Lisdexamfetamine - Knowledge

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the number of binge eating days and binge eating episodes per week. Furthermore, a meta-analytic systematic review highlighted an open-label, 12-month extension safety and tolerability study that reported lisdexamfetamine remained effective at reducing the number of binge eating days for the duration of the study. In addition, both a review and a meta-analytic systematic review found lisdexamfetamine to be superior to placebo in several secondary outcome measures, including persistent binge eating cessation, reduction of obsessive-compulsive related binge eating symptoms, reduction of body-weight, and reduction of triglycerides. Lisdexamfetamine, like all pharmaceutical amphetamines, has direct appetite suppressant effects that may be therapeutically useful in both BED and its comorbidities. Based on reviews of neuroimaging studies involving BED-diagnosed participants, long-term neuroadaptations in dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems from lisdexamfetamine may be implicated in lasting improvements in the regulation of eating behaviors that are observed even after the drug is discontinued.

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demonstrate that the cognition-enhancing effects of psychostimulants involve the preferential elevation of catecholamines in the PFC and the subsequent activation of norepinephrine α2 and dopamine D1 receptors. ... This differential modulation of PFC-dependent processes across dose appears to be associated with the differential involvement of noradrenergic α2 versus α1 receptors. Collectively, this evidence indicates that at low, clinically relevant doses, psychostimulants are devoid of the behavioral and neurochemical actions that define this class of drugs and instead act largely as cognitive enhancers (improving PFC-dependent function). ... In particular, in both animals and humans, lower doses maximally improve performance in tests of working memory and response inhibition, whereas maximal suppression of overt behavior and facilitation of attentional processes occurs at higher doses.

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with the non-stimulants atomoxetine and extended-release guanfacine, are continuously effective for more than 2-year treatment periods with few and tolerable adverse effects. The effectiveness of long-term therapy includes not only the core symptoms of ADHD, but also improved quality of life and academic achievements. The most concerning short-term adverse effects of stimulants, such as elevated blood pressure and heart rate, waned in long-term follow-up studies. ... The current data do not support the potential impact of stimulants on the worsening or development of tics or substance abuse into adulthood. In the longest follow-up study (of more than 10 years), lifetime stimulant treatment for ADHD was effective and protective against the development of adverse psychiatric disorders.

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repetitive nature of binge eating. There is extensive evidence that loss of impulse control in BED is a causal factor in provoking bingeing symptoms (Colles et al., 2008; Galanti et al., 2007; Giel et al., 2017; McElroy et al., 2016a; Nasser et al., 2004; Schag et al., 2013). More specifically, BED is associated with motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity which could initiate and maintain binge eating (Nasser et al., 2004). Neuroimaging studies using the Stroop task to measure impulse control have shown that BED patients have decreased BOLD fMRI activity in brain areas involved in self-regulation and impulse control including VMPFC, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and insula during performance of the task compared to lean and obese controls (Balodis et al., 2013b). ...

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amphetamine, 90% of the consumed dose is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, with no significant differences in the rate and extent of absorption between the two enantiomers (Carvalho et al. 2012; Childress et al. 2019). The onset of action occurs approximately 30 to 45 minutes after consumption, depending on the ingested dose and on the degree of purity or on the concomitant consumption of certain foods (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction 2021a; Steingard et al. 2019). It is described that those substances that promote acidification of the gastrointestinal tract cause a decrease in amphetamine absorption, while gastrointestinal alkalinization may be related to an increase in the compound's absorption (Markowitz and Patrick 2017).

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amphetamine-type medications are given in the setting of acute illness or combined with activities leading to catecholamine release, such as exercise. ... The primary effect of norepinephrine on ketogenesis is mediated through increased substrate availability. As shown by Krentz et al., at high physiological concentrations, norepinephrine induces accelerated lipolysis and increases NEFA formation significantly. Secondly, norepinephrine stimulates ketogenesis directly at the hepatocyte level. As reported by Keller et al., norepinephrine infusion increased ketone bodies concentration to a greater degree when compared to NEFA concentration (155 ± 30 versus 57 ± 16%), suggesting direct hepatic ketogenic effect.

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originate in the ventral tegmental area (VTA); and the histaminergic pathway originates from neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus. As discussed in Chapter 6, these neurons project widely throughout the brain from restricted collections of cell bodies. Norepinephrine, serotonin,dopamine, and histamine have complex modulatory functions and, in general, promote wakefulness. The PT in the brainstem is also an important component of the ARAS. Activity of PT cholinergic neurons (REM-on cells) promotes REM sleep, as noted earlier. During waking, REM-on cells are inhibited by a subset of ARAS norepinephrine and serotonin neurons called REM-off cells.

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superiority of 50 and 70 mg doses to placebo in improving binge eating and secondary outcome measures, including obsessive–compulsive symptoms, body weight, and global improvement. ... Subsequent studies of lisdexamfetamine provided further support for the medication's safety and efficacy and provided additional evidence that continued use may be better than placebo in preventing relapse. While it is considered safe and effective, lisdexamfetamine's side effect profile and risk for misuse may make it inappropriate for certain patients.

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reward,aspects of emotion, and learning. In fact, orexin is thought to promote feeding primarily by promoting arousal. Mutations in orexin receptors are responsible for narcolepsy in a canine model, knockout of the orexin gene produces narcolepsy in mice, and humans with narcolepsy have low or absent levels of orexin peptides in cerebrospinal fluid (Chapter 13). Lateral hypothalamus neurons have reciprocal connections with neurons that produce monoamine neurotransmitters (Chapter 6).

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regions including the striatum, VTA and NAc (Del Arco et al., 1999; Kim et al., 1981; Mora and Porras, 1993; Xue et al., 1996), but it has not been established whether this change can be explained by increased synaptic release or by reduced clearance of glutamate. ... DHK-sensitive, EAAT2 uptake was not altered by AMPH (Figure 1A). The remaining glutamate transport in these midbrain cultures is likely mediated by EAAT3 and this component was significantly decreased by AMPH

2385: 1322:. Dextroamphetamine, the more dopaminergic enantiomer of amphetamine, is particularly effective at promoting wakefulness because dopamine release has the greatest influence on cortical activation and cognitive arousal, relative to other monoamines. In contrast, levoamphetamine may have a greater effect on cataplexy, a symptom more sensitive to the effects of norepinephrine and serotonin. Noradrenergic and serotonergic nuclei in the ARAS are involved in the regulation of the 16078: 1017: 10886: 7828:

Ermer et al., 2011), and the subjective effects are not enhanced by parenteral administration in contrast to D-amphetamine (Lile et al., 2011) thus reducing the risk of parenteral misuse of lisdexamfetamine compared with D-amphetamine. Intravenous lisdexamfetamine use also produced significantly lower increases in "drug liking" and "stimulant effects" compared with D-amphetamine in intravenous substance users (Jasinski and Krishnan, 2009a).

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man. ... The lack of effect of administration of neomycin to one patient indicates that the hydroxylation occurs in body tissues. ... a major portion of the β-hydroxylation of hydroxyamphetamine occurs in non-adrenal tissue. Unfortunately, at the present time one cannot be completely certain that the hydroxylation of hydroxyamphetamine in vivo is accomplished by the same enzyme which converts dopamine to noradrenaline.

1346:, with three reviews finding clinically significant reductions in daytime sleepiness in patients with narcolepsy. Additionally, these reviews suggest that amphetamine may dose-dependently improve cataplexy symptoms. However, the quality of evidence for these findings is low and is consequently reflected in the AASM's conditional recommendation for dextroamphetamine as a treatment option for narcolepsy. 16066: 3767: 8280:

the vesicle. ... Amphetamine and its derivatives like methamphetamine are weak base compounds that are the only widely used class of drugs known to elicit transmitter release by a non-exocytic mechanism. As substrates for both DAT and VMAT, amphetamines can be taken up to the cytosol and then sequestered in vesicles, where they act to collapse the vesicular pH gradient.

