Logical positivism

3391:... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel's critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel's study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel's four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel's covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation". 3819:

1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein's own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms ... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936–37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation or disconfirmation.

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basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap's focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap's new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science ... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion: how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims?

2772:. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 , 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. 1531:, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed. Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide an account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model. In Carnap's inductive logic, every universal law's degree of confirmation is always zero. In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961). 2681:

verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation.

1830:", and sought a common language or, in Neurath's phrase, a "universal slang" whereby all scientific propositions could be expressed. The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap's 9442: 6399: 49: 6409: 4719: 3783:

scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion: The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation.

9429: 5304: 63: 2026:, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory's falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of 1886:'cognitively' meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which was taken to pose significant problems for the philosophy of science. These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap's move to 2797:

The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. —but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper's "last-ditch" effort to

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party members are as offended as Carnap by the unruliness of language. It's a scandal that grammar allows such pseudo-statements as 'It is the right of the people to alter or abolish Government' (Jefferson), or 'Das Nichts nichtet' (Heidegger). Language as it is makes no objection to such statements,

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This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite

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Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the

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What Carnap later called the 'liberalization of empiricism' was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle ... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap's

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It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical

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Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science's quest for truth to

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Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning. Further, theoretical terms no

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forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable". And yet, "no

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Logical positivism's fall reopened the debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism). Philosophers increasingly

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Flourishing in several European centres through the 1930s, the movement sought to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims by converting philosophy into "scientific philosophy", which, according to the logical positivists, ought to share the bases and structures of

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and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism

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The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the

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by Neurath whose view of science was already nonfoundationalist as mentioned above—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics. Kuhn's ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in

1802:—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation. In later articles, Hempel defended the DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model). the DN and IS models together form the 1109:

Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability. A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized

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that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules". According to

629:. Despite its ambition to overhaul philosophy by studying and mimicking the extant conduct of empirical science, logical positivism became erroneously stereotyped as a movement to regulate the scientific process and to place strict standards on it. 1324:

aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other. By Hume's fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary,

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longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms: the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions. Carnap also provided an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.

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The logical positivists' initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" in terms of conveying truth value, information or factual content only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth. By this

2039:, which considers that human knowledge evolves by conjectures and refutations, and that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. For Popper, science's aim is 2220:, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists. Putnam's four objections: 2270:

quipped that "the most important" defect of logical positivism "was that nearly all of it was false," though he maintained "it was true in spirit." Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of

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Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observational term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observational

2827:, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick's asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". 2228:

With Carnap's classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observational terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observational terms.

2254:, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans' sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other 1902:, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as self-contradictory: the verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified. Notable critics included 2299:

critiqued logical positivism, often misrepresenting it without thorough examination. It was generally reduced to oversimplifications and stereotypes, particularly associating it with

686:, whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, verificationists took all sciences' basic content to be only sensory experience. And some influence came from 2087:

explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker's conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed

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empiricist view that humans observe sequences of events, (not cause and effect, as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable), the DN model neglects causality beyond mere

1216:'s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals. In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945. Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap's 10106: 920:, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. 1102:

summarized the Vienna Circle's positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was

644:, had emigrated to the United States. In the ensuing years, the movement's central premises, still unresolved, were heavily criticised by leading philosophers, particularly 4554:

Die Berliner Gruppe. Texte zum Logischen Empirismus von Walter Dubislav, Kurt Grelling, Carl G. Hempel, Alexander Herzberg, Kurt Lewin, Paul Oppenheim und Hans Reichenbach.

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by its rejecting scientific theory's ability to garner knowledge about nature's unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted

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deductive relationships (as in Carnap's "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept.

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in the English-speaking world and reintroducing empiricism in Britain. Its influence extended beyond philosophy, particularly in psychology and social sciences.

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and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal. No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new

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Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement. Hempel criticized the positivist thesis that empirical knowledge is restricted to

1174:'s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences". 3769: 4352: 830:

In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and the United States. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with

3500: 3473: 4314: 6949: 2051:("truthlikeness"). Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement's emphasis on science but claimed that he had "killed positivism". 9479: 4760: 4603:

Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories: Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial, University of Konstanz, 21–24 May 1991

3646: 4276: 2157:) that scientists must rebuild at sea.) Although Kuhn's thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to 3804: 2187:

disciplines well outside natural sciences, and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences, ushered academia into

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is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained. In the DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—

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For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning",

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After World War II, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the

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Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of

838:, whereby science's content is not actual or potential sensations, but instead consists of entities that are publicly observable. 7173: 2133: 658: 4136: 2860: 1130:. As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views. 10363: 9141: 5328: 3373: 183: 10301: 6412: 5568: 4256: 4187: 3744: 3711: 3676: 3226: 3199: 3112: 2961: 2620: 2595: 2433: 2258:—whereby scientific theory is but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism's decline. 2115:, as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any 9472: 6445: 2561:

gave a nice (if for us ironical) explanation of the boon Carnap expects from the logical reform of grammar. Right-thinking

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shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic. Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap's 1934 work

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explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of

10373: 10271: 10136: 9380: 8540: 6989: 6339: 5243: 4095: 2068: 1810:. Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model). 1305: 1287: 925: 912: 675: 251: 1232:, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the English-speaking world. 10383: 10017: 9796: 9758: 9708: 7954: 7539: 7197: 6533: 6033: 5513: 4871: 2810: 1487:; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements. 1329:), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, 940:, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein's interpretation of 121: 4838: 4004: 3497: 3470: 3338: 989:. Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics. Yet 10333: 10266: 10166: 9359: 9264: 8912: 7629: 6981: 6867: 6579: 6402: 5914: 5836: 5553: 5347: 4513: 4469:

Rationality and Science: A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth

1118:, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism's basis. A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and 626: 511: 4846: 3135: 1122:—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from 10353: 10328: 10007: 9957: 9163: 8877: 7506: 7181: 7013: 6830: 5318: 2035:

Explicitly denying the positivist view of meaning and verification, Popper developed the epistemology of

1977: 1685: 535: 197: 135: 4290:"Positivism, scientific realism and political science: Recent developments in the philosophy of science" 2320: – Truth of a statement rests on its demonstrability, not its correspondence to an external reality 1862:

and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences' laws would reduce to

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or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it ,

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clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory.

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Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science

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quested to answer Hume's challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his

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Essays on Explanation and Understanding: Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences

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reveals any phenomenon's capacity to host more than one logically possible explanation. Accepting

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Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and the removal from philosophy of rivals for radical reform—

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found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".

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In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced

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Werkmeister, William (May 1937). "Seven Theses of Logical Positivism Critically Examined".

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The Vienna Circle. Studies in the Origins, Development, and Influence of Logical Empiricism

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pronounced logical positivism "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".

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See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination of metaphysics through logical analysis of language",

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To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of

1013:). Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism. 8: 10378: 10338: 10236: 10226: 10076: 10032: 9866: 9643: 9558: 9445: 9400: 9390: 9349: 9297: 9282: 9211: 9191: 9173: 9005: 8972: 8833: 8820: 8627: 8424: 8335: 8290: 8196: 8082: 7895: 7743: 7352: 7189: 6637: 6620: 6574: 6564: 6431: 6117: 6048: 5826: 5657: 5639: 5603: 5523: 5478: 5468: 5370: 5158: 5141: 5121: 5084: 5033: 5028: 4970: 4907: 4879: 3869: 2304: 2239: 1903: 1867: 1653: 1348:, Kant crossed the tines of Hume's fork to identify another range of truths by necessity— 1187: 917: 887: 863: 815: 521: 325: 280: 234: 167: 147: 98: 83: 8157: 2524:

Allen, Barry (May 2007). "Turning back the linguistic turn in the theory of knowledge".

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Carnap, Rudolf. 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language'

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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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4528: 4490: 4370: 4361: 4289: 4143: 3650: 3504: 3477: 3342: 2864: 2624: 2465: 2379: 2332: – Austrian/Czech physicist, philosopher and university educator (1838–1916) 2300: 2255: 2234:

A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is

2169: 2142: 1827: 1661: 1254: 842:, who had sparked logical positivism in the Vienna Circle, had sought to replace 806:. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a 791: 695: 622: 582: 574: 350: 8231: 4808: 4675:

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was key in establishing the subdiscipline of the philosophy of science, where

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of scientific explanation. Logical positivism became a major underpinning of

636:, the movement shifted to a milder variant, logical empiricism, led mainly by 613:, which, in these two cities, would propound the ideas of logical positivism. 10322: 10256: 9871: 9776: 9771: 9733: 9653: 9633: 9608: 9573: 9055: 8967: 8897: 8639: 8429: 8363: 8320: 8189: 7814: 7600: 7582: 7100: 7095: 7070: 6879: 6820: 6731: 6659: 6584: 6380: 6349: 6236: 6231: 6201: 6167: 6137: 6132: 6063: 6058: 5988: 5980: 5957: 5864: 5811: 5702: 5667: 5629: 5558: 5458: 5427: 5163: 5104: 4155:

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entities or such notions as causality and general principles, but that is an

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or elliptical: direct observations phrased abstractly or indirectly. So

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For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the

2753: 2737: 2267: 1847: 1673: 1637: 1612: 1588: 1571: 1508: 1472: 1364: 1317: 1213: 1199: 1115: 1042: 1030: 977:, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical positivists, such as 679: 409: 40: 5339: 4411:

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open to the layperson. Kuhn's book was first published in a volume of

1190:

in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered in 1936 at

959:

began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with

662:

dramatically shifted academic philosophy's focus. In 1967 philosopher

581:

asserts that only statements verifiable through direct observation or

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By the late 1960s, logical positivism had become exhausted. In 1976,

2162: 1681: 1677: 1619:, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, 1512: 1360: 1334: 1296: 1183: 719: 598: 8167: 4694: 4245:

William Stahl; Robert A. Campbell; Gary Diver; Yvonne Petry (2002).

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Reports of observational terms frequently contain theoretical terms.

