
2132:205053626
2078:100862135
2036:1385-8947
1892:122507063
1849:1385-8947
1789:0149-1970
1700:2 October
1550:225435681
1509:0149-1970
1416:Cochran (
1293:Oak Ridge
1235:globally
1002:half-life
839:Hiroshima
545:plant at
372:Hiroshima
188:moderator
4555:Category
4509:Polywell
4440:Inertial
4397:Magnetic
4152:TMSR-LF1
4147:TMSR-500
4127:Fuji MSR
4087:THTR-300
3927:Graphite
3790:PHWR KWU
3756:ACR-1000
3684:IPWR-900
3667:ACPR1000
3662:HPR-1000
3652:CPR-1000
3627:APR-1400
3418:Disposal
3370:Actinide
3363:Products
3222:Delivery
3065:Medicine
2894:depleted
2889:enriched
2859:Helium-3
2824:ionizing
2687:(2009).
2661:Archived
2638:Archived
2486:BBC News
2457:Archived
2421:Archived
2327:Archived
2290:44245091
2136:ProQuest
2124:20203589
1946:Archived
1916:14 April
1736:Archived
1634:18 April
1625:Archived
1576:Archived
1316:MOX fuel
1305:See also
1279:Codename
1213:A major
870:column.
831:Calutron
813:calutron
803:Calutron
775:hydrogen
675:fluorine
622:Pakistan
526:Cold War
353:infinite
181:graphite
176:neutrons
4609:Uranium
4567:Commons
4478:Z-pinch
4448:Bubble
4430:Tokamak
4293:FBR-600
4273:CFR-600
4268:BN-1200
3934:coolant
3861:Organic
3746:CANDU 9
3743:CANDU 6
3711:coolant
3672:ACP1000
3647:CAP1400
3585:Boiling
3550:Fission
3397:Fission
3341:Weapons
3281:Warfare
3264:Testing
3254:History
3247:effects
3202:Weapons
3112:Therapy
3087:RadBall
3074:Imaging
2966:Thermal
2931:Capture
2918:Neutron
2906:Thorium
2884:Uranium
2849:Tritium
2829:braking
2809:Fission
2799:Physics
2782:Science
2466:3 April
2270:Bibcode
2104:Bibcode
1872:Bibcode
1599:16 July
1298:oralloy
1289:oralloy
1252:Eurodif
852:valency
820:In the
816:stream.
530:Paducah
459:cascade
423:Fermi-1
172:fissile
69:fissile
37:uranium
4378:Fusion
4338:Others
4278:Phénix
4263:BN-800
4258:BN-600
4253:BN-350
4082:HTR-PM
4077:HTR-10
4057:UHTREX
4022:Magnox
4017:(UNGG)
3910:Lucens
3905:KS 150
3642:ATMEA1
3622:AP1000
3605:Kerena
3485:Debate
3237:Ethics
3227:Design
3210:Topics
3041:rocket
3019:Fusion
3014:Policy
2976:Fusion
2936:Poison
2814:Fusion
2724:
2555:
2547:
2531:Nature
2288:
2138:
2130:
2122:
2096:Nature
2076:
2060:Nature
2034:
1890:
1847:
1787:
1548:
1507:
1468:1 July
1399:
1273:Dimona
892:plasma
787:Brazil
779:helium
653:lasers
618:Urenco
479:second
400:fusion
322:billet
136:Grades
99:tonnes
4499:Migma
4487:Other
4456:Fusor
4355:Piqua
4350:Arbus
4308:PRISM
4050:MHR-T
4045:GTMHR
3975:EGP-6
3970:AMB-X
3945:Water
3890:HWGCR
3829:HWLWR
3768:IPHWR
3739:CANDU
3600:ESBWR
3355:Waste
3319:Tests
3302:Lists
3286:Yield
3029:MMRTG
2986:Power
2553:S2CID
2460:(PDF)
2449:(PDF)