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The observed lack of a significant accumulation of PHN in brain following the intraventricular administration of (+)-amphetamine and the formation of appreciable amounts of PHN from (+)-POH in brain tissue in vivo supports the view that the aromatic hydroxylation of amphetamine following its systemic

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Despite the challenges in determining synaptic vesicle pH, the proton gradient across the vesicle membrane is of fundamental importance for its function. Exposure of isolated catecholamine vesicles to protonophores collapses the pH gradient and rapidly redistributes transmitter from inside to outside

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Inactive lisdexamfetamine is completely (>98%) converted to its active metabolite D-amphetamine in the circulation (Pennick, 2010; Sharman and Pennick, 2014). When lisdexamfetamine is misused intranasally or intravenously, the pharmacokinetics are similar to oral use (Jasinski and Krishnan, 2009b;

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Specifically, in a set of experiments limited to high-quality designs, we found significant enhancement of several cognitive abilities. ... The results of this meta-analysis ... do confirm the reality of cognitive enhancing effects for normal healthy adults in general, while also indicating

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The mechanism of action of sympathomimetic alerting drugs (eg, dextro- and methamphetamine, methylphenidate) is direct or indirect stimulation of dopaminergic and noradrenergic nuclei, which in turn heightens the efficacy of the ventral periaqueductal grey area and locus coeruleus, both components of

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At the pathophysiological level, it is now clear that most narcolepsy cases with cataplexy, and a minority of cases (5–30 %) without cataplexy or with atypical cataplexy-like symptoms, are caused by a lack of hypocretin (orexin) of likely an autoimmune origin. In these cases, once the disease is

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Because behavioral responses in humans are not rigidly dictated by sensory inputs and drives, behavioral responses can instead be guided in accordance with short- or long-term goals, prior experience, and the environmental context. The response to a delicious-looking dessert is different depending on

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In humans, RCTs found that LDX reduced binge eating and impulsivity/compulsivity symptoms. Notably, there is a strong correlation between compulsivity symptoms and severity/frequency of binge eating episodes observed in LDX trials. Further, in individuals with BED, changes in prefrontal brain systems

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There is not only substantial overlap between the psychopathology of BED and ADHD but also a clear association between these two disorders. Lisdexamfetamine's ability to reduce impulsivity and increase cognitive control in ADHD supports the hypothesis that efficacy in BED is dependent on treating its

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Several other studies, including a meta-analytic review and a retrospective study, suggested that stimulant therapy in childhood is associated with a reduced risk of subsequent substance use, cigarette smoking and alcohol use disorders. ... Recent studies have demonstrated that stimulants, along

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In 1980, Chandler and Blair showed significant increases in knee extension strength, acceleration, anaerobic capacity, time to exhaustion during exercise, pre-exercise and maximum heart rates, and time to exhaustion during maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) testing after administration of 15 mg of

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The ARAS consists of several different circuits including the four main monoaminergic pathways discussed in Chapter 6. The norepinephrine pathway originates from the LC and related brainstem nuclei; the serotonergic neurons originate from the RN within the brainstem as well; the dopaminergic neurons

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Therapeutic (relatively low) doses of psychostimulants, such as methylphenidate and amphetamine, improve performance on working memory tasks both in normal subjects and those with ADHD. ... stimulants act not only on working memory function, but also on general levels of arousal and, within the

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of continuous stimulant therapy for the treatment of ADHD spanning 2 years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety. Two reviews have indicated that long-term continuous stimulant therapy for ADHD is effective for reducing the core symptoms of ADHD (i.e., hyperactivity, inattention,

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The biologic significance of the different levels of serum DβH activity was studied in two ways. First, in vivo ability to β-hydroxylate the synthetic substrate hydroxyamphetamine was compared in two subjects with low serum DβH activity and two subjects with average activity. ... In one study,

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Aside from accounting for the reduced performance of mentally fatigued participants, this model rationalizes the reduced RPE and hence improved cycling time trial performance of athletes using a glucose mouthwash (Chambers et al., 2009) and the greater power output during a RPE matched cycling time

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The usefulness of amphetamines is limited by a potential risk of abuse, and their cardiovascular adverse effects (Table 1). That is why, even though they are cheaper than other drugs, and efficient, they remain third-line therapy in narcolepsy. Three class II studies showed an improvement of EDS in

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Genetic polymorphisms associated with abnormal dopaminergic signaling have been found in individuals who exhibit binge-eating behavior, and the binge-eating episodes,which often involve the consumption of highly palatable food, further stimulate the dopaminergic system. This ongoing stimulation may

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Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from

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and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems. Approximately 80% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms. Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and

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Figure 1. Glycine conjugation of benzoic acid. The glycine conjugation pathway consists of two steps. First benzoate is ligated to CoASH to form the high-energy benzoyl-CoA thioester. This reaction is catalyzed by the HXM-A and HXM-B medium-chain acid:CoA ligases and requires energy in the form of

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2. Qualitative and quantitative composition. 30 mg Capsules: Each capsule contains 30 mg lisdexamfetamine dimesylate, equivalent to 8.9 mg of dexamfetamine. 50 mg Capsules: Each capsule contains 50 mg lisdexamfetamine dimesylate, equivalent to 14.8 mg of dexamfetamine. 70 mg Capsules: Each capsule

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All the amphetamines enhance activity at dopamine, noradrenaline and 5HT synapses. They cause presynaptic release of preformed transmitters, and also inhibit the re-uptake of dopamine and noradrenaline. These actions are most prominent in the brainstem ascending reticular activating system and the

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More recently, the lateral hypothalamus was also found to play a central role in arousal. Neurons in this region contain cell bodies that produce the orexin (also called hypocretin) peptides (Chapter 6). These neurons project widely throughout the brain and are involved in sleep, arousal, feeding,

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BED has been described as an impulse control disorder since one of the key symptoms of the disorder is a lack of control over eating (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and it is possible that LDX may be effective in treating BED at least in part by reducing impulsivity, compulsivity, and the

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of the drug being excreted unchanged at normal urinary pH. When the urinary pH is basic, amphetamine is in its free base form, so less is excreted. When urine pH is abnormal, the urinary recovery of amphetamine may range from a low of 1% to a high of 75%, depending mostly upon whether urine is too

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Medical reviews of randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that lisdexamfetamine, at doses between 50-70 mg, is safe and effective for the treatment of BED. These reviews suggest that lisdexamfetamine is consistently effective at treating BED and is associated with significant reductions in

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reviews on the treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that short-term studies have demonstrated that these drugs decrease the severity of symptoms, but they have higher discontinuation rates than non-stimulant medications due to their adverse

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AMPH also increases intracellular calcium (Gnegy et al., 2004) that is associated with calmodulin/CamKII activation (Wei et al., 2007) and modulation and trafficking of the DAT (Fog et al., 2006; Sakrikar et al., 2012). ... For example, AMPH increases extracellular glutamate in various brain

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Three important new aspects of TAs action have recently emerged: (a) inhibition of firing due to increased release of dopamine; (b) reduction of D2 and GABAB receptor-mediated inhibitory responses (excitatory effects due to disinhibition); and (c) a direct TA1 receptor-mediated activation of GIRK

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This indicates that subjects did not feel they were producing more power and consequently more heat. The authors concluded that the "safety switch" or the mechanisms existing in the body to prevent harmful effects are overridden by the drug administration (Roelands et al., 2008b). Taken together,

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The ADHD-related outcome domains with the greatest proportion of significantly improved outcomes from long-term continuous stimulant therapy include academics (≈55% of academic outcomes improved), driving (100% of driving outcomes improved), non-medical drug use (47% of addiction-related outcomes

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dextroamphetamine is present in lisdexamfetamine capsules, dextroamphetamine does not become available through mechanical manipulation, such as crushing or simple extraction. A relatively sophisticated biochemical process is needed to produce dextroamphetamine from lisdexamfetamine. As opposed to

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Hydroxyamphetamine was administered orally to five human subjects ... Since conversion of hydroxyamphetamine to hydroxynorephedrine occurs in vitro by the action of dopamine-β-oxidase, a simple method is suggested for measuring the activity of this enzyme and the effect of its inhibitors in

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AMPH and METH also stimulate DA efflux, which is thought to be a crucial element in their addictive properties , although the mechanisms do not appear to be identical for each drug . These processes are PKCβ– and CaMK–dependent , and PKCβ knock-out mice display decreased AMPH-induced efflux that

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VMAT2 is the CNS vesicular transporter for not only the biogenic amines DA, NE, EPI, 5-HT, and HIS, but likely also for the trace amines TYR, PEA, and thyronamine (THYR) ... neurons in mammalian CNS would be identifiable as neurons expressing VMAT2 for storage, and the biosynthetic enzyme

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Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding

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In high-ambient temperatures, dopaminergic manipulations clearly improve performance. The distribution of the power output reveals that after dopamine reuptake inhibition, subjects are able to maintain a higher power output compared with placebo. ... Dopaminergic drugs appear to override a

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The TF identified 1 double-blind RCT, 1 single-blind RCT, and 1 retrospective observational long-term self-reported case series assessing the efficacy of dextroamphetamine in patients with narcolepsy type 1 and narcolepsy type 2. These studies demonstrated clinically significant improvements in

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Adaptive responses depend on the ability to inhibit automatic or prepotent responses (eg, to ravenously eat the dessert or run from the snake) given certain social or environmental contexts or chosen goals and, in those circumstances, to select more appropriate responses. In conditions in which

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After 12 weeks, both studies found significant reductions in the number of binge-eating days per week in the active treatment group compared with placebo (P < .001 for both studies; Figure 1). Lisdexamfetamine was also found to be superior to placebo on a number of secondary outcome measures

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Only one paper examining outcomes beyond 36 months met the review criteria. ... There is high level evidence suggesting that pharmacological treatment can have a major beneficial effect on the core symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity) in approximately 80% of cases

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indicated that this is no more effective than the use of an SSRI or SNRI alone. Other studies indicated that psychostimulants potentiated antidepressants, and were under-prescribed for treatment resistant depression. In those studies, patients showed significant improvement in energy, mood, and

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Lisdexamfetamine was developed with the goal of providing a long duration of effect that is consistent throughout the day, with reduced potential for abuse. The attachment of the amino acid lysine slows down the relative amount of dextroamphetamine available to the blood stream. Because no free