1281:

is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning

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Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in

2567: 2247: 1854:, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the 1491: 1460: 964: 775: 743: 739: 678:

the verifiability principle or criterion of meaningfulness. As in

444: 4575:

Logical Empiricism – Historical and Contemporary Perspectives

3855: 2720: 2645:

Behaviorism and Logical Positivism: A Reassessment of the Alliance

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as rendering empirical verification logically impossible, and the

730:

Logical positivism is sometimes stereotyped as forbidding talk of

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For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold,

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with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America. Upon Germany's

932:). Wittgenstein's influence also shows in some versions of the 10107:

An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language

10042: 8664: 8585: 8315: 7974: 7964: 7662: 7564: 6785: 5016: 4718: 2562: 2112: 2028: 1515:—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions. 1464: 1292: 1229: 1228:

in 1938, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also

1221: 944:

although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found

711: 641: 391: 4827:, Paul Edwards (ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1967, first edition 3275:

Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler's

2940:

Ray, Christopher (September 2017), Newton-Smith, W. H. (ed.),

1695:

In the DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the

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Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Merrilee H. (ed.)

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to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn's critics agreed.

1882:, drew escalated criticism. The verifiability criterion made 1775: 1692:

in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".

586: 577:(also known as the verifiability criterion of meaning). This 396: 4620:

Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath

4380:

Webs of Reality: Social Perspectives on Science and Religion

4248:

Webs of Reality: Social Perspectives on Science and Religion

2845:

Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath

2487:, Paul Edwards (ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1967, 1st edition 985:. Carnap's early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell's 742:

Rather, most neopositivists viewed talk of unobservables as

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Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Empiricism and Logical Syntax

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Putnam also alleged that positivism was actually a form of

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Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed,

1033:. Starting in the late 19th century, there was a "back to 8325: 4737:

The Scientific Conception of the World: The Vienna Circle

1490:

Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while

1025:

was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as

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Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Cognitive Science

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but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated

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Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions

2785:"Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism" 2349:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap.

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hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning

1208:, written in English, import logical positivism to the 4747:

Carnap, Rudolf. 'Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology.'

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and to Carnap, as to the Party, that's a sore defect.

2382: – Austrian-born American philosopher (1906-1987) 1082:

position, but later converted, via Carnap's 1928 book

4818:

Murzi, Mauro. 'The Philosophy of Logical Positivism.'

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Otto Neurath: Philosophy Between Science and Politics

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Rey, Georges. 'The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction',

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showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and