2424:(PDF)
2417:(PDF)
2330:(PDF)
2323:(PDF)
2286:S2CID
2128:S2CID
2074:S2CID
1949:(PDF)
1942:(PDF)
1888:S2CID
1739:(PDF)
1720:(PDF)
1668:(PDF)
1657:(PDF)
1628:(PDF)
1621:(PDF)
1579:(PDF)
1568:(PDF)
1546:S2CID
1432:(PDF)
1425:(PDF)
1360:(PDF)
1326:Orano
1146:. If
1142:upon
1112:is a
864:Japan
773:with
471:first
457:). A
402:fuel
196:CANDU
142:CANDU
71:with
4315:Lead
4298:CEFR
4288:PFBR
4170:None
3980:RBMK
3965:AM-1
3895:EL-4
3869:WR-1
3851:AHWR
3795:MZFR
3763:CVTR
3752:AFCR
3679:VVER
3637:APWR
3632:APR+
3595:ABWR
3465:cask
3460:pool
3402:LLFP
3291:TNTe
2971:Fast
2841:Fuel
2730:DTIC
2722:OCLC
2605:2020
2579:2007
2545:ISSN
2494:2010
2468:2015
2432:2009
2361:2021
2338:2021
2227:2011
2196:2012
2120:PMID
2032:ISSN
1976:2013
1918:2013
1845:ISSN
1810:2013
1785:ISSN
1747:2007
1702:2010
1676:2013
1636:2014
1601:2024
1505:ISSN
1470:2019
1397:ISBN
1225:The
1207:ASTM
896:ions
882:and
755:LIGA
747:LIGA
701:USEC
543:S-50
433:for
202:and
194:and
192:RBMK
4387:by
4303:PFR
4094:PMR
4072:AVR
3994:Gas
3932:by
3900:KKN
3834:ATR
3749:EC6
3709:by
3657:EPR
3590:BWR
2535:doi
2278:doi
2112:doi
2100:464
2064:doi
2024:doi
2020:471
1880:doi
1837:doi
1833:471
1777:doi
1728:doi
1536:doi
1532:365
1497:doi
1372:doi
1171:to
1048:to
1004:of
987:of
914:not
862:in
854:in
777:or
518:hex
370:on
290:SEU
240:of
183:or
55:),
4585::
4037:He
4003:CO
3879:CO
3800:R3
2728:.
2720:.
2716:.
2710:.
2697:.
2691:.
2607:.
2596:.
2551:.
2543:.
2533:.
2529:.
2510:.
2484:.
2451:.
2395:.
2284:.
2276:.
2266:69
2264:.
2244:.
2216:.
2134:.
2126:.
2118:.
2110:.
2098:.
2086:^
2072:.
2058:.
2044:^
2030:.
2018:.
2014:.
2002:^
1992:.
1926:^
1886:.
1878:.
1868:14
1866:.
1843:.
1831:.
1827:.
1783:.
1771:.
1767:.
1749:.
1734:.
1722:.
1693:.
1659:.
1644:^
1574:.
1570:.
1544:.
1530:.
1526:.
1503:.
1491:.
1487:.
1447:,
1368:45
1366:.
1362:.
1275:.
1194:Pu
1181:Np
768:UF
694:UF
668:UF
410:.
320:A
132:.
113:.
94:.
4177:)
4173:(
4005:2
3957:O
3955:2
3953:H
3881:2
3821:O
3819:2
3817:H
3726:O
3724:2
3722:D
2763:e
2756:t
2749:v
2735:.
2701:.
2581:.
2559:.
2537::
2496:.
2470:.
2434:.
2363:.
2340:.
2292:.
2280::
2272::
2248:.
2229:.
2198:.
2142:.
2114::
2106::
2080:.
2066::
2038:.
2026::
1996:.
1978:.
1920:.
1894:.
1882::
1874::
1851:.
1839::
1812:.
1791:.
1779::
1773:8
1730::
1704:.
1678:.
1638:.
1603:.
1552:.
1538::
1511:.
1499::
1493:8
1472:.
1405:.
1378:.
1374::
1166:U
1155:U
1140:U
1125:U
1110:U
1105:U
1094:U
1083:U
1072:U
1061:U
1057:U
1046:U
1035:U
1024:U
1013:U
997:U
981:U
770:6
696:6
670:6
516:(
477:(
455:6
451:6
288:(
75:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