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Amphetamine is usually consumed via inhalation or orally, either in the form of a racemic mixture (levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine) or dextroamphetamine alone (Childress et al. 2019). In general, all amphetamines have high bioavailability when consumed orally, and in the specific case of

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misuse of prescription stimulants has become a serious problem on college campuses across the US and has been recently documented in other countries as well. ... Indeed, large numbers of students claim to have engaged in the nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, which is reflected in

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The procognitive actions of psychostimulants are only associated with low doses. Surprisingly, despite nearly 80 years of clinical use, the neurobiology of the procognitive actions of psychostimulants has only recently been systematically investigated. Findings from this research unambiguously

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Key cell populations of the ascending arousal pathway include cholinergic, noradrenergic, serotoninergic, dopaminergic, and histaminergic neurons located in the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (PPT/LDT), locus coeruleus, dorsal and median raphe nucleus, and tuberomammillary

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An 11-week, double-blind RCT examined the effects of three doses of lisdexamfetamine (30 mg/day, 50 mg/day, 70 mg/day) and placebo on binge eating frequency. Results indicated that 50 mg and 70 mg doses were superior to placebo in reducing binge eating. Two follow-up 12-week RCTs confirmed the

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after conversion to its pharmacologically active metabolite, dextroamphetamine. Centrally, dextroamphetamine increases neurotransmitter activity of dopamine and norepinephrine in prefrontal cortical regions that regulate cognitive control of behavior. Similar to its therapeutic effect in ADHD,

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The simplest unsubstituted phenylisopropylamine, 1-phenyl-2-aminopropane, or amphetamine, serves as a common structural template for hallucinogens and psychostimulants. Amphetamine produces central stimulant, anorectic, and sympathomimetic actions, and it is the prototype member of this class

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The highest proportion of improved outcomes was reported with combination treatment (83% of outcomes). Among significantly improved outcomes, the largest effect sizes were found for combination treatment. The greatest improvements were associated with academic, self-esteem, or social function

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and academic achievement, and producing improvements in a large number of functional outcomes across 9 categories of outcomes related to academics, antisocial behavior, driving, non-medicinal drug use, obesity, occupation, self-esteem, service use (i.e., academic, occupational, health,

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Peripheral norepinephrine concentration rises as well. As demonstrated after Dextroamphetamine administration, plasma norepinephrine can rise up to 400 pg/mL, a level comparable to that achieved during mild physical activity. Cumulative effect on norepinephrine concentration is likely when

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Onset of efficacy was earliest for d-MPH-ER at 0.5 hours, followed by d, l-MPH-LA at 1 to 2 hours, MCD at 1.5 hours, d, l-MPH-OR at 1 to 2 hours, MAS-XR at 1.5 to 2 hours, MTS at 2 hours, and LDX at approximately 2 hours. ... MAS-XR, and LDX have a long duration of action at 12 hours

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Duration of effect varies depending on agent and urine pH. Excretion is enhanced in more acidic urine. Half-life is 7 to 34 hours and is, in part, dependent on urine pH (half-life is longer with alkaline urine). ... Amphetamines are distributed into most body tissues with high

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LDX is commonly used in the treatment of ADHD, and is the only treatment for BED that is currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). LDX, like all amphetamine stimulants, has direct appetite suppressant effects that may be

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of lisdexamfetamine. The elimination half-life of lisdexamfetamine is generally less than 1 hour. Due to the necessary conversion of lisdexamfetamine into dextroamphetamine, levels of dextroamphetamine with lisdexamfetamine peak about one hour later than with an equivalent dose of

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Ermer J, Homolka R, Martin P, Buckwalter M, Purkayastha J, Roesch B (September 2010). "Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: linear dose-proportionality, low intersubject and intrasubject variability, and safety in an open-label single-dose pharmacokinetic study in healthy adult volunteers".

1468:, such as increased endurance and alertness; however, non-medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate, national, and international anti-doping agencies. In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase 6417:

Narcolepsy type 1 was called "narcolepsy with cataplexy" before 2014 (AASM, 2005), but was renamed NT1 in the third and last international classification of sleep disorders (AASM, 2014). ... A low level of Hcrt-1 in the CSF is very sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of

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Stuhec M, Lukić P, Locatelli I (February 2019). "Efficacy, Acceptability, and Tolerability of Lisdexamfetamine, Mixed Amphetamine Salts, Methylphenidate, and Modafinil in the Treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis".

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Recent clinical trials and practice guidelines have confirmed that stimulants such as modafinil, armodafinil, or sodium oxybate (as first line); methylphenidate and pitolisant (as second line ); and amphetamines (as third line) are appropriate medications for excessive daytime

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All patients with low CSF Hcrt-1 levels are considered as NT1 patients, even if they report no cataplexy (in about 10–20% of cases), and all patients with normal CSF Hcrt-1 levels (or without cataplexy when the lumbar puncture is not performed) as NT2 patients (Baumann et al.,

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use does not enhance the subjective effects of lisdexamfetamine. Because of its behavior as a prodrug and its pharmacokinetic differences, lisdexamfetamine has a longer duration of therapeutic effect than immediate-release dextroamphetamine and shows reduced misuse potential.

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to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off-limits. At therapeutic doses, the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance; however, at much higher doses, amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance, such as

3883:. However, there was indication of a small effect in improving depressive symptoms that approached trend-level significance. Lisdexamfetamine was well-tolerated in the meta-analysis. The quantity of evidence was limited, with only four trials included. In a subsequent 2022 9642:) that contains 2.5 mg/mL of amphetamine base. The amphetamine base contains dextro- to levo-amphetamine in a ratio of 3.2:1, which is approximately the ratio in Adderall. The product uses an ion exchange resin to achieve extended release of the amphetamine base. 3932:

Long-term combination therapy for ADHD (i.e., treatment with both a stimulant and behavioral therapy) produces even larger effect sizes for outcome improvements and improves a larger proportion of outcomes across each domain compared to long-term stimulant therapy

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of lisdexamfetamine shows greatly delayed time to peak and reduced peak levels compared to intravenous administration of an equivalent dose of dextroamphetamine. The pharmacokinetics of lisdexamfetamine are similar regardless of whether it is administered orally,

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Overall, the data suggest that ADHD medication misuse and diversion are common health care problems for stimulant medications, with the prevalence believed to be approximately 5% to 10% of high school students and 5% to 35% of college students, depending on the

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hydroxyamphetamine (Paredrine), a synthetic substrate for DβH, was administered to subjects with either low or average levels of serum DβH activity. The percent of the drug hydroxylated to hydroxynorephedrine was comparable in all subjects (6.5-9.62) (Table 3).

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ATP. ... The benzoyl-CoA is then conjugated to glycine by GLYAT to form hippuric acid, releasing CoASH. In addition to the factors listed in the boxes, the levels of ATP, CoASH, and glycine may influence the overall rate of the glycine conjugation pathway.

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The first agents used to treat EDS (ie, amphetamines, methylphenidate) are now considered second- or third-line options because newer medications have been developed with improved tolerability and lower abuse potential (eg, modafinil/armodafinil, solriamfetol,

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ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs. However, high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control.

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therapeutically useful in BED, although long-term neuroadaptations in dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems caused by LDX may also be relevant, leading to improved regulation of eating behaviours, attentional processes and goal-directed behaviours. ...

1807:, among others, may inhibit the metabolism of dextroamphetamine and thereby increase exposure to it. Studies characterizing this potential interaction are currently lacking. Concomitant use of lisdexamfetamine with CYP2D6 inhibitors may increase the risk of 2212: hours, respectively. Highly acidic urine will reduce the enantiomer half-lives to 7 hours; highly alkaline urine will increase the half-lives up to 34 hours. The immediate-release and extended release variants of salts of both isomers reach 9347:-hydroxylation and β-hydroxylation reactions is important in species where aromatic hydroxylation of amphetamine is the predominant pathway of metabolism. Following systemic administration of amphetamine to rats, POH has been found in urine and in plasma. 2077:

Dextroamphetamine concentrations after oral administration of a single equimolar dose of dextroamphetamine sulfate immediate-release (IR) (40 mg; equivalent to 30 mg dextroamphetamine free-base) and lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (100 mg) in healthy adults.

1334:(AASM) 2021 clinical practice guideline conditionally recommends dextroamphetamine for the treatment of both type 1 and type 2 narcolepsy. Treatment with pharmaceutical amphetamines is generally less preferred relative to other psychostimulants (e.g., 8768:

concentrations occurring in the brain and CSF. Amphetamine appears in the urine within about 3 hours following oral administration. ... Three days after a dose of (+ or -)-amphetamine, human subjects had excreted 91% of the (14)C in the urine

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uses as those of other pharmaceutical amphetamines. Individuals over the age of 65 were not commonly tested in clinical trials of lisdexamfetamine for ADHD. According to a 2019 systematic review, lisdexamfetamine was the most effective treatment for

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administration occurs predominantly in the periphery, and that POH is then transported through the blood-brain barrier, taken up by noradrenergic neurones in brain where (+)-POH is converted in the storage vesicles by dopamine β-hydroxylase to PHN.