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Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969. 4222:"Ayer on Logical Positivism: Section 4" 4017:Hanson, Norwood Russell (8 June 1967). 3801:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3766:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3736:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 3700:"Rudolf Carnap Testability and Meaning" 3633:(Dordrecht: D Reidel Publishing, 1976). 3602: 3509:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3482:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3409:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3370:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3183: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3140:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2982: 2948:(1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 243–251, 2889:(Burlington MA: North Holland, 2009), 2590:, London: Routledge, pp. 157–244, 2476: 2347: – Empiricist philosophical theory 2134:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1574:'s book arrived in 1946, and discerned 1340:Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", 659:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 14: 10321: 6529:Machian positivism (empirio-criticism) 4885:Articles related to logical positivism 4823:Passmore, John. 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Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1970. 3887:"The Logic of Scientific Discovery" 3347:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3243:Revue Internationale de Philosophie 3133: 2939: 2629:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2497: 1841: 1821: 24: 6806:Nomothetic–idiographic distinction 4781: 4763:Dictionary of the History of Ideas 4589:The Heritage of Logical Positivism 4542:. New York: Greenwood Press, 1953. 4538:Kraft, Victor. The Vienna Circle: 4396: 4175:The Oxford Companion to Philosophy 3969: 3922: 3507:– Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, 3290: 1088:The Logical Structure of the World 866:, and dominated philosophy in the 710:). Unscientific discourse, as in 25: 10395: 7134:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 7118:Materialism and Empirio-criticism 6974:The Course in Positive Philosophy 4711: 4503:, "Positive Thinking" (review of 4434:. New York: Longmans Green, 1954. 4420:. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1959. 2701:. Yale University Press. p. 1957:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 1954:, arriving in English in 1959 as 948:to contain too much metaphysics. 517:Social and political philosophers 9441: 9440: 9427: 6407: 6398: 6397: 5302: 4811:The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief 4717: 4462:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 4362:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 4331:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 4311:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 3885:Popper, Karl (4 November 2005). 3669:Kindlers Literatur Lexikon (KLL) 3569:(Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p. 25. 3533:Structure of Scientific Theories 3084:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 2983:Bartley, W. W. (February 1982). 2466:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 1858:. And ultimately, by supplying 1770:be true, and is consequent of a 1483:was variously defined: having a 967:, and Russell continued it with 858:, in America, who expounded the 674:Logical positivists picked from 61: 47: 7126:History and Class Consciousness 4731:Articles by logical positivists 4651:. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. 4642:. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. 4633:. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. 4631:: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel 4623:. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. 4522:Logical Positivism and Politics 4294:Journal of Theoretical Politics 4282: 4265: 4214: 4208:Routledge History of Philosophy 4149: 4056:Daston, Lorraine (1 May 2020). 4049: 4010: 3862: 3739:. University of Chicago Press. 3726: 3691: 3656: 3636: 3585: 3572: 3559: 3542: 3396: 3308: 3269: 3252: 3235: 3208: 3153: 3127: 3093: 2976: 2933: 2896: 2850: 2830: 2817: 2777: 2428:. University of Chicago Press. 2153:by likening science to a boat ( 1946:An early, tenacious critic was 1518: 1437: 10137:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 7391: 6990:Critical History of Philosophy 6453: 5610:Analytic–synthetic distinction 4825:The Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4776:Articles on logical positivism 4556:Hamburg: Meiner 2015. (German) 3840:. Cambridge University Press. 3704:Logical Empiricism at its Peak 3041:Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). 2836:"Positivismus und realismus", 2575: 2517: 2491: 2485:The Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2417: 1832:Logical Structure of the World 1632: 1090:. A 1929 pamphlet written by 926:correspondence theory of truth 913:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 825: 725: 27:Movement in Western philosophy 13: 1: 10364:Meaning in religious language 10018:Principle of compositionality 9124: 7198:Knowledge and Human Interests 6534:Rankean historical positivism 4754:Philosophy and Logical Syntax 4752:Excerpt from Carnap, Rudolf. 4497:. Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1981. 4484:Origins of Logical Empiricism 4344: 4172:(1995). Ted Honderich (ed.). 3934:"Conjectures and Refutations" 3593:Explanation and Understanding 3407:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), 3285:Philosophy and Logical Syntax 2424:Peter Godfrey-Smith. (2010). 2303:. The movement helped anchor 2145:. (But already in the 1930s, 1898:ought to take, as well as on 1420:and verifiable empirically). 1235: 1016: 722:, not develop new knowledge. 10167:Philosophical Investigations 8913:Ordinary language philosophy 7404: 7316: 6982:A General View of Positivism 4514:The New York Review of Books 4443:. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994. 3988:From a Logical Point of View 3986::20–43, collected in Quine, 3799:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). 3368:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). 3302:Language, Truth, and Meaning 3215:Helen Buss Mitchell (2010). 2240:original theory of evolution 1158:—the then leading figure of 1084:Der logische Aufbau der Welt 963:, but lost interest in this 627:general theory of relativity 7: 10008:Modality (natural language) 8963:Contemporary utilitarianism 8878:Internalism and externalism 7182:Conjectures and Refutations 7014:The Logic of Modern Physics 6831:Deductive-nomological model 4427:. Roma Bari: Laterza, 1986. 4210:. Routledge. pp. 193f. 3932:Popper, Karl (1 May 2014). 3764:. In Edward N Zalta (ed.). 3336:"Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970)" 2310: 2107:undermined the division of 2069:analytic/synthetic division 1814:, another critic, named it 1686:deductive-nomological model 1007:Logische Syntax der Sprache 951: 906: 10: 10400: 10147:Language, Truth, and Logic 9887:Theological noncognitivism 9772:Contrast theory of meaning 9767:Causal theory of reference 9498:Index of language articles 8227:Svatantrika and Prasangika 7866: 7142:The Poverty of Historicism 7038:The Universe in a Nutshell 7022:Language, Truth, and Logic 7006:The Analysis of Sensations 5509:Causal theory of reference 4673:Stadler, Friedrich (ed.). 4570:. Milano: F. Angeli, 1983. 3762:"The problem of induction" 3281:Language, Truth, and Logic 2954:10.1002/9781405164481.ch37 2261: 2063:published the 1951 paper " 1873: 1625:. Receiving support from 1583:proposition, other than a 1503:statements cannot justify 1052: 1011:Logical Syntax of Language 752:would garner meaning from 669: 640:, who, during the rise of 10287: 10232:Philosophy of information 10219: 10068: 9920: 9832:Mediated reference theory 9757: 9504: 9495: 9421: 9373: 9273: 9235: 9182: 9149: 9140: 9136: 9119: 9069: 8981: 8819: 8810: 8743: 8526: 8517: 8495: 8450: 8392: 8344: 8298: 8289: 8252: 8123: 7988: 7935: 7926: 7876: 7872: 7861: 7800: 7772: 7729: 7681: 7638: 7591: 7563: 7515: 7487: 7449:Philosophy of mathematics 7439:Philosophy of information 7414: 7410: 7399: 7350: 7298: 7232: 7222:The Rhetoric of Economics 7109: 7048: 6965: 6912: 6908: 6903:Positivist-related debate 6897: 6724: 6693: 6608: 6552: 6496: 6465: 6461: 6393: 6368: 6330: 6304: 6278: 6250: 6194: 6166: 6103: 6082: 6021: 5979: 5956: 5933: 5835: 5779: 5741: 5685: 5592: 5496: 5446: 5420: 5384: 5377: 5297: 5257: 5229: 5222: 5174:Necessity and sufficiency 5077: 5042: 4994: 4948: 4930: 4922: 4890: 4511:, Basic Books, 449 pp.), 4023:The Journal of Philosophy 4019:"An Anatomy of Discovery" 3591:Georg Henrik von Wright, 3550:Objects in Social Science 3434:Language, Truth and Logic 2887:Philosophy of Mathematics 2809:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2373: 2324:Definitions of philosophy 2194: 2094: 1941: 1558:). Hempel elucidated the 1367:into the very experience 1205:Language, Truth and Logic 1186:, Moritz Schlick visited 1177: 1149: 1133: 1074:, was led principally by 1057: 930:coherence theory of truth 621:' best examples, such as 264:Middle Eastern philosophy 10344:Epistemological theories 10157:Two Dogmas of Empiricism 7158:Two Dogmas of Empiricism 6875:Structural functionalism 6801:Naturalism in literature 5569:Scientific structuralism 4683:The Philosophical Review 4425:Il neopositivismo logico 4142:25 November 2016 at the 4074:10.1215/08992363-8090152 3733:Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996). 3498:"Scientific explanation" 3471:"Scientific explanation" 3403:Crupi, Vincenzo (2021), 3372:(Summer 2012 ed.). 3260:The future Of philosophy 2540:10.1177/0725513607076129 2410: 2360:The Structure of Science 2089:naturalized epistemology 2065:Two Dogmas of Empiricism 2054: 1970:affirming the consequent 1806:, as named by a critic, 1699:—which can be an event, 1481:Cognitive meaningfulness 1433:Cognitive meaningfulness 1162:, so called—and against 1049:were a major influence. 901: 10349:Epistemology of science 9958:Use–mention distinction 9802:Direct reference theory 8918:Postanalytic philosophy 8859:Experimental philosophy 7285:Willard Van Orman Quine 6998:Idealism and Positivism 6590:Critique of metaphysics 6524:Sociological positivism 4851:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 4552:Milkov, Nikolay (ed.). 4471:. Wien: Springer, 1982. 3503:2 December 2013 at the 3476:2 December 2013 at the 3341:14 October 2013 at the 2863:9 November 2006 at the 2345:Sociological positivism 2126: 2061:Willard Van Orman Quine 1890:, Ayer's acceptance of 1812:Georg Henrik von Wright 1560:paradox of confirmation 1477:cognitively meaningless 1469:cognitively meaningless 1445:verifiability principle 1357:transcendental idealism 1253:is a state true in all 1142:was led principally by 934:verifiability principle 880:Willard Van Orman Quine 800:Rational reconstruction 646:Willard van Orman Quine 9892:Theory of descriptions 9827:Linguistic determinism 9489:Philosophy of language 9051:Social constructionism 8063:Hellenistic philosophy 7479:Theoretical philosophy 7454:Philosophy of religion 7444:Philosophy of language 7330: 7299:Concepts in contention 6940: 6930: 6920: 6811:Objectivity in science 6709:Non-Euclidean geometry 6675:Methodological dualism 6636: 5625:Reflective equilibrium 4654:Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.) 4645:Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) 4636:Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) 4626:Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) 4617:Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) 4608:Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) 4386:Suppe, Frederick, ed, 3957:Cite journal requires 3910:Cite journal requires 3836:Hilary Putnam (1985). 3803:(Fall 2008 ed.). 3795:Uebel, Thomas (2008). 3768:(Fall 2011 ed.). 3535:(U Illinois P, 1977), 3453:(Cambridge UP, 1988), 3364:Fetzer, James (2012). 3086:(Cambridge UP, 1999), 2623:10 August 2015 at the 2287:brought in the era of 2212:, a former student of 2085:ontological relativity 1986:denying the consequent 1794:and then always event 1640:had viewed science as 1570:The second edition of 1552:observation statements 1453:cognitively meaningful 1451:or by empiricism were 1424:Observation/theory gap 1241:Analytic/synthetic gap 1210:English-speaking world 1078:. Schlick had held a 1003:undefinability theorem 995:incompleteness theorem 969:Alfred North Whitehead 868:English-speaking world 704:cognitively meaningful 589:value, information or 575:verification principle 487:Aesthetic philosophers 10374:Philosophy of science 10003:Mental representation 9938:Linguistic relativity 9822:Inquisitive semantics 9434:Philosophy portal 8953:Scientific skepticism 8933:Reformed epistemology 7459:Philosophy of science 7206:The Poverty of Theory 6826:Philosophy of science 6715:Uncertainty principle 6296:Nicholas Wolterstorff 5751:David Malet Armstrong 5309:Philosophy portal 4533:Wittgenstein's Vienna 4300:(3):361–82, abstract. 3942:10.4324/9780203538074 3895:10.4324/9780203994627 3663:Hinst, Peter (2020), 3580:Philosophy of Science 3567:Philosophy of Science 3548:Eleonora Montuschi, 3258:See Moritz Schlick, " 3134:Rey, Georges (2023), 2498:HKT (20 April 2020). 2248:metaphysical idealism 2105:Patterns of Discovery 1900:philosophy of science 1766:—a law suggests what 1652:by covering not only 1622:philosophy of science 1617:scientific philosophy 1595:Philosophy of science 1499:, the principle that 1463:, as well as much of 1226:annexation of Austria 1194:by a former student, 974:Principia Mathematica 872:philosophy of science 68:Philosophy portal 10384:Theories of language 10187:Naming and Necessity 10097:De Arte Combinatoria 9896:Definite description 9857:Semantic externalism 8854:Critical rationalism 8561:Edo neo-Confucianism 8405:Acintya bheda abheda 8384:Renaissance humanism 8095:School of the Sextii 7469:Practical philosophy 7464:Political philosophy 7214:The Scientific Image 6885:Structuration theory 6848:Qualitative research 6749:Criticism of science 6744:Critical rationalism 6680:Problem of induction 4784:"Logical Empiricism" 4726:at Wikimedia Commons 4663:Stadler, Friedrich. 4559:Mises von, Richard. 4474:Geymonat, Ludovico. 4448:Wittgenstein's Poker 4416:Ayer, Alfred Jules. 3980:Philosophical Review 3760:John Vicker (2011). 3649:23 June 2007 at the 3188:Antony Flew (1984). 2942:"Logical Positivism" 2693:Bunge, M.A. (1996). 2641:Smith, L.D. (1986). 2555:Nineteen Eighty-Four 2552:In his famous novel 2500:"Logical empiricism" 2354:Strategic positivism 2037:critical rationalism 1978:hypotheticodeduction 1962:problem of induction 1884:universal statements 1788:constant conjunction 1664:, too, for instance 1495:indirectly asserted 1385:problem of induction 1379:. Thus, Kant saved 1068:University of Vienna 1023:Hegelian metaphysics 766:would be reduced to 760:correspondence rules 708:emotively meaningful 512:Philosophers of mind 10334:Analytic philosophy 10237:Philosophical logic 10227:Analytic philosophy 10033:Sense and reference 9912:Verification theory 9867:Situation semantics 8425:Nimbarka Sampradaya 8336:Korean Confucianism 8083:Academic Skepticism 7190:One-Dimensional Man 6638:Geisteswissenschaft 6621:Confirmation holism 6118:Patricia Churchland 6049:Christine Korsgaard 5935:Logical positivists 5827:Ludwig Wittgenstein 5604:paradox of analysis 5371:Analytic philosophy 4971:Philosophy of logic 4587:Rescher, Nicholas. 4545:McGuinness, Brian. 4460:Friedman, Michael. 4423:Barone, Francesco. 4359:Friedman, Michael, 4333:(Cambridge, 1999), 4313:(Cambridge, 1999), 4157:Scientific Inquiry, 3870:inductive inference 3264:The Linguistic Turn 2305:analytic philosophy 2205:correspondence rule 2191:or postempiricism. 1952:Logik der Forschung 1868:fundamental science 1864:fundamental physics 1860:boundary conditions 1658:fundamental physics 1654:fundamental science 1556:protocol statements 1513:boo/hooray doctrine 1291:is true via terms' 1220:who had studied in 1188:Stanford University 1066:, gathering around 918:Ludwig Wittgenstein 864:analytic philosophy 812:empirical operation 755:observational terms 579:theory of knowledge 522:Women in philosophy 252:Indigenous American 35:Part of a series on 10354:History of science 10329:Logical positivism 10087:Port-Royal Grammar 9983:Family resemblance 9902:Theory of language 9877:Supposition theory 9046:Post-structuralism 8948:Scientific realism 8903:Quinean naturalism 8883:Logical positivism 8839:Analytical Marxism 8058:Peripatetic school 7970:Chinese naturalism 7497:Aesthetic response 7424:Applied philosophy 7265:Hans-Georg Gadamer 7066:Alexander Bogdanov 6942:Positivismusstreit 6737:Post-behavioralism 6701:history of science 6553:Principal concepts 6509:Logical positivism 6291:William Lane Craig 6009:Friedrich Waismann 5966:Carl Gustav Hempel 5925:Timothy Williamson 5885:Alasdair MacIntyre 5743:Australian realism 5723:Russ Shafer-Landau 5584:Analytical Thomism 5539:Logical positivism 5270:Rules of inference 5239:Mathematical logic 4981:Semantics of logic 4724:Logical positivism 4495:Logical Positivism 4430:Bergmann, Gustav. 4418:Logical Positivism 4408:Barker, Stephen F. 4350:Bechtel, William, 4273:Scientific Realism 3437:, 1946, pp. 50–51. 3300:Ayer, A.J (1936). 3277:Anatomy of Inquiry 3001:10.1007/bf02378809 2928:Scientific Inquiry 2912:Logical Positivism 2463:Michael Friedman, 2398:Friedrich Waismann 2252:scientific realism 2203:" operates on the 2131:With his landmark 2045:scientific realism 1848:Comtean positivism 1816:subsumption theory 1804:covering law model 1733:plus general laws 1638:Comtean positivism 1045:'s positivism and 860:covering law model 852:logical empiricism 619:empirical sciences 567:logical empiricism 563:Logical positivism 215:Eastern philosophy 18:Logical empiricism 10316: 10315: 10310: 10309: 9812:Dynamic semantics 9455: 9454: 9417: 9416: 9413: 9412: 9409: 9408: 9115: 9114: 9111: 9110: 9107: 9106: 8834:Analytic feminism 8806: 8805: 8768:Kierkegaardianism 8730:Transcendentalism 8690:Neo-scholasticism 8536:Classical Realism 8513: 8512: 8285: 8284: 8100:Neopythagoreanism 7857: 7856: 7853: 7852: 7474:Social philosophy 7359: 7358: 7346: 7345: 7342: 7341: 7240:Theodor W. Adorno 7056:Richard Avenarius 6932:Werturteilsstreit 6893: 6892: 6841:Sense-data theory 6539:Polish positivism 6514:Positivist school 6421: 6420: 6389: 6388: 6105:Pittsburgh School 6095:Peter van Inwagen 6029:Roderick Chisholm 6017: 6016: 5910:Richard Swinburne 5845:G. E. M. Anscombe 5681: 5680: 5579:Analytic theology 5554:Ordinary language 5492: 5491: 5337: 5336: 5293: 5292: 5127:Deductive closure 5073: 5072: 5012:Critical thinking 4782:Creath, Richard. 4722:Media related to 4527:Janik, Allan and 4467:Gadol, Eugene T. 4404:Achinstein, Peter 4258:978-0-8135-3107-6 4189:978-0-19-866132-0 4170:Nicholas G Fotion 4096:Cartwright, Nancy 3746:978-0-226-45808-3 3713:978-1-003-24957-3 3678:978-3-476-05728-0 3511:, Winter 2011 edn 3484:, Winter 2011 edn 3228:978-0-495-80896-1 3201:978-0-312-20923-0 3114:978-0-429-23433-0 3105:Beyond Positivism 2963:978-0-631-23020-5 2597:978-1-003-55703-6 2435:978-1-282-64630-8 2404:R. B. Braithwaite 2330:Empirio-criticism 2172:, was written in 2121:laden with theory 1974:scientific method 1966:deductive fallacy 1892:weak verification 1772:scientific theory 1566:Weak verification 1540:Beobachtungssätze 854:, led largely by 796:ordinary language 749:theoretical terms 656:'s landmark book 560: 559: 368: 367: 16:(Redirected from 10391: 10272:Formal semantics 10220:Related articles 10212: 10202: 10192: 10182: 10172: 10162: 10152: 10142: 10132: 10122: 10112: 10102: 10092: 10082: 9852:Relevance theory 9847:Phallogocentrism 9482: 9475: 9468: 9459: 9458: 9444: 9443: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9147: 9146: 9138: 9137: 9121: 9120: 9011:Frankfurt School 8958:Transactionalism 8908:Normative ethics 8888:Legal positivism 8864:Falsificationism 8849:Consequentialism 8844:Communitarianism 8817: 8816: 8685:New Confucianism 8524: 8523: 8331:Neo-Confucianism 8296: 8295: 8105:Second Sophistic 8090:Middle Platonism 7933: 7932: 7874: 7873: 7863: 7862: 7706:Epiphenomenalism 7573:Consequentialism 7507:Institutionalism 7412: 7411: 7401: 7400: 7386: 7379: 7372: 7363: 7362: 7335: 7321: 7245:Gaston Bachelard 7166:Truth and Method 7150:World Hypotheses 7030:The Two Cultures 6945: 6935: 6925: 6910: 6909: 6899: 6898: 6641: 6595:Unity of science 6504:Legal positivism 6463: 6462: 6448: 6441: 6434: 6425: 6424: 6411: 6410: 6401: 6400: 6340:Nancy Cartwright 6181:Nicholas Rescher 6158:Bas van Fraassen 6148:Nicholas Rescher 5971:Hans Reichenbach 5954: 5953: 5920:Bernard Williams 5817:Bertrand Russell 5739: 5738: 5673:Rigid designator 5636: 5635: 5382: 5381: 5378:Related articles 5364: 5357: 5350: 5341: 5340: 5307: 5306: 5305: 5227: 5226: 4992: 4991: 4956:Computer science 4917: 4910: 4903: 4894: 4893: 4881: 4880: 4803:Philosophy Pages 4797: 4788:Zalta, Edward N. 4721: 4706: 4580:Reisch, George. 4566:Parrini, Paolo. 4529:Toulmin, Stephen 4491:Hanfling, Oswald 4338: 4327: 4318: 4307: 4301: 4286: 4280: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4203: 4194: 4193: 4166: 4160: 4153: 4147: 4133:That Noble Dream 4129: 4114: 4113: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4014: 4008: 4001:That Noble Dream 3997: 3991: 3976: 3967: 3966: 3960: 3955: 3953: 3945: 3929: 3920: 3919: 3913: 3908: 3906: 3898: 3882: 3873: 3866: 3860: 3859: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3814: 3812: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3779: 3777: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3730: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3660: 3654: 3640: 3634: 3625:Manfred Riedel, 3623: 3617: 3608:Stuart Glennan, 3606: 3600: 3589: 3583: 3576: 3570: 3563: 3557: 3546: 3540: 3529: 3512: 3496:James Woodward, 3494: 3485: 3469:James Woodward, 3467: 3458: 3451:That Noble Dream 3447: 3438: 3429: 3420: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3383: 3381: 3361: 3350: 3349:, 12 April 2001. 3332: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3297: 3288: 3273: 3267: 3256: 3250: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3185: 3172: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3149: 3147: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3097: 3091: 3080: 3059: 3058: 3038: 3013: 3012: 2995:(1–2): 121–221. 2980: 2974: 2973: 2972: 2970: 2937: 2931: 2924: 2915: 2900: 2894: 2883: 2868: 2854: 2848: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2815: 2814: 2808: 2800: 2794: 2792: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2750:John Stuart Mill 2729: 2727: 2700: 2690: 2684: 2683: 2677: 2675: 2648: 2638: 2632: 2614: 2608: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2579: 2573: 2572: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2495: 2489: 2480: 2474: 2461: 2448: 2447: 2421: 2350: 2335: 2185: 2174:natural language 2023:pseudoscientific 1950:whose 1934 book 1852:unity of science 1842:Theory reduction 1822:Unity of science 1662:special sciences 1650:unity of science 1603:neo-Kantianism, 1548:basic statements 1259:logical validity 1212:. By then, the 1172:Martin Heidegger 1144:Hans Reichenbach 961:Bertrand Russell 820:falsity or truth 808:logical calculus 790:. Via Russell's 772:Bertrand Russell 764:theoretical laws 552: 545: 538: 257:Aztec philosophy 136:Ancient Egyptian 118: 117: 70: 66: 65: 64: 51: 32: 31: 21: 10399: 10398: 10394: 10393: 10392: 10390: 10389: 10388: 10359:Linguistic turn 10319: 10318: 10317: 10312: 10311: 10306: 10283: 10262:School of Names 10215: 10210: 10200: 10190: 10180: 10177:Of Grammatology 10170: 10160: 10150: 10140: 10130: 10120: 10110: 10100: 10090: 10080: 10064: 9916: 9862:Semantic holism 9842:Non-cognitivism 9782:Conventionalism 9753: 9500: 9491: 9486: 9456: 9451: 9428: 9426: 9405: 9369: 9269: 9231: 9178: 9132: 9131: 9103: 9092:Russian cosmism 9065: 9061:Western Marxism 9026:New Historicism 8991:Critical theory 8977: 8973:Wittgensteinian 8869:Foundationalism 8802: 8739: 8720:Social contract 8576:Foundationalism 8509: 8491: 8475:Illuminationism 8460:Aristotelianism 8446: 8435:Vishishtadvaita 8388: 8340: 8281: 8248: 8119: 8048:Megarian school 8043:Eretrian school 7984: 7945:Agriculturalism 7922: 7868: 7849: 7796: 7768: 7725: 7677: 7634: 7618:Incompatibilism 7587: 7559: 7511: 7483: 7406: 7395: 7390: 7360: 7355: 7338: 7294: 7260:Paul Feyerabend 7255:Wilhelm Dilthey 7228: 7105: 7044: 6961: 6904: 6889: 6836:Ramsey sentence 6791:Instrumentalism 6720: 6698: 6696:paradigm shifts 6689: 6626:Critical theory 6604: 6600:Verificationism 6548: 6544:Russian Machism 6492: 6457: 6452: 6422: 6417: 6408: 6385: 6376:Jan Łukasiewicz 6364: 6332:Stanford School 6326: 6312:Paul Feyerabend 6300: 6286:Alvin Plantinga 6274: 6260:James F. Conant 6246: 6190: 6162: 6153:Wilfrid Sellars 6143:Alexander Pruss 6123:Paul Churchland 6099: 6078: 6034:Donald Davidson 6013: 5975: 5952: 5929: 5855:Michael Dummett 5831: 5822:Frank P. Ramsey 5775: 5737: 5713:Jaakko Hintikka 5698:Keith Donnellan 5677: 5634: 5588: 5549:Neurophilosophy 5534:Logical atomism 5488: 5442: 5416: 5373: 5368: 5338: 5333: 5303: 5301: 5289: 5253: 5244:Boolean algebra 5218: 5069: 5060:Metamathematics 5038: 4990: 4944: 4926: 4921: 4886: 4714: 4709: 4695:10.2307/2181086 4478:. Torino, 1934. 