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It is conceivable that in BED patients a low 30 mg dose of LDX could reduce food intake by suppressing appetite or enhancing satiety and higher (50 and 70 mg) doses of the drug may have a dual suppressant effect on food intake and binge-eating

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prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 16), or inattention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result.

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and is unlikely to be affected by alterations in normal gastrointestinal transit times. Studies show a linear relationship between peak plasma concentration of dextroamphetamine and lisdexamfetamine dose up to lisdexamfetamine doses of 250mg.

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Due to pharmacological differences between these medications (e.g., differences in the release, absorption, conversion, concentration, differing effects of enantiomers, half-life, etc.), the listed values should not be considered equipotent

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dextroamphetamine versus placebo. Most of the information to answer this question has been obtained in the past decade through studies of fatigue rather than an attempt to systematically investigate the effect of ADHD drugs on exercise.

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and should not be avoided in these individuals. In any case, the statement noted that immediate-release stimulants should be avoided in those with both ADHD and substance use disorder and that slower-release stimulant formulations like

3717:, shortly before it began being marketed. It was developed with the intention of creating a longer-lasting and less-easily abused version of dextroamphetamine, as the requirement of conversion into dextroamphetamine via enzymes in the 7619:

during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing.

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that is converted in the body to dextroamphetamine, a pharmacologically active compound which is responsible for the drug's activity. After oral ingestion, lisdexamfetamine is broken down by enzymes in red blood cells to form

1081:(MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right 10235:

Giacobbe P, Rakita U, Lam R, Milev R, Kennedy SH, McIntyre RS (January 2018). "Efficacy and tolerability of lisdexamfetamine as an antidepressant augmentation strategy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials".

6073:

Stimulant medications may be especially effective for individuals with BED because of dual effects on reward and executive function systems. Indeed, the only FDA-approved pharmacotherapy for BED is LDX, a d-amphetamine

9214:

Badenhorst CP, van der Sluis R, Erasmus E, van Dijk AA (September 2013). "Glycine conjugation: importance in metabolism, the role of glycine N-acyltransferase, and factors that influence interindividual variation".

1977:, a naturally occurring essential amino acid, and dextroamphetamine. The half-life of this conversion is roughly 1 hour. The conversion of lisdexamfetamine to dextroamphetamine is not affected by gastrointestinal 11312: 6649:

Alertness and associated forebrain and cortical arousal are mediated by several ascending pathways with distinct neuronal components that project from the upper brain stem near the junction of the pons and the

10922: 1210:

that precede binge eating episodes. In addition, dextroamphetamine's actions outside of the central nervous system may also contribute to its treatment effects in BED. Peripherally, dextroamphetamine triggers

986:

Lisdexamfetamine was approved for medical use in the United States in 2007, and in the European Union in 2012. In 2022, it was the 69th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than

6495:

The D-isomer is more specific for DA transmission and is a better stimulant compound. Some effects on cataplexy (especially for the L-isomer), secondary to adrenergic effects, occur at higher doses. ...

5433:

nucleus accumbens, improve the saliency of tasks. Thus, stimulants improve performance on effortful but tedious tasks ... through indirect stimulation of dopamine and norepinephrine receptors. ...

2229:

basic or acidic, respectively. Following oral administration, amphetamine appears in urine within 3 hours. Roughly 90% of ingested amphetamine is eliminated 3 days after the last oral dose.

1102:

financial, and legal services), and social function. One review highlighted a nine-month randomized controlled trial of amphetamine treatment for ADHD in children that found an average increase of 4.5

2236:

of dextroamphetamine. It is not as sensitive to pH as amphetamine when being absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Following absorption into the blood stream, lisdexamfetamine is completely converted by

6011:

Evidently, there is a substantial volume of trials with high-quality evidence supporting the efficacy of LDX in reducing binge eating frequency in treatment of adults with moderate to severe BED at 50–70

1439:. Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals. Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve 6493:

Amphetamines are exceptionally wake-promoting, and at high doses also reduce cataplexy in narcoleptic patients, an effect best explained by its action on adrenergic and serotoninergic synapses. ...

1326:

sleep cycle and function as "REM-off" cells, with amphetamine's effect on norepinephrine and serotonin contributing to the suppression of REM sleep and a possible reduction of cataplexy at high doses.

7867:"Relative Bioavailabilities of Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate and D-Amphetamine in Healthy Adults in an Open-Label, Randomized, Crossover Study After Mixing Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate With Food or Drink" 6167:

Our meta-analysis of the four RCT data sets (Guerdjikova et al., 2016; McElroy et al., 2015b; McElroy et al., 2016a) showed an overall significant effect of LDX on binge-eating symptom change. ...

5073:"Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects" 9126:

Cashman JR, Xiong YN, Xu L, Janowsky A (March 1999). "N-oxygenation of amphetamine and methamphetamine by the human flavin-containing monooxygenase (form 3): role in bioactivation and detoxication".

6423:

In patients with NT1, the absence of Hcrt leads to the inhibition of regions that suppress REM sleep, thus allowing the activation of descending pathways inhibiting motoneurons, leading to cataplexy.

5897:

BED subjects have substantial decrements in their ventral striatal reward pathways and diminished ability to recruit fronto-cortical impulse-control circuits to implement dietary restraint. ...

5435:

Beyond these general permissive effects, dopamine (acting via D1 receptors) and norepinephrine (acting at several receptors) can, at optimal levels, enhance working memory and aspects of attention.

8983:(39). ... The phase 1 metabolism of amphetamine analogs is catalyzed by two systems: cytochrome P450 and flavin monooxygenase. ... Amphetamine can also undergo aromatic hydroxylation to 1178:(BED) is characterized by recurrent and persistent episodes of compulsive binge eating. These episodes are often accompanied by marked distress and a feeling of loss of control over eating. The 7341:

Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training ...

2073: 6106:

whether a person is alone staring into his or her refrigerator, is at a formal dinner party attended by his or her punctilious boss, or has just formulated the goal of losing 10 lb. ...

10057: 1077:

development or nerve damage, but, in humans with ADHD, long-term use of pharmaceutical amphetamines at therapeutic doses appears to improve brain development and nerve growth. Reviews of

6136:"Lisdexamfetamine and binge-eating disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the preclinical and clinical data with a focus on mechanism of drug action in treating the disorder" 10915: 5498:"The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials" 1259:. Patients with narcolepsy are diagnosed as either type 1 or type 2, with only the former presenting cataplexy symptoms. Type 1 narcolepsy results from the loss of approximately 70,000 1342:

option. Medical reviews indicate that amphetamine is safe and effective for the treatment of narcolepsy. Amphetamine appears to be most effective at improving symptoms associated with

996: 268: 10816: 8820:

Santagati NA, Ferrara G, Marrazzo A, Ronsisvalle G (September 2002). "Simultaneous determination of amphetamine and one of its metabolites by HPLC with electrochemical detection".

8066:

Schoretsanitis G, de Leon J, Eap CB, Kane JM, Paulzen M (December 2019). "Clinically Significant Drug-Drug Interactions with Agents for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder".

3918:

improved), obesity (≈65% of obesity-related outcomes improved), self-esteem (50% of self-esteem outcomes improved), and social function (67% of social function outcomes improved).

8748: 10908: 8364: • tonically activates inwardly rectifying K(+) channels, which reduces the basal firing frequency of dopamine (DA) neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) 11317: 5944:

contribute to progressive impairments in dopamine signaling. Lisdexamfetamine is hypothesized to reduce binge-eating behavior by normalizing dopaminergic activity. ...

16130: 13674: 4197: 4341: 2057:

dextroamphetamine formula. Studies conducted show that lisdexamfetamine dimesylate may have less abuse potential than dextroamphetamine and an abuse profile similar to

1110:

conducted to date, lifetime stimulant therapy that begins during childhood is continuously effective for controlling ADHD symptoms and reduces the risk of developing a

16145: 11418: 7674:

trial following amphetamine ingestion (Swart, 2009). ... Dopamine stimulating drugs are known to enhance aspects of exercise performance (Roelands et al., 2008)

4226: 9802: 8595:"Effects of lisdexamfetamine on plasma steroid concentrations compared with d-amphetamine in healthy subjects: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study" 1951:

DAT, internalize and cease transport. Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through a

1106:

points, continued increases in attention, and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity. Another review indicated that, based upon the longest

15553: 7529:

Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R (May 2013). "Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing".

4221:[Collegiate Board Resolution No. 784 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control] (in Brazilian Portuguese). 3035:

Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate is one marketed formulation delivering dextroamphetamine. The following table compares the drug to other amphetamine pharmaceuticals.

16210: 1924: 15548: 301: 11288: 1863: 5947:

including global improvement, binge-eating cessation for 4 weeks, and reduction of obsessive-compulsive binge-eating symptoms, body weight, and triglycerides.

5117:"Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies" 10066:"Psychostimulants in the therapy of treatment-resistant depression Review of the literature and findings from a retrospective study in 65 depressed patients" 4369: 1551:

contained. Lisdexamfetamine capsules can be swallowed intact, or they can be opened and mixed into water, yogurt, or applesauce and consumed in that manner.

1206:

dextroamphetamine enhances cognitive control and may reduce impulsivity in patients with BED by enhancing the cognitive processes responsible for overriding

314: 223: 6497:

Numerous studies have shown that increased dopamine release is the main property explaining wake-promotion, although norepinephrine effects also contribute.

11782: 11748: 5295:

Ongoing research has provided answers to many of the parents' concerns, and has confirmed the effectiveness and safety of the long-term use of medication.

3995:

For uniformity, molar masses were calculated using the Lenntech Molecular Weight Calculator and were within 0.01 g/mol of published pharmaceutical values.

11667: 10736: 9262:

Horwitz D, Alexander RW, Lovenberg W, Keiser HR (May 1973). "Human serum dopamine-β-hydroxylase. Relationship to hypertension and sympathetic activity".

2902:, increases the melting point and thereby ensures a solid product. In the case of lisdexamfetamine, this is achieved by reacting with two equivalents of 1915:. When amphetamine enters synaptic vesicles through VMAT2, it collapses the vesicular pH gradient, which in turn causes dopamine to be released into the 8514:

Jasinski DR, Krishnan S (June 2009). "Abuse liability and safety of oral lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in individuals with a history of stimulant abuse".

1092:

Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term continuous amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD.

16160: 10322:"Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate augmentation in adults with persistent executive dysfunction after partial or full remission of major depressive disorder" 9309:

Freeman JJ, Sulser F (December 1974). "Formation of p-hydroxynorephedrine in brain following intraventricular administration of p-hydroxyamphetamine".

7345: • Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation 4473:

Brams M, Mao AR, Doyle RL (September 2008). "Onset of efficacy of long-acting psychostimulants in pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder".

843: 9758: 281: 16175: 11258: 9362:

Matsuda LA, Hanson GR, Gibb JW (December 1989). "Neurochemical effects of amphetamine metabolites on central dopaminergic and serotonergic systems".

5380:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

770: 11409: 6768:

Despite the potential for drug abuse or tolerance using stimulants, patients with narcolepsy rarely exhibit addiction to their medication. ...

7210:"Pharmacological interventions for adolescents and adults with ADHD: stimulant and nonstimulant medications and misuse of prescription stimulants" 3872: 3795:

As of November 2020, lisdexamfetamine is sold under the following brand names: Aduvanz, Elvanse, Juneve, Samexid, Tyvense, Venvanse, and Vyvanse.

10776: 3700: 1620: 5227:

Huang YS, Tsai MH (July 2011). "Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge".

2369:-dealkylation, and deamination. The known metabolic pathways, detectable metabolites, and metabolizing enzymes in humans include the following: 10174: 7949:"Adderall XR- dextroamphetamine sulfate, dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine sulfate and amphetamine aspartate capsule, extended release" 7745:"Adderall XR- dextroamphetamine sulfate, dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine sulfate and amphetamine aspartate capsule, extended release" 7046:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 10: Neural and Neuroendocrine Control of the Internal Milieu". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

992: 97: 1631:(Concerta) and lisdexamfetamine should be preferred due to their lower misuse potential. Prescribing information approved by the Australian 1190:-approved pharmacotherapy for BED. Evidence suggests that lisdexamfetamine's treatment efficacy in BED is underpinned at least in part by a 13847: 10564: 7727:

these data indicate strong ergogenic effects of an increased DA concentration in the brain, without any change in the perception of effort.

799: 7019:

Devous MD, Trivedi MH, Rush AJ (April 2001). "Regional cerebral blood flow response to oral amphetamine challenge in healthy volunteers".

6821:

Thorpy MJ, Bogan RK (April 2020). "Update on the pharmacologic management of narcolepsy: mechanisms of action and clinical implications".

5169:"Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects" 4342:"List of nationally authorised medicinal products : Active substance(s): lisdexamfetamine : Procedure No. PSUSA/00010289/202002" 2204:

of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH. At normal urine pH, the half-lives of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are

16140: 14272: 11736: 8124:"The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity" 3836: 1183: 15583: 15578: 13403: 9852: 7404: 14631: 14581: 11742: 11283: 11263: 9927: 5576: 1856: 1576: 15598: 15573: 8933: 5416:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

14317: 14312: 14307: 14302: 14292: 14287: 14282: 14277: 14267: 14257: 14247: 14227: 14217: 14212: 14207: 14022: 13962: 7007:

Amphetamine has been shown to improve consolidation of information (0.02 ≥ P ≤ 0.05), leading to improved recall.

1719:. Rates of side effects may vary in adults, adolescents, and children. Rare but serious side effects of lisdexamfetamine may include 15593: 15588: 15568: 15563: 1769:, decrease urinary excretion of dextroamphetamine, thus increasing the half-life and effectiveness of dextroamphetamine in the body. 827:

InChI=1S/C15H25N3O/c1-12(11-13-7-3-2-4-8-13)18-15(19)14(17)9-5-6-10-16/h2-4,7-8,12,14H,5-6,9-11,16-17H2,1H3,(H,18,19)/t12-,14-/m0/s1

14187: 14182: 14132: 13925: 11775: 11661: 11486: 11253: 10731: 8036: 3859:

had found that Vyvanse was not an effective treatment for depression, and development for this indication was discontinued. A 2018

2062: 1393:

found that, when used at low (therapeutic) doses, amphetamine produces modest yet unambiguous improvements in cognition, including

1047: 876: 6491:

established, the majority of the 70,000 hypocretin-producing cells have been destroyed, and the disorder is irreversible. ...

14152: 14042: 14032: 14027: 13729: 2093: 8789: 7948: 7744: 7129: 4968:

Carvalho M, Carmo H, Costa VM, Capela JP, Pontes H, Remião F, et al. (August 2012). "Toxicity of amphetamines: an update".

4315: 14601: 13909: 11730: 8378:"Amphetamine modulates excitatory neurotransmission through endocytosis of the glutamate transporter EAAT3 in dopamine neurons" 3832: 10216:

Clinical development is underway in the US, for mood disorders in children and adolescents for binge eating disorder and ADHD.

6512:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "Chapter 10: Neural and Neuroendocrine Control of the Internal Milieu".

4184: 3750:

of lisdexamfetamine in the US was 24 February 2023. The Canadian patent expires 20 years from the filing date of 1 June 2004.

2361:, and norephedrine. The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, 16165: 15126: 11338: 10387: 10288: 9457: 8662: 6969:"Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review" 4850: 4678: 4604: 4440: 1849: 1276: 1409:, in normal healthy adults; these cognition-enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to be partially mediated through the 850: 148: 13548: 12840: 12188: 11402: 11209: 9730: 8753:. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. United States National Library of Medicine – Toxicology Data Network. Archived from 7367:

Westfall DP, Westfall TC (2010). "Miscellaneous Sympathomimetic Agonists". In Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC (eds.).

7161:"Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration" 9884:

Buoli M, Serati M, Cahn W (2016). "Alternative pharmacological strategies for adult ADHD treatment: a systematic review".

9343:-hydroxynorephedrine (PHN) may contribute to the pharmacological profile of the parent drug. ... The location of the 4218: 1817:: Concomitant use of MAOIs and central nervous system stimulants such as lisdexamfetamine can cause a hypertensive crisis. 15968: 12754: 12066: 11768: 11672: 11295: 9795: 3844:

psychomotor activity. Clinical guidelines advise caution in the use of stimulants for depression and advise them only as

2577:

of amphetamine is excreted unchanged and roughly 50% is excreted as the inactive metabolites (bottom row). The remaining

1886: 1496:

of dopamine in the central nervous system. Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed

14498: 13558: 12865: 12208: 11307: 5751:"Pharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children with comorbid tic disorders" 4214: 4192: 1331: 6918:"Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis" 6681:"Treatment of central disorders of hypersomnolence: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline" 6089:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "Chapter 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control".

16195: 14626: 14616: 14596: 13603: 11712: 10670: 10665: 8975: 7633:"Is it time to turn our attention toward central mechanisms for post-exertional recovery strategies and performance?" 7376: 7055: 6586: 6555: 6521: 6098: 5560: 5425: 5389: 5318:"Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review" 5288: 3887:, lisdexamfetamine was significantly effective as an antidepressant augmentation for treatment-resistant depression. 3778: 2525: 2296: 2006: 819: 1182:

of BED is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve dysfunctional dopaminergic reward circuitry along the

1146:

family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans. The

16185: 15136: 14954: 14621: 14606: 14591: 14374: 13563: 12870: 12213: 11370: 9075:"Mammalian flavin-containing monooxygenases: structure/function, genetic polymorphisms and role in drug metabolism" 1632: 1187: 1000: 10741: 8754: 4376: 4029:) × scaling factor. The values in this column were scaled to a 30 mg dose of dextroamphetamine sulfate. 3891: 16120: 15249: 14949: 14899: 14611: 13734: 13255: 12500: 11395: 10836: 10271:

Pan Z, Grovu RC, McIntyre RS (2019). "Translational Medicine Strategies in Drug Development for Mood Disorders".