4437:Cirera, Ramon. 4399: 4397:Further reading 4368:Novick, Peter, 4347: 4342: 4341: 4328: 4321: 4308: 4304: 4287: 4283: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4243: 4239: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4167: 4163: 4154: 4150: 4144:Wayback Machine 4130: 4117: 4110: 4093: 4089: 4054: 4050: 4035:10.2307/2024301 4015: 4011: 3998: 3994: 3977: 3970: 3958: 3956: 3947: 3946: 3930: 3923: 3911: 3909: 3900: 3899: 3883: 3876: 3867: 3863: 3848: 3834: 3830: 3810: 3808: 3797:"Vienna Circle" 3793: 3789: 3775: 3773: 3758: 3754: 3747: 3731: 3727: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3696: 3692: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3661: 3657: 3651:Wayback Machine 3641: 3637: 3624: 3620: 3607: 3603: 3590: 3586: 3577: 3573: 3564: 3560: 3547: 3543: 3530: 3515: 3505:Wayback Machine 3495: 3488: 3478:Wayback Machine 3468: 3461: 3448: 3441: 3430: 3423: 3414: 3412: 3401: 3397: 3379: 3377: 3362: 3353: 3343:Wayback Machine 3333: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3298: 3291: 3274: 3270: 3257: 3253: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3186: 3175: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3145: 3143: 3132: 3128: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3081: 3062: 3055: 3039: 3016: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2938: 2934: 2925: 2918: 2910:, reprinted in 2901: 2897: 2884: 2871: 2865:Wayback Machine 2855: 2851: 2835: 2831: 2822: 2818: 2802: 2801: 2790: 2788: 2783: 2782: 2778: 2725: 2723: 2713: 2691: 2687: 2673: 2671: 2661: 2639: 2635: 2625:Wayback Machine 2618:"Vienna Circle" 2615: 2611: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2580: 2576: 2534:(1): 6–22 (7). 2522: 2518: 2508: 2506: 2496: 2492: 2481: 2477: 2462: 2451: 2436: 2422: 2418: 2413: 2380:Gustav Bergmann 2376: 2371: 2348: 2333: 2313: 2301:foundationalism 2264: 2256:instrumentalism 2197: 2183: 2170:formal language 2143:foundationalism 2129: 2097: 2057: 1944: 1876: 1844: 1828:Unified Science 1824: 1752: 1746: 1739: 1731: 1724: 1717: 1635: 1607:phenomenology, 1597: 1568: 1521: 1440: 1435: 1426: 1337:and illusion". 1255:possible worlds 1243: 1238: 1180: 1152: 1136: 1060: 1055: 1019: 987:theory of types 954: 916:, by the young 909: 904: 876:social sciences 828: 792:logical atomism 728: 696:verificationism 672: 623:Albert Einstein 565:, later called 556: 527: 526: 492:Epistemologists 482: 481: 470: 469: 406: 382: 381: 370: 369: 115: 114: 103: 62: 60: 59: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10397: 10387: 10386: 10381: 10376: 10371: 10366: 10361: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10341: 10336: 10331: 10314: 10313: 10308: 10307: 10305: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10288: 10285: 10284: 10282: 10281: 10276: 10275: 10274: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10223: 10221: 10217: 10216: 10214: 10213: 10203: 10193: 10183: 10173: 10163: 10153: 10143: 10133: 10123: 10113: 10103: 10093: 10083: 10072: 10070: 10066: 10065: 10063: 10062: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10025: 10020: 10015: 10013:Presupposition 10010: 10005: 10000: 9995: 9990: 9985: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9930: 9924: 9922: 9918: 9917: 9915: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9814: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9792:Deconstruction 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9763: 9761: 9755: 9754: 9752: 9751: 9746: 9741: 9736: 9731: 9726: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9671: 9666: 9661: 9656: 9651: 9646: 9641: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9621: 9616: 9611: 9606: 9601: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9510: 9508: 9502: 9501: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9485: 9484: 9477: 9470: 9462: 9453: 9452: 9450: 9449: 9437: 9422: 9419: 9418: 9415: 9414: 9411: 9410: 9407: 9406: 9404: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9377: 9375: 9371: 9370: 9368: 9367: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9301: 9300: 9290: 9285: 9279: 9277: 9271: 9270: 9268: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9241: 9239: 9237:Middle Eastern 9233: 9232: 9230: 9229: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9204: 9199: 9194: 9188: 9186: 9180: 9179: 9177: 9176: 9171: 9166: 9161: 9155: 9153: 9144: 9134: 9133: 9130: 9129: 9125: 9117: 9116: 9113: 9112: 9109: 9108: 9105: 9104: 9102: 9101: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9073: 9071: 9067: 9066: 9064: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9003: 9001:Existentialism 8998: 8996:Deconstruction 8993: 8987: 8985: 8979: 8978: 8976: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8950: 8945: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8866: 8861: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8829:Applied ethics 8825: 8823: 8814: 8808: 8807: 8804: 8803: 8801: 8800: 8795: 8793:Nietzscheanism 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8764: 8763: 8753: 8747: 8745: 8741: 8740: 8738: 8737: 8735:Utilitarianism 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8636: 8635: 8633:Transcendental 8630: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8600: 8599: 8598: 8588: 8583: 8578: 8573: 8571:Existentialism 8568: 8563: 8558: 8553: 8548: 8543: 8538: 8533: 8527: 8521: 8515: 8514: 8511: 8510: 8508: 8507: 8501: 8499: 8493: 8492: 8490: 8489: 8484: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8456: 8454: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8444: 8439: 8438: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8396: 8394: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8359:Augustinianism 8356: 8350: 8348: 8342: 8341: 8339: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8293: 8287: 8286: 8283: 8282: 8280: 8279: 8274: 8272:Zoroastrianism 8269: 8264: 8258: 8256: 8250: 8249: 8247: 8246: 8245: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8194: 8193: 8192: 8187: 8177: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8129: 8127: 8121: 8120: 8118: 8117: 8115:Church Fathers 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8086: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8029: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 7997: 7995: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7941: 7939: 7930: 7924: 7923: 7921: 7920: 7919: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7888: 7882: 7880: 7870: 7869: 7859: 7858: 7855: 7854: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7806: 7804: 7798: 7797: 7795: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7778: 7776: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7735: 7733: 7727: 7726: 7724: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7687: 7685: 7679: 7678: 7676: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7644: 7642: 7636: 7635: 7633: 7632: 7630:Libertarianism 7627: 7626: 7625: 7615: 7614: 7613: 7603: 7597: 7595: 7589: 7588: 7586: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7569: 7567: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7521: 7519: 7513: 7512: 7510: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7493: 7491: 7485: 7484: 7482: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7434:Metaphilosophy 7431: 7426: 7420: 7418: 7408: 7407: 7397: 7396: 7389: 7388: 7381: 7374: 7366: 7357: 7356: 7351: 7348: 7347: 7344: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7336: 7327: 7322: 7313: 7308: 7302: 7300: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7218: 7210: 7202: 7194: 7186: 7178: 7170: 7162: 7154: 7146: 7138: 7130: 7122: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7081:Émile Durkheim 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7052: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7042: 7034: 7026: 7018: 7010: 7002: 6994: 6986: 6978: 6969: 6967: 6963: 6962: 6960: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6937: 6927: 6922:Methodenstreit 6916: 6914: 6906: 6905: 6895: 6894: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6871: 6870: 6863:Social science 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6823: 6818: 6816:Operationalism 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6782: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6740: 6739: 6728: 6726: 6725:Related topics 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6712: 6705: 6703: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6633: 6631:Falsifiability 6628: 6623: 6618: 6616:Antipositivism 6612: 6610: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6556: 6554: 6550: 6549: 6547: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6519:Postpositivism 6516: 6511: 6506: 6500: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6491: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6469: 6467: 6459: 6458: 6451: 6450: 6443: 6436: 6428: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6415: 6405: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6383: 6378: 6372: 6370: 6366: 6365: 6363: 6362: 6360:Patrick Suppes 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6336: 6334: 6328: 6327: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6308: 6306: 6302: 6301: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6275: 6273: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6256: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6244: 6242:Michael Walzer 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6172: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6128:Adolf Grünbaum 6125: 6120: 6115: 6113:Robert Brandom 6109: 6107: 6101: 6100: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6086: 6084: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6076: 6071: 6069:W. V. O. Quine 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6044:Nelson Goodman 6041: 6039:Daniel Dennett 6036: 6031: 6025: 6023: 6019: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6012: 6011: 6006: 6004:Moritz Schlick 6001: 5996: 5991: 5985: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5962: 5960: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5939: 5937: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5915:Charles Taylor 5912: 5907: 5905:P. F. Strawson 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5841: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5802:Norman Malcolm 5799: 5794: 5789: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5773: 5771:J. J. C. Smart 5768: 5763: 5758: 5756:David Chalmers 5753: 5747: 5745: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5718:Giuseppe Peano 5715: 5710: 5708:Edmund Gettier 5705: 5700: 5695: 5689: 5687: 5683: 5682: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5663:Possible world 5660: 5655: 5650: 5644: 5642: 5633: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5615:Counterfactual 5612: 5607: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5500: 5498: 5494: 5493: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5474:Paraconsistent 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5424: 5422: 5418: 5417: 5415: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5388: 5386: 5385:Areas of focus 5379: 5375: 5374: 5367: 5366: 5359: 5352: 5344: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5331: 5326: 5316: 5311: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5261: 5259: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5235: 5233: 5224: 5220: 5219: 5217: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5150: 5149: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5014: 5004: 4998: 4996: 4989: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4937: 4931: 4928: 4927: 4920: 4919: 4912: 4905: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4878: 4877: 4869: 4861: 4853: 4844: 4830: 4829: 4820: 4815: 4806: 4798: 4773: 4772: 4767: 4758: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4728: 4727: 4713: 4712:External links 4710: 4708: 4707: 4689:(3): 276–297. 4678: 4671: 4661: 4652: 4643: 4634: 4624: 4615: 4606: 4599: 4592: 4585: 4578: 4571: 4564: 4557: 4550: 4543: 4536: 4525: 4520:Jangam, R. T. 4518: 4498: 4488: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4458: 4444: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4414: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4393: 4384: 4375: 4366: 4357: 4346: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4319: 4302: 4281: 4264: 4257: 4237: 4213: 4195: 4188: 4161: 4148: 4115: 4109:978-0521041119 4108: 4087: 4068:(2): 405–413. 4062:Public Culture 4048: 4009: 3992: 3968: 3959:|journal= 3921: 3912:|journal= 3874: 3861: 3847:978-0521313940 3846: 3828: 3787: 3752: 3745: 3725: 3712: 3690: 3677: 3655: 3635: 3618: 3601: 3584: 3571: 3558: 3541: 3513: 3486: 3459: 3439: 3421: 3405:"Confirmation" 3395: 3351: 3324: 3307: 3289: 3268: 3251: 3234: 3227: 3207: 3200: 3173: 3152: 3126: 3113: 3092: 3060: 3054:978-0415939270 3053: 3014: 2975: 2962: 2932: 2916: 2895: 2869: 2849: 2829: 2816: 2776: 2770:existentialism 2762:neo-Kantianism 2712:978-0300066067 2711: 2685: 2660:978-0804713016 2659: 2633: 2609: 2596: 2574: 2516: 2504:HKT Consultant 2490: 2475: 2449: 2434: 2415: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2408: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2369: 2363: 2356: 2351: 2342: 2336: 2327: 2321: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2289:postpositivism 2263: 2260: 2244: 2243: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2196: 2193: 2189:postpositivism 2155:Neurath's boat 2128: 2125: 2101:Norwood Hanson 2096: 2093: 2056: 2053: 2049:verisimilitude 1994:falsifiability 1982:inference form 1943: 1940: 1880:fact/value gap 1875: 1872: 1850:'s envisioned 1843: 1840: 1823: 1820: 1790:, first event 1750: 1744: 1737: 1729: 1722: 1715: 1690:Paul Oppenheim 1634: 1631: 1596: 1593: 1567: 1564: 1544:Protokollsätze 1520: 1517: 1475:statements as 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1425: 1422: 1398:, and adopted 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1196:Johann Nelböck 1192:the University 1179: 1176: 1164:Edmund Husserl 1160:Marburg school 1156:Ernst Cassirer 1151: 1148: 1135: 1132: 1076:Moritz Schlick 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1039:Neo-Kantianism 1018: 1015: 953: 950: 908: 905: 903: 900: 884:Norwood Hanson 827: 824: 804:logical syntax 788:symbolic logic 768:empirical laws 762:, and thereby 727: 724: 692:operationalism 688:Percy Bridgman 671: 668: 603:mathematicians 558: 557: 555: 554: 547: 540: 532: 529: 528: 525: 524: 519: 514: 509: 507:Metaphysicians 504: 499: 494: 489: 483: 477: 476: 475: 472: 471: 468: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 435:Metaphilosophy 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 405: 404: 399: 394: 389: 383: 377: 376: 375: 372: 371: 366: 365: 364: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 320: 319: 313: 312: 311: 310: 309: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 273: 272: 271: 261: 260: 259: 249: 248: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 212: 211: 210: 205: 200: 187: 186: 180: 179: 178: 177: 176: 175: 170: 160: 155: 150: 145: 144: 143: 138: 125: 124: 116: 110: 109: 108: 105: 104: 102: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 56: 53: 52: 44: 43: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10396: 10385: 10382: 10380: 10377: 10375: 10372: 10370: 10367: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10326: 10324: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10289: 10286: 10280: 10277: 10273: 10270: 10269: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10257:Scholasticism 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10218: 10209: 10208: 10204: 10199: 10198: 10194: 10189: 10188: 10184: 10179: 10178: 10174: 10169: 10168: 10164: 10159: 10158: 10154: 10149: 10148: 10144: 10139: 10138: 10134: 10128: 10124: 10119: 10118: 10114: 10109: 10108: 10104: 10099: 10098: 10094: 10089: 10088: 10084: 10079: 10078: 10074: 10073: 10071: 10067: 10061: 10060: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10046: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10024: 10021: 10019: 10016: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9996: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9961: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9946: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9925: 9923: 9919: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9897: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9872:Structuralism 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9797:Descriptivism 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9777:Contrastivism 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9764: 9762: 9760: 9756: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9662: 9660: 9657: 9655: 9652: 9650: 9647: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9511: 9509: 9507: 9503: 9499: 9494: 9490: 9483: 9478: 9476: 9471: 9469: 9464: 9463: 9460: 9448: 9447: 9438: 9436: 9435: 9424: 9423: 9420: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9378: 9376: 9374:Miscellaneous 9372: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9299: 9296: 9295: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9280: 9278: 9276: 9272: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9242: 9240: 9238: 9234: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9189: 9187: 9185: 9181: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9156: 9154: 9152: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9127: 9126: 9122: 9118: 9100: 9099: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9074: 9072: 9070:Miscellaneous 9068: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9056:Structuralism 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9041:Postmodernism 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9031:Phenomenology 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8988: 8986: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8968:Vienna Circle 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8898:Moral realism 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8862: 8860: 8857: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8826: 8824: 8822: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8809: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8762: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8748: 8746: 8742: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8700:Phenomenology 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8640:Individualism 8638: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8605: 8604: 8601: 8597: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8547: 8544: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8528: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8516: 8506: 8505:Judeo-Islamic 8503: 8502: 8500: 8498: 8494: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8482: 8481:ʿIlm al-Kalām 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8457: 8455: 8453: 8449: 8443: 8440: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8430:Shuddhadvaita 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8402: 8401: 8398: 8397: 8395: 8391: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8364:Scholasticism 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8351: 8349: 8347: 8343: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8288: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8259: 8257: 8255: 8251: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8199: 8198: 8195: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8182: 8181: 8178: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8135: 8134: 8131: 8130: 8128: 8126: 8122: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8065: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8002: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7987: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7940: 7938: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7925: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7893: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7864: 7860: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7815:Conceptualism 7813: 7811: 7808: 7807: 7805: 7803: 7799: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7777: 7775: 7771: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7744:Particularism 7742: 7740: 7737: 7736: 7734: 7732: 7728: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7711:Functionalism 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7696:Eliminativism 7694: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7684: 7680: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7641: 7637: 7631: 7628: 7624: 7621: 7620: 7619: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7601:Compatibilism 7599: 7598: 7596: 7594: 7590: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7540:Particularism 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7522: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7490: 7486: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7387: 7382: 7380: 7375: 7373: 7368: 7367: 7364: 7354: 7349: 7334: 7333: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7297: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7275:György Lukács 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7231: 7224: 7223: 7219: 7216: 7215: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7203: 7200: 7199: 7195: 7192: 7191: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7179: 7176: 7175: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7163: 7160: 7159: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7147: 7144: 7143: 7139: 7136: 7135: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7123: 7120: 7119: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7108: 7102: 7101:Vienna Circle 7099: 7097: 7096:Berlin Circle 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7076:Eugen Dühring 7074: 7072: 7071:Auguste Comte 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7039: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7007: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6987: 6984: 6983: 6979: 6976: 6975: 6971: 6970: 6968: 6966:Contributions 6964: 6957: 6954: 6951: 6948: 6944: 6943: 6938: 6934: 6933: 6928: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6900: 6896: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6880:Structuralism 6878: 6876: 6873: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6828: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6821:Phenomenalism 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6732:Behavioralism 6730: 6729: 6727: 6723: 6716: 6713: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6660:Human science 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6607: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6585:Pseudoscience 6583: 6581: 6580:Justification 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6557: 6555: 6551: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6501: 6499: 6495: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6449: 6444: 6442: 6437: 6435: 6430: 6429: 6426: 6414: 6406: 6404: 6396: 6395: 6392: 6382: 6381:Alfred Tarski 6379: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6350:Peter Galison 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6329: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6283: 6281: 6277: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6253: 6249: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6237:Nathan Salmon 6235: 6233: 6232:Richard Rorty 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6202:Alonzo Church 6200: 6199: 6197: 6193: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6138:Ruth Millikan 6136: 6134: 6133:John McDowell 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6108: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6081: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6064:Hilary Putnam 6062: 6060: 6059:Robert Nozick 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6020: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5989:Rudolf Carnap 5987: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5981:Vienna Circle 5978: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5959: 5958:Berlin Circle 5955: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5936: 5932: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5865:Philippa Foot 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5838: 5834: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5812:Graham Priest 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5792:Charlie Broad 5790: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5703:Gottlob Frege 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5630:Supervenience 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5529:Functionalism 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5514:Descriptivism 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5479:Philosophical 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5469:Non-classical 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5445: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5423: 5419: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5365: 5360: 5358: 5353: 5351: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5330: 5327: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5300: 5299: 5296: 5286: 5285:Logic symbols 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5164:Logical truth 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5106: 5105:Contradiction 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5080: 5076: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5050:Argumentation 5048: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5035: 5034:Philosophical 5032: 5030: 5029:Non-classical 5027: 5025: 5022: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4993: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4918: 4913: 4911: 4906: 4904: 4899: 4898: 4895: 4889: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4828: 4826: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4807: 4805: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4789: 4785: 4780: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4759: 4757: 4755: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4733: 4732: 4725: 4720: 4716: 4715: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4679: 4676: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4662: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4625: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4572: 4569: 4565: 4562: 4558: 4555: 4551: 4548: 4544: 4541: 4537: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4523: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4496: 4492: 4489: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4470: 4466: 4463: 4459: 4457: 4456:0-06-621244-8 4453: 4449: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4433: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4415: 4412: 4409: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4390: 4385: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4364: 4363: 4358: 4355: 4354: 4349: 4348: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4260: 4254: 4250: 4249: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4228: 4223: 4217: 4209: 4202: 4200: 4191: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4176: 4171: 4165: 4158: 4152: 4145: 4141: 4138: 4134: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4111: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4013: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3973: 3964: 3951: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3928: 3926: 3917: 3904: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3879: 3871: 3865: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3784: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3756: 3748: 3742: 3738: 3737: 3729: 3715: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3659: 3652: 3648: 3645: 3639: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3581: 3575: 3568: 3562: 3555: 3551: 3545: 3538: 3534: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3493: 3491: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3472: 3466: 3464: 3456: 3452: 3446: 3444: 3436: 3435: 3428: 3426: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3392: 3390: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3366:"Carl Hempel" 3360: 3358: 3356: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3331: 3329: 3317: 3311: 3303: 3296: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3272: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3219: 3211: 3203: 3197: 3193: 3192: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3162: 3156: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3116: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3089: 3085: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3056: 3050: 3046: 3045: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2979: 2965: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2929: 2923: 2921: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2892: 2888: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2866: 2862: 2859: 2853: 2846: 2842: 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2812: 2806: 2799: 2786: 2780: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2698: 2689: 2682: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2646: 2637: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2619: 2613: 2599: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2578: 2571: 2569: 2564: 2560: 2559:George Orwell 2557: 2556: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2528: 2527:Thesis Eleven 2520: 2505: 2501: 2494: 2488: 2486: 2479: 2472: 2468: 2467: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2431: 2427: 2420: 2416: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2393: 2392:Kurt Grelling 2390: 2387: 2386:Herbert Feigl 2384: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2361: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2339:Raven paradox 2337: 2331: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2319: 2316: 2315: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2296: 2294: 2293:John Passmore 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2223: 2222: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2210:Hilary Putnam 2206: 2202: 2201:received view 2192: 2190: 2181: 2180: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2041:corroboration 2038: 2033: 2031: 2030: 2025: 2024: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1748: 1741: 1734: 1728: 1721: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1430: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1396: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1363:by arranging 1362: 1358: 1354: 1353: 1347: 1343: 1342:Immanuel Kant 1338: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1279: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1261:—whereas the 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1206: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1168:phenomenology 1165: 1161: 1157: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1140:Berlin Circle 1131: 1129: 1125: 1124:phenomenalism 1121: 1117: 1113: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1100:Rudolf Carnap 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1064:Vienna Circle 1050: 1048: 1047:phenomenalism 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 999:Alfred Tarski 996: 992: 988: 984: 983:Rudolf Carnap 980: 976: 975: 970: 966: 962: 958: 957:Gottlob Frege 949: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 924:adhered to a 923: 919: 915: 914: 899: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 840:Rudolf Carnap 837: 833: 823: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 756: 751: 750: 745: 741: 740:exaggeration. 737: 733: 732:unobservables 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 684:phenomenalism 681: 677: 667: 665: 664:John Passmore 661: 660: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 630: 628: 624: 620: 614: 612: 611:Vienna Circle 608: 607:Berlin Circle 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 583:logical proof 580: 576: 572: 571:neopositivism 568: 564: 553: 548: 546: 541: 539: 534: 533: 531: 530: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 484: 480: 474: 473: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 450:Phenomenology 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 407: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 384: 380: 374: 373: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 323: 322: 321: 318: 315: 314: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 278: 277: 274: 270: 267: 266: 265: 262: 258: 255: 254: 253: 250: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 216: 213: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 195: 194: 191: 190: 189: 188: 185: 182: 181: 174: 171: 169: 166: 165: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 142: 141:Ancient Greek 139: 137: 134: 133: 132: 129: 128: 127: 126: 123: 120: 119: 113: 107: 106: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 69: 58: 57: 55: 54: 50: 46: 45: 42: 39: 38: 34: 33: 30: 19: 10205: 10195: 10185: 10175: 10165: 10155: 10145: 10135: 10115: 10105: 10095: 10085: 10075: 10057: 9998:Metalanguage 9993:Logical form 9948:Truth-bearer 9907:Unilalianism 9817:Expressivism 9644:Wittgenstein 9589:von Humboldt 9506:Philosophers 9439: 9425: 9096: 9087:Postcritique 9077:Kyoto School 9036:Posthumanism 9016:Hermeneutics 8882: 8871: / 8812:Contemporary 8788:Newtonianism 8751:Cartesianism 8710:Reductionism 8546:Conservatism 8541:Collectivism 8479: 8207:Sarvāstivadā 8185:Anekantavada 8110:Neoplatonism 8078:Epicureanism 8011:Pythagoreans 7950:Confucianism 7916:Contemporary 7906:Early modern 7810:Anti-realism 7764:Universalism 7721:Subjectivism 7517:Epistemology 7220: 7212: 7204: 7196: 7188: 7180: 7172: 7164: 7156: 7148: 7140: 7132: 7124: 7116: 7036: 7028: 7020: 7012: 7004: 6996: 6988: 6980: 6972: 6956:Science wars 6754:Epistemology 6685:Reflectivism 6645:Hermeneutics 6508: 6497:Declinations 6473:Antihumanism 6466:Perspectives 6270:Cora Diamond 6186:Morton White 6054:Thomas Nagel 5999:Otto Neurath 5948:Ernest Nagel 5934: 5895:Gilbert Ryle 5890:Derek Parfit 5850:J. L. Austin 5797:Casimir Lewy 5766:Peter Singer 5761:J. L. Mackie 5733:Barry Stroud 5693:Noam Chomsky 5686:Philosophers 5620:Natural kind 5538: 5504:Anti-realism 5464:Mathematical 5438:Performative 5397:Epistemology 5204:Substitution 5024:Mathematical 4949:Major fields 4873: 4865: 4857: 4848: 4840: 4832: 4831: 4824: 4810: 4802: 4791: 4775: 4774: 4762: 4753: 4730: 4729: 4686: 4682: 4674: 4664: 4655: 4646: 4637: 4627: 4618: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4588: 4581: 4574: 4567: 4560: 4553: 4546: 4539: 4532: 4521: 4512: 4508: 4505:Karl Sigmund 4494: 4482: 4475: 4468: 4461: 4447: 4438: 4431: 4424: 4417: 4410: 4387: 4378: 4369: 4360: 4351: 4330: 4310: 4305: 4297: 4293: 4284: 4272: 4267: 4247: 4240: 4225: 4216: 4207: 4174: 4164: 4156: 4151: 4132: 4099: 4090: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4026: 4022: 4012: 4000: 3995: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3950:cite journal 3903:cite journal 3864: 3837: 3831: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3809:. Retrieved 3800: 3790: 3781: 3774:. Retrieved 3765: 3755: 3735: 3728: 3719:19 September 3717:, retrieved 3703: 3693: 3684:19 September 3682:, retrieved 3668: 3658: 3638: 3630: 3621: 3613: 3604: 3592: 3587: 3579: 3574: 3566: 3561: 3549: 3544: 3532: 3508: 3481: 3450: 3432: 3413:, retrieved 3408: 3398: 3388: 3385: 3378:. Retrieved 3369: 3346: 3334:Mauro Murzi 3310: 3301: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3263: 3254: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3217: 3210: 3190: 3164:. Retrieved 3155: 3144:, retrieved 3139: 3129: 3120:19 September 3118:, retrieved 3104: 3095: 3083: 3043: 2992: 2988: 2978: 2967:, retrieved 2945: 2935: 2927: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2898: 2886: 2852: 2844: 2840: 2837: 2832: 2824: 2819: 2796: 2789:. Retrieved 2779: 2766:intuitionism 2731: 2724:. Retrieved 2696: 2688: 2679: 2672:. Retrieved 2644: 2636: 2628: 2612: 2603:19 September 2601:, retrieved 2587: 2577: 2553: 2551: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2509:19 September 2507:. Retrieved 2503: 2493: 2484: 2478: 2464: 2425: 2419: 2366:Unobservable 2358: 2318:Anti-realism 2297: 2265: 2245: 2204: 2198: 2177: 2167: 2158: 2147:Otto Neurath 2132: 2130: 2104: 2098: 2058: 2040: 2034: 2027: 2021: 2018: 2014:unscientific 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1896:epistemology 1891: 1888:confirmation 1887: 1877: 1845: 1835: 1831: 1825: 1815: 1808:William Dray 1803: 1800:natural laws 1795: 1791: 1781: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1760:If A, then B 1757: 1753: 1743: 1736: 1732: 1726: 1719: 1712: 1708: 1696: 1694: 1670:anthropology 1645: 1641: 1636: 1627:Ernest Nagel 1620: 1616: 1598: 1579: 1575: 1569: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1533: 1529:confirmation 1528: 1525:verification 1524: 1522: 1519:Confirmation 1504: 1500: 1489: 1480: 1468: 1452: 1441: 1438:Verification 1427: 1413:a posteriori 1411: 1403: 1394: 1388: 1383:from Hume's 1376: 1372: 1368: 1351: 1339: 1331:a posteriori 1330: 1326: 1315: 1304: 1286: 1278:a posteriori 1276: 1270: 1244: 1203: 1181: 1153: 1137: 1108: 1092:Otto Neurath 1087: 1083: 1072:Café Central 1061: 1021:In Germany, 1020: 1010: 1006: 972: 955: 945: 921: 911: 910: 870:, including 851: 848:confirmation 847: 846:with simply 844:verification 843: 832:Otto Neurath 829: 767: 763: 759: 753: 747: 744:metaphorical 729: 707: 703: 699: 673: 657: 634:World War II 631: 615: 595:philosophers 570: 566: 562: 561: 479:Philosophers 387:Epistemology 208:South Africa 163:Contemporary 112:Philosophies 29: 10242:Linguistics 10207:Limited Inc 10127:On Denoting 9953:Proposition 9604:de Saussure 9569:Ibn Khaldun 9082:Objectivism 9021:Neo-Marxism 8983:Continental 8893:Meta-ethics 8873:Coherentism 8778:Hegelianism 8715:Rationalism 8675:Natural law 8655:Materialism 8581:Historicism 8551:Determinism 8442:Navya-Nyāya 8217:Sautrāntika 8212:Pudgalavada 8148:Vaisheshika 8001:Presocratic 7901:Renaissance 7840:Physicalism 7825:Materialism 7731:Normativity 7716:Objectivism 7701:Emergentism 7691:Behaviorism 7640:Metaphysics 7606:Determinism 7545:Rationalism 7311:Objectivity 7280:Karl Popper 7270:Thomas Kuhn 7250:Mario Bunge 7001:(1879–1884) 6936:(1909–1959) 6670:Metaphysics 6650:Historicism 6565:Demarcation 6560:Consilience 6483:Rationalism 6369:Lwow-Warsaw 6355:Ian Hacking 6322:Karl Popper 6317:Thomas Kuhn 6265:Alice Crary 6227:Saul Kripke 6222:Jaegwon Kim 6217:David Lewis 6207:Jerry Fodor 6176:Susan Haack 6090:Robert Audi 5900:John Searle 5870:Peter Geach 5860:Antony Flew 5807:G. E. Moore 5728:Ernest Sosa 5658:Possibility 5407:Mathematics 5392:Metaphysics 5319:WikiProject 5189:Proposition 5184:Probability 5137:Description 5078:Foundations 4288:Ruth Lane, 4029:(11): 321. 2989:Philosophia 2758:neo-Thomism 2285:Karl Popper 2281:Thomas Kuhn 2277:Carl Hempel 2214:Reichenbach 2151:coherentism 2139:Thomas Kuhn 2109:observation 2081:aprioricity 2073:Hume's fork 2008:but simply 2006:meaningless 1990:falsifiable 1948:Karl Popper 1778:structure.) 1697:explanandum 1646:explanation 1642:description 1633:Explanation 1485:truth value 1457:Metaphysics 1449:analyticity 1400:Hume's fork 1311:contingency 1293:arrangement 1245:Concerning 1128:physicalism 1112:fallibilism 1104:Karl Popper 1086:, that is, 1080:neo-Kantian 1037:" movement( 1027:F H Bradley 942:probability 938:tautologies 896:Carl Hempel 892:Thomas Kuhn 888:Karl Popper 856:Carl Hempel 836:physicalism 826:Development 780:mathematics 778:, reducing 736:microscopic 726:Definitions 716:metaphysics 698:, only the 654:Thomas Kuhn 650:Karl Popper 638:Carl Hempel 605:formed the 402:Metaphysics 317:By religion 173:Continental 153:Renaissance 10379:Positivism 10339:Empiricism 10323:Categories 10302:Discussion 10297:Task Force 10247:Pragmatics 10038:Speech act 9968:Categories 9882:Symbiosism 9837:Nominalism 9749:Watzlawick 9629:Bloomfield 9549:Chrysippus 9381:Amerindian 9288:Australian 9227:Vietnamese 9207:Indonesian 8756:Kantianism 8705:Positivism 8695:Pragmatism 8670:Naturalism 8650:Liberalism 8628:Subjective 8566:Empiricism 8470:Avicennism 8415:Bhedabheda 8299:East Asian 8222:Madhyamaka 8202:Abhidharma 8068:Pyrrhonism 7835:Nominalism 7830:Naturalism 7759:Skepticism 7749:Relativism 7739:Absolutism 7668:Naturalism 7578:Deontology 7550:Skepticism 7535:Naturalism 7525:Empiricism 7489:Aesthetics 7393:Philosophy 7091:Ernst Mach 7086:Ernst Laas 7061:A. J. Ayer 7049:Proponents 6868:Philosophy 6665:Humanities 6609:Antitheses 6478:Empiricism 6455:Positivism 6345:John Dupré 6212:Kurt Gödel 6168:Pragmatism 6083:Notre Dame 6074:John Rawls 5943:A. J. Ayer 5880:R. M. Hare 5875:Paul Grice 5787:Arif Ahmed 5574:Sense data 5559:Pragmatism 5433:Linguistic 5249:Set theory 5147:Linguistic 5142:Entailment 5132:Definition 5100:Consequent 5095:Antecedent 4345:References 4329:Friedman, 4309:Friedman, 4296:, 1996 Jul 4137:pp. 526–27 3856:lc82012903 3537:pp. 619–21 3082:Friedman, 2969:19 October 2904:Erkenntnis 2891:pp. 283–84 2838:Erkenntnis 2754:Ernst Mach 2742:d'Alembert 2726:27 January 2721:lc96004399 2674:27 January 2268:A. J. Ayer 2083:. Quine's 2010:scientific 2002:meaningful 1674:psychology 1656:—that is, 1613:pragmatism 1605:Husserlian 1589:hypothesis 1572:A. J. Ayer 1536:Basissätze 1509:A. J. Ayer 1497:Hume's law 1418:contingent 1393:synthetic 1365:sense data 1350:synthetic 1318:David Hume 1283:statements 1263:contingent 1236:Principles 1214:Nazi Party 1200:A. J. Ayer 1116:pragmatics 1043:Ernst Mach 1031:positivism 1017:Empiricism 991:Kurt Gödel 928:(versus a 782:to logic, 734:, such as 700:verifiable 680:Ernst Mach 599:scientists 410:Aesthetics 99:Categories 41:Philosophy 10279:Semiotics 10267:Semantics 10117:Alciphron 10053:Statement 9988:Intension 9928:Ambiguity 9807:Dramatism 9787:Cratylism 9539:Eubulides 9534:Aristotle 9514:Confucius 9260:Pakistani 9222:Taiwanese 9169:Ethiopian 9142:By region 9128:By region 8943:Scientism 8938:Systemics 8798:Spinozism 8725:Socialism 8660:Modernism 8623:Objective 8531:Anarchism 8465:Averroism 8354:Christian 8306:Neotaoism 8277:Zurvanism 8267:Mithraism 8262:Mazdakism 8033:Cyrenaics 7960:Logicians 7593:Free will 7555:Solipsism 7502:Formalism 7332:Verstehen 7318:Phronesis 7306:Knowledge 7290:Max Weber 7110:Criticism 6858:Sociology 6796:Modernism 6774:pluralism 6759:anarchism 6655:Historism 6575:Induction 6488:Scientism 6195:Princeton 5994:Hans Hahn 5780:Cambridge 5653:Necessity 5648:Actualism 5519:Emotivism 5484:Predicate 5454:Classical 5280:Fallacies 5275:Paradoxes 5265:Logicians 5199:Statement 5194:Reference 5159:Induction 5122:Deduction 5085:Abduction 5055:Metalogic 5002:Classical 4966:Inference 4501:Holt, Jim 4082:0899-2363 4043:0022-362X 3811:22 August 3776:24 August 3578:Bechtel, 3565:Bechtel, 3554:pp. 61–62 3380:31 August 3279:, Ayer's 3009:0048-3893 2825:Tractatus 2548:145778455 2444:748357235 2273:scientism 2184:co-edited 2163:algorithm 2159:Structure 2099:In 1958, 2077:necessity 1998:demarcate 1776:axiomatic 1709:explanans 1682:economics 1678:sociology 1660:—but the 1609:Heidegger 1585:tautology 1473:aesthetic 1408:necessary 1377:substance 1361:phenomena 1346:1781 work 1335:sophistry 1316:In 1739, 1306:synthetic 1301:tautology 1299:, thus a 1267:knowledge 1251:necessary 1184:New World 1096:Hans Hahn 979:Hans Hahn 971:in their 946:Tractatus 922:Tractatus 720:knowledge 502:Logicians 497:Ethicists 455:Political 415:Education 336:Christian 331:Confucian 230:Indonesia 184:By region 122:By period 10292:Category 10252:Rhetoric 10077:Cratylus 10048:Sentence 10023:Property 9943:Language 9921:Concepts 9759:Theories 9724:Strawson 9709:Davidson 9699:Hintikka 9694:Anscombe 9639:Vygotsky 9594:Mauthner 9564:Averroes 9554:Zhuangzi 9544:Diodorus 9524:Cratylus 9446:Category 9401:Yugoslav 9391:Romanian 9298:Scottish 9283:American 9212:Japanese 9192:Buddhist 9174:Africana 9164:Egyptian 9006:Feminist 8928:Rawlsian 8923:Quietism 8821:Analytic 8773:Krausism 8680:Nihilism 8645:Kokugaku 8608:Absolute 8603:Idealism 8591:Humanism 8379:Occamism 8346:European 8291:Medieval 8237:Yogacara 8197:Buddhist 8190:Syādvāda 8073:Stoicism 8038:Cynicism 8026:Sophists 8021:Atomists 8016:Eleatics 7955:Legalism 7896:Medieval 7820:Idealism 7774:Ontology 7754:Nihilism 7658:Idealism 7416:Branches 7405:Branches 7353:Category 6769:nihilism 6764:idealism 6694:Related 6570:Evidence 6403:Category 6279:Reformed 6252:Quietism 5640:Modality 5600:Analysis 5593:Concepts 5564:Quietism 5524:Feminism 5497:Theories 5402:Language 5314:Category 5214:Validity 5115:Antinomy 5043:Theories 5007:Informal 4232:Archived 4230:. 6:30. 4140:Archived 4131:Novick, 3999:Novick, 3805:Archived 3770:Archived 3647:Archived 3501:Archived 3474:Archived 3449:Novick, 3374:Archived 3339:Archived 2861:Archived 2805:cite web 2669:85030366 2621:Archived 2568:Newspeak 2311:See also 2137:(1962), 1980:, whose 1928:Strawson 1836:a priori 1754:, event 1492:theology 1461:ontology 1404:a priori 1395:a priori 1389:a priori 1352:a priori 1327:a priori 1297:meanings 1288:analytic 1272:a priori 1202:saw his 1120:Waismann 965:logicism 952:Logicism 907:Language 776:logicism 609:and the 460:Religion 445:Ontology 425:Language 379:Branches 326:Buddhist 281:American 203:Ethiopia 168:Analytic 148:Medieval 89:Glossary 74:Contents 10059:more... 9963:Concept 9704:Dummett 9679:Gadamer 9674:Chomsky 9659:Derrida 9649:Russell 9634:Bergson 9619:Tillich 9579:Leibniz 9519:Gorgias 9396:Russian 9365:Spanish 9360:Slovene 9350:Maltese 9345:Italian 9325:Finland 9293:British 9275:Western 9265:Turkish 9250:Islamic 9245:Iranian 9197:Chinese 9184:Eastern 9151:African 9098:more... 8783:Marxism 8613:British 8556:Dualism 8452:Islamic 8410:Advaita 8400:Vedanta 8374:Scotism 8369:Thomism 8311:Tiantai 8254:Persian 8242:Tibetan 8232:Śūnyatā 8173:Cārvāka 8163:Ājīvika 8158:Mīmāṃsā 8138:Samkhya 8053:Academy 8006:Ionians 7980:Yangism 7937:Chinese 7928:Ancient 7891:Western 7886:Ancient 7845:Realism 7802:Reality 7792:Process 7673:Realism 7653:Dualism 7648:Atomism 7530:Fideism 7233:Critics 6958:(1990s) 6952:(1980s) 6946:(1960s) 6926:(1890s) 6779:realism 6711:(1830s) 6699:in the 6305:Science 6022:Harvard 5668:Realism 5544:Marxism 5459:Deviant 5428:Aretaic 5412:Science 5329:changes 5321: ( 5179:Premise 5110:Paradox 4940:History 4935:Outline 4790:(ed.). 4703:2181086 4227:YouTube 3627:pp. 3–4 3531:Suppe, 3415:10 July 3249::41–63. 3245:, 1950; 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