10118:"Augmentation strategies for treatment resistant major depression: A systematic review and network meta-analysis" 8991:-hydroxynorephedrine. Alternatively, direct oxidation of amphetamine by DA β-hydroxylase can afford norephedrine. 7485:

Parr JW (July 2011). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding".

5363: 1875: 481: 253: 129: 10900: 10804: 9473: 7564:

safety switch and allow athletes to use a reserve capacity that is 'off-limits' in a normal (placebo) situation.

6864: 15689: 15558: 15543: 15538: 15121: 13929: 13699: 13543: 13106: 13075: 12850: 12369: 12343: 12198: 3890:

Although lisdexamfetamine has shown limited effectiveness in the treatment of depression in clinical trials, a

3840: 9614: 7263:

Clemow DB, Walker DJ (September 2014). "The potential for misuse and abuse of medications in ADHD: a review".

3871:—the first to be conducted—found that lisdexamfetamine was not significantly better than placebo in improving 2315:

amphetamine or its metabolites in humans. Amphetamine has a variety of excreted metabolic products, including

1073:

Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal

560: 15533: 15528: 15116: 15111: 14876: 13955: 13588: 13538: 13533: 13250: 12845: 12193: 10746: 8970:(7th ed.). Philadelphia, US: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 646–648. 8709: 7062:

Dopamine acts in the nucleus accumbens to attach motivational significance to stimuli associated with reward.

6035:"The Neurobiology of Binge-eating Disorder Compared with Obesity: Implications for Differential Therapeutics" 5859:"Prospects for new drugs to treat binge-eating disorder: Insights from psychopathology and neuropharmacology" 4219:"RDC Nº 784 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial" 2384: 1231:

cells) that are involved in the regulation of food intake and body weight. Together, these actions confer an

9701: 6770:

Some stimulants, such as mazindol, amphetamines, and pitolisant, may also have some anticataplectic effects.

15490: 14493: 13905: 13714: 13704: 13684: 13643: 13618: 13568: 13478: 13085: 13080: 12875: 12353: 12348: 12218: 11365: 9770: 9764: 9707: 9388:-OHNor is well documented and dopamine-β hydroxylase present in noradrenergic neurons could easily convert 7787:"Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Lisdexamfetamine Compared with D-Amphetamine in Healthy Subjects" 7208:

Weyandt LL, Oster DR, Marraccini ME, Gudmundsdottir BG, Munro BA, Zavras BM, et al. (September 2014).

4222: 3725: 1497: 1343: 1126: 611: 9953:

Rasmussen N (July 2006). "Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929-1950".

5968:"Pharmacotherapy, alternative and adjunctive therapies for eating disorders: findings from a rapid review" 4248: 3925:

for outcome improvements from long-term stimulant therapy occur in the domains involving academics (e.g.,

668: 15963: 15470: 15465: 14510: 13724: 13719: 13694: 13648: 13358: 13090: 13070: 12694: 12622: 11991: 11921: 11694: 11300: 9592: 9570: 9548: 9498: 4156:"FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)" 4116:"Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (vyvanse), a prodrug stimulant for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder" 3864: 3558: 2186: 1814: 1572: 1421: 1093: 679: 8987:-hydroxyamphetamine. ... Subsequent oxidation at the benzylic position by DA β-hydroxylase affords 1117:

Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's

16056: 15101: 13979: 13971: 13275: 13225: 11706: 11268: 10655: 10642: 9418: 4816: 2272: 2271:

immediate-release dextroamphetamine. Presumably due to its rate-limited activation by red blood cells,

2217: 2148: 1303: 1078: 450: 15414: 15244: 11799: 11791: 11677: 11237: 10380: 9827: 8180:"VMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse" 7251:

lifetime prevalence rates of prescription stimulant misuse ranging from 5% to nearly 34% of students.

4316:"Vyvanse- lisdexamfetamine dimesylate capsule; Vyvanse- lisdexamfetamine dimesylate tablet, chewable" 4155: 4086: 3868: 2553: 2510: 2503: 2304: 2281: 2277: 2144: 1544: 14441: 12689: 11986: 10178: 8790:"Vyvanse- lisdexamfetamine dimesylate capsule Vyvanse- lisdexamfetamine dimesylate tablet, chewable" 6865:"The Cognition-Enhancing Effects of Psychostimulants Involve Direct Action in the Prefrontal Cortex" 4897: 2882:

are vulnerable to oxidation in air and so pharmaceuticals containing them are usually formulated as

2292: 1614:

on adult ADHD noted that stimulants do not worsen substance misuse in adults with ADHD and comorbid

695: 16205: 16180: 13948: 13473: 13196: 12749: 12469: 12046: 11543: 11535: 11350: 11202: 10675: 9656:"Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: a prodrug stimulant for the treatment of ADHD in children and adults" 6679:

Maski K, Trotti LM, Kotagal S, Robert Auger R, Rowley JA, Hashmi SD, et al. (September 2021).

6135: 5801:

Giel KE, Bulik CM, Fernandez-Aranda F, Hay P, Keski-Rahkonen A, Schag K, et al. (March 2022).

4641: 3942:

Cochrane reviews are high quality meta-analytic systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials.

3876: 1323: 1315: 1118: 1107: 107: 8594: 6245:"Pharmacology of human trace amine-associated receptors: Therapeutic opportunities and challenges" 1251:

Narcolepsy is a chronic sleep-wake disorder that is associated with excessive daytime sleepiness,

16200: 16150: 15480: 15439: 15163: 15031: 15026: 15016: 14944: 14934: 14688: 14678: 14661: 14520: 13760: 13638: 13453: 13413: 13378: 13368: 12642: 12632: 11941: 11931: 11449: 11355: 11275: 10866: 9114: 8940:. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information 8914:. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information 8907: 8888:. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information 8881: 8862:. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information 8593:

Strajhar P, Vizeli P, Patt M, Dolder PC, Kratschmar DV, Liechti ME, et al. (February 2019).

8347: 7347: • Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40 5700:

Punja S, Shamseer L, Hartling L, Urichuk L, Vandermeer B, Nikles J, et al. (February 2016).

3982:; however, other evidence from animal studies suggests that this reaction is catalyzed by DBH in 3820:, were found to transiently improve mood in a majority of people with depression and to increase 2609: 2549: 2100: 1147: 209: 59: 8855: 5115:

Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, et al. (September 2013).

15640: 15608: 15517: 15156: 14924: 14561: 14470: 14462: 14454: 14446: 13921: 13917: 13785: 13689: 13653: 13628: 13065: 12950: 12338: 12246: 11429: 11333: 10791: 10593: 9635: 3821: 3710: 2393: 2329: 1728: 1615: 1501: 1311: 1202: 1111: 958: 923: 372: 9859: 9523: 8963: 7977:

Kooij JJ, Bijlenga D, Salerno L, Jaeschke R, Bitter I, Balázs J, et al. (February 2019).

7393: 5702:"Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents" 4590: 4588: 4545:"Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate: Prodrug Delivery, Amphetamine Exposure and Duration of Efficacy" 16125: 15475: 15419: 15292: 15277: 15266: 14919: 14656: 14636: 13780: 13623: 12942: 12900: 12238: 12156: 11724: 11482: 11030: 10985: 10856: 10799: 10710: 10660: 10626: 10622: 10618: 10610: 10606: 10583: 6576: 3898: 3884: 3736: 3714: 2617: 2442: 2323: 2086: 1175: 1103: 1051: 880: 781: 600: 551: 10817:

Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

9931: 9408: 2053:, which contains amphetamine salts in a 3:1 dextro:levo ratio, lisdexamfetamine is a single- 1275:

for type 1 narcolepsy. Lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons innervate every component of the

515: 16155: 16110: 15796: 15655: 15650: 15307: 15297: 15287: 15151: 14939: 14891: 14836: 14826: 14576: 13913: 13633: 13608: 13468: 13423: 13373: 12988: 12932: 12814: 12744: 12459: 12254: 12116: 12041: 11688: 11360: 10889: 10705: 10650: 10614: 10602: 10373: 9449: 8191: 4977: 4585: 2993: 2903: 2629: 2435: 2317: 2201: 1724: 1704: 1684: 1568: 1432: 1414: 1319: 1272: 1264: 919: 620: 435: 185: 3816:. In clinical studies in the 1970s and 1980s, psychostimulants, including amphetamine and 1827: 8: 16190: 16170: 16115: 15958: 15704: 15507: 15454: 15106: 15021: 15011: 14959: 14929: 14865: 14752: 14683: 14673: 14556: 13775: 13513: 13363: 13205: 12983: 12905: 12739: 12637: 12627: 12550: 12484: 12161: 12051: 11936: 11926: 11849: 11195: 10761: 10715: 9655: 9639: 4599:(6th ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 379–384. 3926: 3845: 2428: 2300: 2213: 2190: 2107: 2079: 1920: 1732: 1529: 1268: 1207: 1195: 927: 699: 506: 427: 364: 216: 10116:

Nuñez NA, Joseph B, Pahwa M, Kumar R, Resendez MG, Prokop LJ, et al. (April 2022).

8195: 7915: 5994: 5967: 5726: 5701: 4981: 4872: 4694: 2132: 1919:(light tan-colored area) through VMAT2. When amphetamine binds to TAAR1, it reduces the 1369: 1039: 46: 15317: 15312: 14414: 13790: 13126: 13121: 12617: 12384: 11916: 11477: 11014: 10599: 10346: 10321: 10302: 10280: 10155: 10142: 10117: 10090: 10065: 9909: 9683: 9441: 9335:

In species where aromatic hydroxylation of amphetamine is the major metabolic pathway,

9287: 9240: 9184: 9175: 9159: 9099: 9074: 8625: 8539: 8455: 8430: 8402: 8377: 8320: 8293: 8265: 8240: 8212: 8179: 8148: 8123: 8091: 8018: 7891: 7866: 7813: 7786: 7717: 7659: 7632: 7604: 7577: 7554: 7455: 7430: 7288: 7236: 7209: 7185: 7160: 7105: 7080: 6993: 6968: 6945: 6889: 6705: 6680: 6635: 6610: 6546:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "Chapter 13: Sleep and Arousal".

6476: 6451: 6363: 6338: 6310: 6285: 6213: 6186: 6059: 6034: 5883: 5858: 5827: 5802: 5775: 5750: 5677: 5652: 5633: 5524: 5497: 5473: 5448: 5344: 5317: 5252: 5198: 5141: 5116: 5045: 5020: 5001: 4950: 4798: 4745: 4720: 4569: 4544: 4498: 4132: 4115: 3849: 2895: 2887: 2647: 2263: 2113:(4.6 hours vs. 3.3 hours) were longer for lisdexamfetamine than with dextroamphetamine. 2034: 1808: 1766: 1762: 1736: 1664: 1532: 1489: 1485: 1473: 1440: 1402: 1223:

into blood plasma to be utilized as a fuel substrate. Dextroamphetamine also activates

935: 891: 159: 9024: 8833: 6782:

Dauvilliers Y, Barateau L (August 2017). "Narcolepsy and Other Central Hypersomnias".

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from the gut, and bioavailability is typically 90%. Amphetamine is a weak base with a

1201:

Lisdexamfetamine's therapeutic effects for BED primarily involve direct action in the

1167:

worse, but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals.

15645: 15392: 15382: 15352: 15282: 14974: 14717: 14389: 13001: 12825: 12672: 12287: 12121: 11970: 11457: 11345: 10980: 10589: 10546: 10489: 10351: 10320:

Madhoo M, Keefe RS, Roth RM, Sambunaris A, Wu J, Trivedi MH, et al. (May 2014).

10306: 10294: 10284: 10253: 10159: 10147: 10095: 10046: 10005: 9970: 9901: 9675: 9453: 9371: 9326: 9322: 9279: 9232: 9189: 9135: 9104: 9090: 9029: 8971: 8837: 8658: 8617: 8575: 8531: 8460: 8407: 8325: 8270: 8217: 8203: 8153: 8139: 8095: 8083: 8010: 8005: 7896: 7840: 7818: 7709: 7679: 7664: 7609: 7546: 7502: 7460: 7372: 7332: 7292: 7280: 7241: 7190: 7137: 7110: 7051: 7028: 6998: 6937: 6894: 6838: 6799: 6756: 6710: 6640: 6582: 6551: 6517: 6481: 6408: 6368: 6315: 6266: 6261: 6244: 6218: 6158: 6094: 6064: 5999: 5934: 5888: 5832: 5780: 5731: 5682: 5625: 5556: 5529: 5478: 5421: 5385: 5349: 5284: 5244: 5240: 5190: 5185: 5168: 5146: 5094: 5050: 4993: 4942: 4802: 4790: 4786: 4750: 4674: 4600: 4574: 4490: 4436: 4137: 3809: 3789: 3747: 3116: 2677: 2621: 2128: 2118: 2030: 1994: 1611: 1575:(MAOI) within the last 14 days. Amphetamine products are contraindicated by the 1548: 1536: 1481: 1469: 1428: 1382: 1365: 1355: 1302:

Amphetamine’s therapeutic mode of action in narcolepsy primarily involves increasing

1160: 1138: 1074: 1035: 1025: 980: 954: 540: 408: 378: 121: 10081: 9913: 9687: 9291: 9244: 8629: 8294:"Electrophysiological effects of trace amines on mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons" 8022: 7721: 7558: 7081:"Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation" 6949: 6917: 6154: 6050: 5966:

Rodan SC, Bryant E, Le A, Maloney D, Touyz S, McGregor IS, et al. (July 2023).

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metabolism in humans suggests that a different enzyme may mediate the conversion of

3901:

in people with mild major depressive disorder but persisting executive dysfunction.

1406: 16135: 16082: 15387: 15367: 15207: 14871: 14790: 14430: 13679: 13523: 13433: 13322: 13186: 13060: 12973: 12566: 12454: 12333: 12277: 11865: 10630: 10558: 10341: 10333: 10276: 10245: 10200: 10137: 10129: 10085: 10077: 10036: 9997: 9962: 9893: 9667: 9318: 9271: 9224: 9179: 9171: 9094: 9086: 9019: 8829: 8650: 8609: 8567: 8543: 8523: 8485: 8450: 8442: 8397: 8389: 8315: 8305: 8260: 8252: 8207: 8199: 8143: 8135: 8075: 8000: 7990: 7886: 7878: 7853:

contains 70 mg lisdexamfetamine dimesylate, equivalent to 20.8 mg of dexamfetamine.

7808: 7798: 7699: 7654: 7644: 7599: 7589: 7538: 7494: 7450: 7442: 7324: 7272: 7231: 7221: 7180: 7172: 7100: 7092: 6988: 6980: 6929: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6830: 6791: 6748: 6700: 6692: 6630: 6622: 6611:"Neurophysiology of sleep and wakefulness: basic science and clinical implications" 6471: 6463: 6400: 6358: 6350: 6305: 6297: 6256: 6208: 6198: 6150: 6054: 6046: 5989: 5979: 5926: 5878: 5870: 5822: 5814: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5615: 5519: 5509: 5468: 5460: 5339: 5329: 5256: 5236: 5180: 5136: 5128: 5084: 5040: 5032: 5005: 4985: 4934: 4782: 4740: 4732: 4564: 4556: 4482: 4404: 4127: 3983: 3706: 2883: 2879: 2350: 2014: 1966: 1932: 1928: 1772: 1636: 1592: 1564: 1560: 1525: 1410: 716: 351: 236: 9897: 4842: 2065:, but still has a high abuse potential when this dosage is exceeded by over 100%. 1903:

Amphetamine enters the presynaptic neuron across the neuronal membrane or through

1339: 1306:

neurotransmitter activity in the ARAS. This includes noradrenergic neurons in the

16070: 15983: 15826: 15747: 14994: 14979: 14886: 14861: 14786: 14721: 14566: 14478: 13613: 13458: 13201: 13116: 13006: 12895: 12677: 12540: 12479: 12474: 12379: 12292: 12151: 11975: 11839: 11566: 11472: 11467: 11453: 11083: 11063: 11010: 10956: 10931: 10930: 10786: 10781: 10756: 10579: 10477: 10275:. Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 29. Elsevier. pp. 333–347. 9228: 8742: 8740: 8738: 8736: 8734: 8393: 7995: 7978: 7882: 6795: 5334: 3828: 3817: 3718: 2639: 2625: 2312: 2140: 1998: 1780: 1716: 1628: 1600: 1493: 1436: 1431:. A systematic review from 2014 found that low doses of amphetamine also improve 1398: 1307: 1256: 1191: 1179: 1142: 1134: 1098: 1082: 931: 422: 386: 359: 29: 20: 10943: 9004: 8613: 7315:

Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS".

6834: 5208:

child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure.

4905:. Drug Enforcement Administration • U.S. Department of Justice. 2017. p. 22 4021:

dose = (1 / amphetamine base percentage) × scaling factor = (molecular mass

3970:. Evidence from studies that measured the effect of serum DBH concentrations on 16094: 16017: 15898: 15811: 15141: 14762: 14425: 13448: 13211: 13141: 12963: 12860: 12774: 12409: 12267: 12146: 12076: 11700: 10841: 10826: 8446: 8292:

Ledonne A, Berretta N, Davoli A, Rizzo GR, Bernardi G, Mercuri NB (July 2011).

8256: 8079: 7979:"Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD" 6739:

Barateau L, Lopez R, Dauvilliers Y (October 2016). "Management of Narcolepsy".

6626: 6354: 6301: 5984: 5930: 5818: 5551:

Millichap JG (2010). "Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD". In Millichap JG (ed.).

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Millichap JG (2010). "Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD". In Millichap JG (ed.).

4431:

Millichap JG (2010). "Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD". In Millichap JG (ed.).

3894: 3880: 3856: 3813: 2899: 2256: 2238: 2182: 2166: 2058: 2042: 2022: 1660: 1506: 1452: 1394: 1390: 1280: 1216: 1130: 786: 395: 10249: 10133: 10041: 10024: 9671: 9160:"Dopamine-beta-oxidase activity in man, using hydroxyamphetamine as substrate" 8731: 8654: 7542: 7498: 7431:"Pharmacology of stimulants prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)" 7328: 6752: 6467: 5874: 5553:

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD

5464: 5281:

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD

4989: 4560: 4433:

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD

4012:. Amphetamine base percentage for Adderall = sum of component percentages / 4. 2173:. Conversely, an acidic pH means the drug is predominantly in a water-soluble 16104: 16033: 16028: 15943: 15852: 15831: 15805: 15763: 15628: 15372: 15227: 15076: 14999: 14737: 14359: 14344: 13181: 13171: 13111: 13034: 12912: 12890: 12699: 12545: 12449: 12439: 12374: 12307: 12168: 12001: 11844: 11760: 11645: 11614: 11574: 11128: 10851: 10568: 10298: 9735: 8571: 8527: 8310: 7803: 7649: 7594: 7276: 4938: 4736: 4486: 4253: 3860: 3729: 2911: 2414: 2400: 2346: 2338: 2267: 2002: 1776: 1752: 1584: 1465: 1386: 1086: 943: 326: 37: 9275: 8644: 8431:"Mechanisms of dopamine transporter regulation in normal and disease states" 7394:"National Study of Substance Use Trends Among NCAA College Student-Athletes" 7176: 6960: 5653:"Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults" 5620: 5603: 5036: 1239:

in response to feeding and may decrease binge eating as a secondary effect.

887:. Its effects generally begin within two hours and last for up to 14 hours. 16023: 15938: 15816: 15771: 15719: 15660: 15618: 15357: 15004: 14782: 14777: 14727: 14708: 14384: 13884: 13811: 13755: 13750: 13498: 13398: 13388: 13353: 13156: 13136: 13039: 12784: 12779: 12764: 12684: 12657: 12525: 12520: 12424: 12404: 12312: 12086: 12081: 12061: 11981: 11956: 11824: 11819: 11163: 11035: 10355: 10257: 10151: 10099: 10050: 9974: 9966: 9905: 9679: 9236: 9193: 9139: 9108: 8841: 8621: 8579: 8535: 8464: 8411: 8376:

Underhill SM, Wheeler DS, Li M, Watts SD, Ingram SL, Amara SG (July 2014).

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Dolder PC, Strajhar P, Vizeli P, Hammann F, Odermatt A, Liechti ME (2017).

7713: 7668: 7613: 7550: 7506: 7464: 7336: 7284: 7245: 7194: 7114: 7032: 7002: 6941: 6898: 6842: 6803: 6760: 6714: 6644: 6485: 6412: 6372: 6319: 6270: 6222: 6162: 6068: 6003: 5938: 5892: 5836: 5784: 5735: 5686: 5629: 5533: 5482: 5353: 5248: 5194: 5150: 5098: 5054: 4997: 4946: 4794: 4754: 4721:"Amphetamine, past and present--a pharmacological and clinical perspective" 4578: 4494: 4141: 3743: 3735:

In January 2015, lisdexamfetamine was approved by the FDA for treatment of

3728:(FDA) approved lisdexamfetamine for the treatment of ADHD. In August 2009, 2643: 2407: 2342: 2334: 1700: 1680: 1604: 1588: 1510: 1232: 1220: 1156: 907: 231: 10025:"Emerging mechanisms and treatments for depression beyond SSRIs and SNRIs" 10009: 9702:"Drug Approval Package: Vyvanse (Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate) NDA #021977" 9375: 9330: 9283: 9033: 8957: 8955: 7096: 6452:"A practical guide to the therapy of narcolepsy and hypersomnia syndromes" 6391:

Barateau L, Pizza F, Plazzi G, Dauvilliers Y (August 2022). "Narcolepsy".

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found that the addition of lisdexamfetamine to an antidepressant improved

16043: 16008: 15978: 15908: 15903: 15878: 15776: 15679: 15332: 15322: 15302: 15256: 15237: 15217: 15196: 14984: 14969: 14904: 14856: 14796: 14767: 14747: 14713: 14641: 14435: 14369: 13879: 13864: 13709: 13593: 13503: 13443: 13151: 12996: 12978: 12794: 12789: 12734: 12729: 12667: 12662: 12601: 12581: 12419: 12282: 12178: 12096: 12091: 12031: 12026: 11966: 11961: 11900: 11880: 11624: 11609: 11604: 11589: 11515: 11510: 11445: 11387: 11178: 11158: 11118: 10995: 10990: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10871: 10846: 10415: 10396: 10337: 7446: 6933: 5921:

McElroy SL (2017). "Pharmacologic Treatments for Binge-Eating Disorder".

5132: 3922: 3633: 3188: 2586: 2421: 2194: 2122: 1990: 1986: 1940: 1676: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1359: 1296: 1152: 1029: 115: 8489: 7226: 6604: 6602: 5514: 4408: 2216:

at 3 hours and 7 hours post-dose respectively. Amphetamine is

1016: 580: 16013: 15948: 15928: 15923: 15918: 15913: 15893: 15883: 15857: 15836: 15791: 15786: 15755: 15724: 15709: 15699: 15613: 15444: 15407: 15397: 15377: 15337: 15327: 15182: 15178: 15168: 14964: 14914: 14909: 14841: 14831: 14816: 14811: 14801: 14732: 14703: 14698: 14571: 14505: 14488: 14399: 14394: 14364: 13854: 13795: 13578: 13573: 13528: 13518: 13508: 13418: 13408: 13337: 13332: 13166: 13161: 13146: 13015: 13011: 12968: 12937: 12917: 12885: 12835: 12804: 12709: 12704: 12652: 12647: 12591: 12586: 12576: 12434: 12429: 12414: 12399: 12272: 12262: 12233: 12173: 12141: 12131: 12106: 12036: 12006: 11996: 11951: 11946: 11890: 11885: 11875: 11640: 11619: 11599: 11594: 11556: 11525: 11502: 11437: 11223: 11219: 11168: 11138: 11133: 11098: 11093: 11000: 10811: 10766: 10001: 9413: 8952: 8241:"Striatal dopamine neurotransmission: regulation of release and uptake" 4426: 4424: 3721:

delays its onset of action, regardless of the route of administration.

3050: 2891: 2252: 2242: 2170: 2157:

of 9.9; consequently, when the pH is basic, more of the drug is in its

2054: 1804: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1755:, increase urinary excretion of dextroamphetamine, thus decreasing the 1748: 1621: 1580: 1547:

or to 15 mg dextroamphetamine free-base in terms of the amount of

1539:. A dose of 50 mg of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate is approximately 1062: 970: 789: 746: 591: 403: 391: 9828:"Canadian Patent Database / Base de données sur les brevets canadiens" 9213: 7704: 7687: 7351: • Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue 7159:

Teter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ (October 2006).

6984: 6696: 6404: 6187:"Amphetamine-Like Analogues in Diabetes: Speeding towards Ketogenesis" 5420:(2nd ed.). New York, US: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 318, 321. 4185:"Australian Product Information Vyanse® (Lisdexamfetamine dimesilate)" 2581:

is excreted as the active metabolites. Benzoic acid is metabolized by

1952: 15993: 15888: 15801: 15781: 15714: 15603: 15434: 15402: 15347: 15342: 14851: 14821: 14772: 14757: 14693: 14420: 14379: 14010: 14005: 14000: 13995: 13990: 13874: 13869: 13842: 13816: 13770: 13765: 13583: 13296: 13191: 13176: 12922: 12880: 12809: 12759: 12724: 12464: 12444: 12223: 12136: 12111: 12056: 12021: 11718: 11584: 11579: 11551: 11520: 11173: 11153: 11148: 11113: 11088: 11020: 10939: 10861: 10821: 7624: 6599: 5384:(2nd ed.). New York, US: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 154–157. 5019:

Berman S, O'Neill J, Fears S, Bartzokis G, London ED (October 2008).

3753:

Production quotas for 2016 in the United States were 29,750 kg.

2590: 2189:

into most tissues in the body, with high concentrations occurring in

2162: 2026: 2010: 1800: 1756: 1712: 1672: 1540: 1488:. Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through 1477: 1335: 1292: 1288: 1252: 1212: 1056: 962: 939: 872: 526: 460: 197: 101: 7207: 4873:"Lisdexamfetamine Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2013 - 2022" 4421: 16089: 15998: 15844: 15684: 15665: 15495: 15485: 15429: 15424: 15362: 15232: 15222: 15212: 14989: 14881: 14806: 14354: 13889: 13669: 13493: 13488: 13438: 13428: 13327: 13055: 13029: 13024: 12958: 12927: 12799: 12769: 12714: 12596: 12571: 12535: 12530: 12328: 12302: 12297: 12228: 12101: 12071: 12011: 11895: 11870: 11834: 11829: 11682: 11143: 11108: 11058: 11048: 11025: 10751: 10454: 8819: 8494: 8488:, Djombou Feunang Y, Guo AC, Lo EJ, Marcu A, Grant JR, et al. 7048: