Speed of light - Knowledge

1782: 3799: 2781: 4228: 752: 1470: 2230: 2954: 2731: 3125: 51: 2945: 3227: 391: 15676: 765: 5224:"The origins of the letter c being used for the speed of light can be traced back to a paper of 1856 by Weber and Kohlrausch Weber apparently meant c to stand for 'constant' in his force law, but there is evidence that physicists such as Lorentz and Einstein were accustomed to a common convention that c could be used as a variable for velocity. This usage can be traced back to the classic Latin texts in which c stood for 'celeritas', meaning 'speed'." 3958: 2495: 4242: 3950:. In the 19th century, physicists believed light was propagating in a medium called aether (or ether). But for electric force, it looks more like the gravitational force in Newton's law. A transmitting medium was not required. After Maxwell theory unified light and electric and magnetic waves, it was favored that both light and electric magnetic waves propagate in the same aether medium (or called the 4256: 2289:. The popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrarily later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light. This type of behaviour is generally microscopically true of all transparent media which "slow" the speed of light. 4024:) is indicated by clocks moving in the aether, which are synchronized under the assumption of constant light speed. In 1904, he speculated that the speed of light could be a limiting velocity in dynamics, provided that the assumptions of Lorentz's theory are all confirmed. In 1905, Poincaré brought Lorentz's aether theory into full observational agreement with the 2936:), equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth-based measurements of length by interferometry. Since the metre is defined to be the length travelled by light in a certain time interval, the measurement of the light time in terms of the previous definition of the astronomical unit can also be interpreted as measuring the length of an AU (old definition) in metres. 3317:. The ancient Greeks, Arabic scholars, and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light. Einstein's theory of special relativity postulates that the speed of light is constant regardless of one's frame of reference. Since then, scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements. 3214:(the points at which the wave amplitude is the greatest), where it will begin to melt. The distance between two such spots is half the wavelength of the microwaves; by measuring this distance and multiplying the wavelength by the microwave frequency (usually displayed on the back of the oven, typically 2450 MHz), the value of 1774:, and it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light. The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with positive rest mass, and individual photons cannot travel faster than the speed of light. This is experimentally established in many 4772:

According to Galileo, the lanterns he used were "at a short distance, less than a mile". Assuming the distance was not too much shorter than a mile, and that "about a thirtieth of a second is the minimum time interval distinguishable by the unaided eye", Boyer notes that Galileo's experiment could at

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In the early 1860s, Maxwell showed that, according to the theory of electromagnetism he was working on, electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space at a speed equal to the above Weber/Kohlrausch ratio, and drawing attention to the numerical proximity of this value to the speed of light as measured

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proposed an experiment, with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier, to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away. He was unable to distinguish whether light travel was instantaneous or not, but concluded

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One way around this problem is to start with a low frequency signal of which the frequency can be precisely measured, and from this signal progressively synthesize higher frequency signals whose frequency can then be linked to the original signal. A laser can then be locked to the frequency, and its

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with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror. This method is less precise (with errors of the order of 1%) than other modern techniques, but it is sometimes used as a

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of two quantum states. If the particles are separated and one particle's quantum state is observed, the other particle's quantum state is determined instantaneously. However, it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed, so information cannot be

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consists of a beam of light directed at a mirror 8 kilometres (5 mi) away. On the way from the source to the mirror, the beam passes through a rotating cogwheel. At a certain rate of rotation, the beam passes through one gap on the way out and another on the way back, but at slightly higher or

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and has become a defined constant in the SI system of units. Improved experimental techniques that, prior to 1983, would have measured the speed of light no longer affect the known value of the speed of light in SI units, but instead allow a more precise realization of the metre by more accurately

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in favour of the now accepted intromission theory, in which light moves from an object into the eye. This led Alhazen to propose that light must have a finite speed, and that the speed of light is variable, decreasing in denser bodies. He argued that light is substantial matter, the propagation of

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effect caused by objects moving near the speed of light and approaching Earth at a small angle to the line of sight: since the light which was emitted when the jet was farther away took longer to reach the Earth, the time between two successive observations corresponds to a longer time between the

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reported Rømer's calculations of the finite speed of light and gave a value of "seven or eight minutes" for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth (the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds). Newton queried whether Rømer's eclipse shadows were coloured. Hearing that

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replaces the cogwheel with a rotating mirror. Because the mirror keeps rotating while the light travels to the distant mirror and back, the light is reflected from the rotating mirror at a different angle on its way out than it is on its way back. From this difference in angle, the known speed of

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of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source (such as a star) and the velocity of its observer (see diagram on the right). A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position.

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In the second half of the 20th century, much progress was made in increasing the accuracy of measurements of the speed of light, first by cavity resonance techniques and later by laser interferometer techniques. These were aided by new, more precise, definitions of the metre and second. In 1950,

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but in terms of the gravitational force exerted by the Sun in the framework of classical mechanics. The current definition uses the recommended value in metres for the previous definition of the astronomical unit, which was determined by measurement. This redefinition is analogous to that of the

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of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum. No variation of the speed of light with frequency has been observed in rigorous testing, putting stringent limits on the mass of the photon. The limit obtained depends on the model used: if the massive photon is

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wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p and 5d of the krypton-86 atom". It was discovered in the 1970s that this spectral line was not symmetric, which put a limit on the precision with which the definition could be realized in interferometry

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sources were used for interferometry measurements of the speed of light. Interferometric determination of wavelength becomes less precise with wavelength and the experiments were thus limited in precision by the long wavelength (~4 mm (0.16 in)) of the radiowaves. The precision can be

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In 2011, the CGPM stated its intention to redefine all seven SI base units using what it calls "the explicit-constant formulation", where each "unit is defined indirectly by specifying explicitly an exact value for a well-recognized fundamental constant", as was done for the speed of light. It

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is taken into account, the latter was not recognized until the following century. Since such misalignment had not been observed, Descartes concluded the speed of light was infinite. Descartes speculated that if the speed of light were found to be finite, his whole system of philosophy might be

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in the year 1676. When measured from Earth, the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it. The difference is small, but the cumulative time becomes significant when measured over months. The distance

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images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the

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expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a

2805:) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth's velocity around the Sun, which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth. In 1729, Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 2498:

A beam of light is depicted travelling between the Earth and the Moon in the time it takes a light pulse to move between them: 1.255 seconds at their mean orbital (surface-to-surface) distance. The relative sizes and separation of the Earth–Moon system are shown to

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by Fizeau, he proposed that light is in fact an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell backed up his claim with his own experiment published in the 1868 Philosophical Transactions which determined the ratio of the electrostatic and electromagnetic units of electricity.

1439:. It has since been consistently confirmed by many experiments. It is only possible to verify experimentally that the two-way speed of light (for example, from a source to a mirror and back again) is frame-independent, because it is impossible to measure the 3848:. From this effect he determined that light must travel 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth. 2523:

can vary between five and twenty minutes depending upon the relative positions of the two planets. As a consequence of this, if a robot on the surface of Mars were to encounter a problem, its human controllers would not be aware of it until approximately

5592:(1906–1992), a mathematician who became a naval officer and computer scientist during World War II, started distributing these wire "nanoseconds" in the late 1960s in order to demonstrate how designing smaller components would produce faster computers. 2948:

One of the last and most accurate time of flight measurements, Michelson, Pease and Pearson's 1930–1935 experiment used a rotating mirror and a one-mile (1.6 km) long vacuum chamber which the light beam traversed 10 times. It achieved accuracy of

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The possibility that the fundamental constants may vary during the evolution of the universe offers an exceptional window onto higher dimensional theories and is probably linked with the nature of the dark energy that makes the universe accelerate

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In 1905 Einstein postulated from the outset that the speed of light in vacuum, measured by a non-accelerating observer, is independent of the motion of the source or observer. Using this and the principle of relativity as a basis he derived the

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Similarly, communications between the Earth and spacecraft are not instantaneous. There is a brief delay from the source to the receiver, which becomes more noticeable as distances increase. This delay was significant for communications between

866:, travel at the speed of light. For many practical purposes, light and other electromagnetic waves will appear to propagate instantaneously, but for long distances and very sensitive measurements, their finite speed has noticeable effects. Much 2764:

travelled by light from the planet (or its moon) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit, the difference in distance being the

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featured as a fundamental constant, also appearing in contexts unrelated to light. This made the concept of the stationary aether (to which Lorentz and Poincaré still adhered) useless and revolutionized the concepts of space and time.

1967:, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. For example, galaxies far away from Earth are inferred to be moving away from the Earth with speeds proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the 2284:

speeds in material substances. As an extreme example of light "slowing" in matter, two independent teams of physicists claimed to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element

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proposed a new, but completely equivalent, wording of the metre's definition: "The metre, symbol m, is the unit of length; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly

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Since the direction of the Earth's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun, this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around. From the angular difference in the position of stars (maximally 20.5

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lower rates, the beam strikes a tooth and does not pass through the wheel. Knowing the distance between the wheel and the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, the speed of light can be calculated.

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appeared to be shorter when the Earth was approaching Jupiter than when receding from it, he concluded that light travels at a finite speed, and estimated that it takes light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth's orbit.

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of precisely known dimensions. The dimensions were established to an accuracy of about ±0.8 μm using gauges calibrated by interferometry. As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from

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The blue dot moves at the speed of the ripples, the phase velocity; the green dot moves with the speed of the envelope, the group velocity; and the red dot moves with the speed of the foremost part of the pulse, the front

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Antonioli, Pietro; Fienberg, Richard Tresch; Fleurot, Fabrice; Fukuda, Yoshiyuki; Fulgione, Walter; Habig, Alec; Heise, Jaret; McDonald, Arthur B.; Mills, Corrinne; Namba, Toshio; Robinson, Leif J. (2 September 2004).

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t was natural to dream that quantum correlations could be used for faster-than-light communication, but this speculation was quickly shot down, and the shooting established the principle that quantum states cannot be

2338:. It is impossible to transmit information with a light pulse any faster than the speed of the earliest part of the pulse (the front velocity). It can be shown that this is (under certain assumptions) always equal to 2331:, was proposed theoretically in 1993 and achieved experimentally in 2000. It should even be possible for the group velocity to become infinite or negative, with pulses travelling instantaneously or backwards in time. 2768:

of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The observed change in the moon's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance. Rømer observed this effect for

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found no evidence for a dependence of photon speed on energy, supporting tight constraints in specific models of spacetime quantization on how this speed is affected by photon energy for energies approaching the

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through a barrier is constant, regardless of the thickness of the barrier. This could result in a virtual particle crossing a large gap faster than light. However, no information can be sent using this effect.

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then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. As a result, if something were travelling faster than

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of Florence reported that it had performed Galileo's experiment, with the lanterns separated by about one mile, but no delay was observed. The actual delay in this experiment would have been about 11

4127:. This was 100 times less uncertain than the previously accepted value. The remaining uncertainty was mainly related to the definition of the metre. As similar experiments found comparable results for 2431: 2596:

systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip

3677:(c. 490–430 BCE) was the first to propose a theory of light and claimed that light has a finite speed. He maintained that light was something in motion, and therefore must take some time to travel. 4004:

along its length in the direction of motion, and he further assumed that the time variable for moving systems must also be changed accordingly ("local time"), which led to the formulation of the

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rotation and the distance to the distant mirror the speed of light may be calculated. Foucault used this apparatus to measure the speed of light in air versus water, based on a suggestion by

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Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales, as predicted by some proposed theories of

4680:, but the validity of those calculations has been questioned, and it appears the special conditions in which this effect might occur would prevent one from using it to violate causality. 2984:

A method of measuring the speed of light is to measure the time needed for light to travel to a mirror at a known distance and back. This is the working principle behind experiments by

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In 1983 the 17th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) found that wavelengths from frequency measurements and a given value for the speed of light are more

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of the Earth's orbit. Historically, such measurements could be made fairly accurately, compared to how accurately the length of the reference distance is known in Earth-based units.

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near absolute zero, the effective speed of light may be only a few metres per second. However, this represents absorption and re-radiation delay between atoms, as do all slower-than-

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are greater than zero. This applies from small to astronomical scales. On the other hand, some techniques depend on the finite speed of light, for example in distance measurements.

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A pulse with different group and phase velocities (which occurs if the phase velocity is not the same for all the frequencies of the pulse) smears out over time, a process known as

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1 for some frequencies; in some exotic materials it is even possible for the index of refraction to become negative. The requirement that causality is not violated implies that the

4424:. This particular value was chosen to provide a more accurate definition of the metre that still agreed as much as possible with the definition used before. See, for example, the 827:

that is exactly equal to 299,792,458 metres per second (approximately 300,000 kilometres per second; 186,000 miles per second; 671 million miles per hour). According to the

14257: 14252: 11912: 2478:, where traders seek to gain minute advantages by delivering their trades to exchanges fractions of a second ahead of other traders. For example, traders have been switching to 2011:

with which electromagnetic waves (such as light) propagate in vacuum is related to the distributed capacitance and inductance of vacuum, otherwise respectively known as the

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have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, it has been suggested in various theories that the

2648:. One way is to measure the actual speed at which light waves propagate, which can be done in various astronomical and Earth-based setups. It is also possible to determine 1809:

would be violated. In such a frame of reference, an "effect" could be observed before its "cause". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded, and would lead to

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would now determine both the second and the metre. To do this, they redefined the metre as "the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/

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for the speed of light in vacuum. This subscripted notation, which is endorsed in official SI literature, has the same form as related electromagnetic constants: namely,

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metre and likewise has the effect of fixing the speed of light to an exact value in astronomical units per second (via the exact speed of light in metres per second).

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Herrmann, S.; Senger, A.; Möhle, K.; Nagel, M.; Kovalchuk, E. V.; Peters, A. (2009). "Rotating optical cavity experiment testing Lorentz invariance at the 10 level".

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based on how long it takes for a radio signal to arrive from each satellite, and from these distances calculates the receiver's position. Because light travels about

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communications between trading hubs, because of the advantage which radio waves travelling at near to the speed of light through air have over comparatively slower

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The phase velocity is important in determining how a light wave travels through a material or from one material to another. It is often represented in terms of a

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The astronomical unit was defined as the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the Sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with an

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of reference for the propagation of light and therefore it should be possible to measure the motion of the Earth with respect to this medium, by measuring the

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derived Snell's law using the opposing assumption, the denser the medium the slower light travelled. Fermat also argued in support of a finite speed of light.

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Extensions of QED in which the photon has a mass have been considered. In such a theory, its speed would depend on its frequency, and the invariant speed

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Roger Bacon and the origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages: a critical edition and English translation of Bacon's Perspectiva, with introduction and notes

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Cherenkov, P. A. (1967). "Видимое свечение чистых жидкостей под действием γ-радиации" [Visible emission of pure liquids by action of γ radiation].

2996: 2958: 2459:, the theoretical shortest time for a piece of information to travel half the globe along the surface is about 67 milliseconds. When light is traveling in 796: 9853: 5060: 14383: 10507: 4750:, whereas the AU is usually used as a unit of observed length in a given frame of reference. The values cited here follow the latter convention, and are 4913:

of them to the distance travelled by light in a standard second, giving a value for the metre that very accurately matches the now inadequately precise

3313:, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in 2404:, a signal can travel only a maximum of about 30 centimetres (1 ft) in a single clock cycle – in practice, this distance is even shorter since the 2253:

in the material: larger indices of refraction indicate lower speeds. The refractive index of a material may depend on the light's frequency, intensity,

14431: 14176: 11310: 6059: 2471:. Straight lines are rare in global communications and the travel time increases when signals pass through electronic switches or signal regenerators. 2734:

Measurement of the speed of light from the time it takes Io to orbit Jupiter, using eclipses of Io by Jupiter's shadow to precisely measure its orbit.

1443:(for example, from a source to a distant detector) without some convention as to how clocks at the source and at the detector should be synchronized. 14388: 14264: 9813: 3989:

in 1887. The detected motion was found to always be nil (within observational error). Modern experiments indicate that the two-way speed of light is

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argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle. In the 1270s,

2760: 901: 14400: 13531: 12410:"Monsieur Cassini, his New and Exact Tables for the Eclipses of the First Satellite of Jupiter, reduced to the Julian Stile and Meridian of London" 3004: 2467:) the actual transit time is longer, in part because the speed of light is slower by about 35% in optical fibre, depending on its refractive index 1971:, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light. These recession rates, defined as the increase in 12843: 11627: 10660: 10656: 10206:

Essen, L. (1950). "The Velocity of Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves Derived from the Resonant Frequencies of a Cylindrical Cavity Resonator".

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wavelength can be determined using interferometry. This technique was due to a group at the National Bureau of Standards (which later became the

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Aberration of light: light from a distant source appears to be from a different location for a moving telescope due to the finite speed of light.

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Cooke, J.; Martin, M.; McCartney, H.; Wilf, B. (1968). "Direct determination of the speed of light as a general physics laboratory experiment".

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Note that improvements in experimental accuracy will modify the meter relative to atomic wavelengths, but not the value of the speed of light!

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from the laser to the various positions of the spot. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than

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proposed an experiment in which a person observes the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile (1.6 km) away. In 1638,

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is ubiquitous in modern physics, appearing in many contexts that are unrelated to light. For example, general relativity predicts that

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Liu, Xiaoshu; He, Vincent F.; Mikulski, Timothy M.; Palenova, Daria; Williams, Claire E.; Creighton, Jolien; Tasson, Jay D. (7 July 2020).

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of the speed of light. Beginning in the 1880s several experiments were performed to try to detect this motion, the most famous of which is

2155: 8700:(1934). "Видимое свечение чистых жидкостей под действием γ-радиации" [Visible emission of pure liquids by action of γ radiation]. 2416:. If clock frequencies continue to increase, the speed of light may eventually become a limiting factor for the internal design of single 15426: 13775: 13494: 9714: 9004: 3798: 3191:, was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques. By 1950, repeated measurements by Essen established a result of 1866:, although the initial movement of the spot is delayed because of the time it takes light to get to the distant object at the speed 10460:

Evenson, K. M.; et al. (1972). "Speed of Light from Direct Frequency and Wavelength Measurements of the Methane-Stabilized Laser".

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and food such as marshmallows or margarine: if the turntable is removed so that the food does not move, it will cook the fastest at the

2718:. Consequently, accurate measurements of the speed of light yield an accurate realization of the metre rather than an accurate value of 15661: 14395: 13755: 13285: 13244: 4132: 2345:

It is possible for a particle to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium (but still slower than

10307: 2037: 1345: 15450: 15196: 13325: 12185: 11165: 10419: 1775: 1691:, meaning that it has the same value regardless of the direction in which it is measured. Observations of the emissions from nuclear 2181:; further, different types of light wave will travel at different speeds. The speed at which the individual crests and troughs of a 1785:

Event A precedes B in the red frame, is simultaneous with B in the green frame, and follows B in the blue frame.

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is a constant and is independent of the motion of the light source. He explored the consequences of that postulate by deriving the

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There are situations in which it may seem that matter, energy, or information-carrying signal travels at speeds greater than

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improved by using light with a shorter wavelength, but then it becomes difficult to directly measure the frequency of the light.

1797:. If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by 1432: 1095:). For example, for visible light, the refractive index of glass is typically around 1.5, meaning that light in glass travels at 11084:. Fifth International Conference for History of Science in Science Education. Keszthely, Hungary. pp. 75–84. Archived from 3160:. If the dimensions of the resonance cavity are also known, these can be used to determine the wavelength of the wave. In 1946, 2535:

Receiving light and other signals from distant astronomical sources takes much longer. For example, it takes 13 billion (13

390: 15232: 15186: 14566: 14191: 14139: 12972: 7460: 5354: 5333: 5287: 10066:"The Velocity of Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves Derived from the Resonant Frequencies of a Cylindrical Cavity Resonator" 15370: 14297: 12735: 12708: 12685: 12660: 12166: 12132: 12076: 11921: 11891: 11862: 11834: 11805: 11732: 11661: 11605: 11575: 11551: 11236: 11177: 11148: 11021: 10918: 10850: 10812: 10521: 10432: 10343: 9917: 9552: 9104: 9028: 8820: 8795: 8768: 8280: 8213: 8066: 8039: 7941: 7635: 7602: 7344: 7313: 7280: 7208: 7105: 7078: 7053: 7024: 6660: 6154: 6121: 5856: 5827: 5789: 5749: 5650: 5617: 5515: 5456: 5368: 5343: 5322: 5301: 5176: 5096: 4971: 4940: 4888: 4825: 3920:, and found that its numerical value was very close to the speed of light as measured directly by Fizeau. The following year 2819:

times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.

9433:"A demonstration concerning the motion of light, communicated from Paris, in the Journal des Sçavans, and here made English" 8528: 3752:

argued that if the speed of light were to be finite, the Sun, Earth, and Moon would be noticeably out of alignment during a

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The rate of change in the distance between two objects in a frame of reference with respect to which both are moving (their

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The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, from Their Commencement in 1665, in the Year 1800: Abridged

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if the speed of light is defined as a fixed number then, in principle, the time standard will serve as the length standard

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A detailed discussion of the interferometer and its use for determining the speed of light can be found in Vaughan (1989).

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that does not directly depend on a measurement of the propagation of electromagnetic waves is to use the relation between

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value for the light time per unit distance could be obtained. For example, in 2009, the best estimate, as approved by the

2316:. In practical terms, this means that in a material with refractive index less than 1, the wave will be absorbed quickly. 2100:(QED). In this theory, light is described by the fundamental excitations (or quanta) of the electromagnetic field, called 14408: 14124: 13295: 11037: 7468: 7161: 6354: 5994: 5576: 5207: 4914: 3870:

developed a method to determine the speed of light based on time-of-flight measurements on Earth and reported a value of

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combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of

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In transparent materials, the refractive index generally is greater than 1, meaning that the phase velocity is less than

2262: 782: 332: 14521: 12922: 11076: 6283:"Measuring the speed of gravitational waves from the first and second observing run of Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo" 15107: 14461: 14211: 14169: 13842: 13581: 13467: 8568:(1993). "Superluminal (but causal) propagation of wave packets in transparent media with inverted atomic populations". 6472:

Uzan, J.-P. (2003). "The fundamental constants and their variation: observational status and theoretical motivations".

1957: 1458:

with the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. One consequence is that

410: 1948:. However, these jets are not moving at speeds in excess of the speed of light: the apparent superluminal motion is a 15478: 15112: 14531: 14366: 14331: 14201: 14151: 14029: 13638: 13176: 12932: 9783: 9630: 9051: 8844: 8790:. 10th International Conference, PaCT 2009, Novosibirsk, Russia, 31 August – 4 September 2009. Springer. p. 26. 7236: 6179: 5893: 5547: 5403: 3857: 12214: 12139:

One peculiar consequence of this system of definitions is that any future refinement in our ability to measure

9414: 8116: 6358: 3727: 1805:

relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame, and

1431:

of the observer. This invariance of the speed of light was postulated by Einstein in 1905, after being motivated by

15703: 14809: 14413: 14356: 11937: 9132: 4618: 3730:

agreed that light has a finite speed, and observed that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.

2865: 2652:

from other physical laws where it appears, for example, by determining the values of the electromagnetic constants

2516:: for every question, the ground control station had to wait at least three seconds for the answer to arrive. 1427:

The speed at which light waves propagate in vacuum is independent both of the motion of the wave source and of the

430: 15432: 10418:

Sullivan, D. B. (2001). "Speed of Light from Direct Frequency and Wavelength Measurements". In Lide, D. R. (ed.).

7490: 4227: 751: 15145: 13796: 12449: 6704: 6679: 4614: 3978: 3258: 2662: 2412:

chips, to minimize communication latencies, and care must be exercised when routing wires between them to ensure

2323:. Certain materials have an exceptionally low (or even zero) group velocity for light waves, a phenomenon called 1134:

for visible light is about 1.0003, so the speed of light in air is about 90 km/s (56 mi/s) slower than

31: 12395: 2685:

In 1983 the metre was defined as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of

2474:

Although this distance is largely irrelevant for most applications, latency becomes important in fields such as

874:

is from the distant past, allowing humans to study the history of the universe by viewing distant objects. When

15951: 15248: 14119: 13218: 13208: 12648: 12605: 10594:

Foschi, Renato; Leone, Matteo (2009), "Galileo, measurement of the velocity of light, and the reaction times",

9861: 7538: 5068: 4635: 3741:

considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.

2625: 2549: 1597:

The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as

10527: 9710:"Proposals for the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon–Earth mass ratio and the Astronomical Unit" 9047: 2636:

determine distances to the Moon, planets and spacecraft, respectively, by measuring round-trip transit times.

2257:, or direction of propagation; in many cases, though, it can be treated as a material-dependent constant. The 1673:

when measured from a remote frame of reference, depending on how measurements are extrapolated to the region.

15751: 15679: 15421: 15326: 15256: 14782: 14513: 14229: 14219: 13900: 13452: 12917: 10877: 10650: 8421: 3861: 2846: 2464: 2435:

Acoustic representation of the speed of light, at every beep the light makes a full circle around the equator

1972: 1295: 1039: 971: 607: 15389: 10766:

Michelson, A. A. (1927). "Measurement of the Velocity of Light Between Mount Wilson and Mount San Antonio".

7707:; Nanopoulos, D. V.; Sakharov, A. S. (2003). "Quantum-Gravity Analysis of Gamma-Ray Bursts using Wavelets". 4082: 3245:

is another method to find the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation for determining the speed of light. A

1558:, such as most everyday speeds – in which case special relativity is closely approximated by 15956: 15243: 14558: 14129: 13633: 13192: 13169: 12964: 12874: 12236: 11445: 9967:

Aoki, K.; Mitsui, T. (2008). "A small tabletop experiment for a direct measurement of the speed of light".

8697: 4038: 2277: 1878:, after a delay in time. In neither case does any matter, energy, or information travel faster than light. 1700: 1684:. No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found, but they remain the subject of ongoing research. 1451: 13863: 9821: 9469: 9154: 8978: 8369: 6878:"Can light signals travel faster than c in nontrivial vacua in flat space-time? Relativistic causality II" 4663:, is due to the different times that light from different parts of the object takes to reach the observer. 2831:(AU) is approximately the average distance between the Earth and Sun. It was redefined in 2012 as exactly 1889:. However, this does not represent the speed of any single object as measured in a single inertial frame. 1793:. One argument for this follows from the counter-intuitive implication of special relativity known as the 1450:

for the clocks, the one-way speed of light becomes equal to the two-way speed of light by definition. The

15966: 15864: 15849: 15834: 15793: 15696: 15284: 15018: 15003: 14731: 14711: 14583: 14466: 14456: 13955: 13837: 13800: 13145: 13122: 12989: 12331:"Démonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumière trouvé par M. Römer de l'Academie Royale des Sciences" 11761: 10018: 9969: 9938: 9415:"Demonstration tovchant le mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M. Rŏmer de l'Académie Royale des Sciences" 9090: 7709: 7165: 6382: 5240: 5128: 2313: 1979:, are not velocities in a relativistic sense. Faster-than-light cosmological recession speeds are only a 1658: 1497: 1496:

Special relativity has many counterintuitive and experimentally verified implications. These include the

1428: 995: 937: 769: 512: 497: 487: 435: 35: 12143:

will not change the speed of light (which is a defined number), but will change the length of the meter!

9884: 6829:"Dispersion relations and causality: does relativistic causality require that n (ω) → 1 as ω → ∞ ?" 2575:. In round figures, a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles. 1312:; this relationship is used to define the metre as exactly the distance that light travels in vacuum in 15844: 15829: 15571: 15013: 14966: 14361: 14321: 11635: 9516: 9486: 8916: 8702: 8142: 5998: 5571: 5360: 5211: 4751: 4746:

must be taken into consideration when interpreting the length. The metre is considered to be a unit of

2741:

is a convenient setting for measuring the speed of light because of its large scale and nearly perfect

1794: 492: 482: 17: 14548: 12954: 11044: 9065: 8082: 4773:

best be said to have established a lower limit of about 60 miles per second for the velocity of light.

3257:), is split to follow two paths and then recombined. By adjusting the path length while observing the 2494: 2200:. A physical signal with a finite extent (a pulse of light) travels at a different speed. The overall 1862:

If a laser beam is swept quickly across a distant object, the spot of light can move faster than

982:

but can never reach it, regardless of the frame of reference in which their speed is measured. In the

15601: 15227: 14908: 14766: 14600: 14196: 13001: 11993:

Barger, R.; Hall, J. (1973). "Wavelength of the 3.39-μm laser-saturated absorption line of methane".

11882:

Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)

11111: 10704:

Buchwald, Jed; Yeang, Chen-Pang; Stemeroff, Noah; Barton, Jenifer; Harrington, Quinn (1 March 2021).

9417:[Demonstration to the movement of light found by Mr. Römer of the Royal Academy of Sciences] 6474: 5448: 3681:

argued, to the contrary, that "light is due to the presence of something, but it is not a movement".

3231: 2601: 2408:

refracts and slows down signals. Processors must therefore be placed close to each other, as well as

1964: 1028: 921: 859: 674: 11656:

Campbell, Lewis; Garnett, William; Rautio, James C. "The Life of James Clerk Maxwell", p. 544,

7394: 1882: 15626: 15176: 14936: 14847: 14451: 11631: 11054: 8422:"Observation of coherent optical information storage in an atomic medium using halted light pulses" 8177: 7627: 7200: 7195: 3947: 3704: 3690: 3235: 2301: 1447: 10127:"A new determination of the ratio of the electromagnetic to the electrostatic unit of electricity" 9909:

Catchers of the Light: The Forgotten Lives of the Men and Women Who First Photographed the Heavens

9617: 9328: 8472:

Bajcsy, M.; Zibrov, A. S.; Lukin, M. D. (2003). "Stationary pulses of light in an atomic medium".

7756:

Füllekrug, M. (2004). "Probing the Speed of Light with Radio Waves at Extremely Low Frequencies".

5735: 5390: 2756: 15767: 15733: 15355: 15277: 14897: 14888: 14797: 14792: 14718: 14615: 14536: 14326: 14302: 14146: 14084: 13940: 13129: 13018: 12937: 12867: 12343: 11290:

A History of Physics in Its Elementary Branches: Including the Evolution of Physical Laboratories

10362:

Froome, K. D. (1958). "A New Determination of the Free-Space Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves".

9511: 7656: 7536:(12 July 2012). "Measurement of the neutrino velocity with the OPERA detector in the CNGS beam". 6712: 6703:

Shanchao Zhang; J. F. Chen; Chang Liu; M. M. T. Loy; G. K. L. Wong; Shengwang Du (16 June 2011).

6226: 4209: 4025: 3809:

was made in 1676 by Ole Rømer. From the observation that the periods of Jupiter's innermost moon

3290: 3112:. Their method depended upon having a standard unit of electrical resistance, the "international 2568: 2553: 2540: 2394: 2309: 2258: 2097: 1814: 1681: 1618: 1383: 1265: 1131: 626: 400: 12780: 10872: 10260: 10016:

James, M. B.; Ormond, R. B.; Stasch, A. J. (1999). "Speed of light measurement for the myriad".

6787: 6758: 6175:"Gravitational Waves and Gamma-Rays from a Binary Neutron Star Merger: GW170817 and GRB 170817A" 5781: 5771: 4880: 3969:

in which the electromagnetic field existed. Some physicists thought that this aether acted as a

912:. Progressively more accurate measurements of its speed came over the following centuries. In a 15808: 15803: 15581: 15444: 15350: 15308: 14982: 14946: 14672: 14667: 14526: 14181: 14099: 14060: 14054: 13081: 13076: 12927: 12062: 11612: 11597: 9559: 9544: 7016: 7010: 7006: 6828: 6113: 6103: 5924: 5919: 5879: 5819: 5813: 4005: 3765:, Descartes assumed that some kind of motion associated with light was faster in denser media. 3174: 2745:. Typically, one measures the time needed for light to traverse some reference distance in the 2505: 2475: 2004: 1622: 1440: 1422: 1208: 450: 445: 12719: 12474: 12338: 12122: 11722: 11558: 11138: 10836: 9781: 9592: 9423: 9282: 9181: 8056: 7927: 7592: 6650: 5634: 5605: 5501: 5086: 4947: 4815: 1916:

Another quantum effect that predicts the occurrence of faster-than-light speeds is called the

1605:

relating the units of space and time), and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special

15586: 15191: 15130: 14067: 14022: 12677: 12671: 12520: 12156: 12093: 12066: 11582: 9575: 8306:"Interferometric measurement of the resonant absorption and refractive index in rubidium gas" 8203: 8025: 7369: 7330: 7303: 5844: 5440: 5166: 4978: 3925: 3787: 3347: 2653: 2624:) in one second, these measurements of small fractions of a second must be very precise. The 2405: 2378: 2000: 1980: 1909: 1617:. Lorentz invariance is an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories, such as 1047: 887: 11498: 10925: 10819: 7732: 7654:

Schaefer, B. E. (1999). "Severe limits on variations of the speed of light with frequency".

7619: 7095: 6138: 3748:

believed that the speed of light was infinite since empty space presents no obstacle to it.

2944: 15912: 15738: 15491: 15417: 15261: 14863: 14647: 14610: 14553: 13463: 13051: 13013: 12959: 12583: 12529: 12423: 12377: 12250: 12002: 11687: 11511: 11452:

The text of Prop. XI is identical between the first (1704) and second (1719) editions.

10775: 10690: 10469: 10371: 10274: 10217: 10167: 10079: 10027: 9988: 9947: 9787: 9723: 9446: 9247: 9196: 8879: 8579: 8491: 8436: 8384: 8320: 8305: 8240: 7972: 7884: 7865:

Adelberger, E.; Dvali, G.; Gruzinov, A. (2007). "Photon Mass Bound Destroyed by Vortices".

7818: 7765: 7728: 7675: 7557: 7425: 7378: 6968: 6899: 6840: 6799: 6721: 6615: 6550: 6493: 6454: 6401: 6306: 6245: 6198: 6068: 6031: 5943: 5681: 5249: 5137: 5017: 4275: 4059: 4009: 3965:

It was thought at the time that empty space was filled with a background medium called the

3891: 3708: 3693:

of vision, where light is emitted from the eye, thus enabling sight. Based on that theory,

2588: 2254: 1996: 1949: 1905: 1892:

Certain quantum effects appear to be transmitted instantaneously and therefore faster than

1161: 983: 941: 571: 405: 12193: 10438: 6221: 4100:

In 1972, using the laser interferometer method and the new definitions, a group at the US

8: 15762: 15566: 15561: 15551: 15383: 15332: 15150: 15135: 14961: 14892: 14840: 14701: 14677: 14657: 13925: 13805: 13785: 13732: 13625: 13351: 13112: 13088: 13061: 12853: 12796: 12492: 12241: 11353: 11041: 10655:(digital, online ed.), Florence: Istituto e Museo di Storia delle Scienze, pp. 10265: 10118: 7620: 5115: 4001: 3982: 3966: 3951: 3941: 3845: 3757: 3694: 3536: 3310: 3246: 3094: 3047: 3037: 2789: 2362: 2320: 2305: 1933: 1830: 1806: 1650: 1606: 1559: 1436: 1254: 1243: 1186: 1020: 917: 664: 621: 228: 109: 15556: 12587: 12533: 12427: 12381: 12254: 12006: 11691: 11515: 11232:"Descartes' Experimental Proof of the Infinite Velocity of Light and Huygens' Rejoinder" 10779: 10473: 10375: 10364:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences

10278: 10221: 10171: 10083: 10031: 9992: 9951: 9727: 9450: 9251: 9200: 8883: 8583: 8495: 8440: 8388: 8324: 8244: 7976: 7888: 7822: 7769: 7679: 7561: 7429: 7382: 6972: 6903: 6844: 6803: 6725: 6619: 6554: 6497: 6458: 6405: 6310: 6249: 6202: 6072: 6035: 5947: 5685: 5253: 5141: 5021: 4000:

proposed that the motion of the apparatus through the aether may cause the apparatus to

3840:

they were not, he concluded the different colours travelled at the same speed. In 1729,

2730: 2108:

and thus, according to special relativity, they travel at the speed of light in vacuum.

1859:, but phase velocity does not determine the velocity at which waves convey information. 1653:, and observations of gravitational waves have been consistent with this prediction. In 15839: 15719: 15631: 15531: 15455: 15313: 15294: 15288: 15239: 15181: 15090: 15008: 14926: 14903: 14871: 14814: 14662: 14605: 13945: 13832: 13648: 13536: 13203: 13066: 13008: 12749: 12745: 12553: 12274: 12018: 11880: 11823: 11778: 11590: 11503: 11479: 11426: 11335: 11269: 11261: 11212: 10954: 10733: 10629: 10573: 10513: 10485: 10395: 10387: 10241: 10233: 10183: 10122: 10097: 10004: 9978: 9739: 9687: 9537: 9391: 9305: 9263: 9220: 8955: 8651: 8638: 8515: 8481: 8460: 8400: 7998: 7908: 7874: 7842: 7808: 7794: 7744: 7718: 7691: 7665: 7573: 7547: 7508: 7441: 7336: 7266: 6984: 6958: 6923: 6889: 6864: 6631: 6605: 6573: 6540: 6528: 6509: 6483: 6444: 6417: 6391: 6322: 6296: 6282: 6269: 6235: 6188: 6139: 6084: 5967: 5933: 5875: 5703: 5672: 5041: 5007: 4743: 4673: 4396: 4261: 3815: 3726:

which requires time, even if this is hidden from the senses. Also in the 11th century,

3526: 3365: 3177:, knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light. 3098: 2633: 2545: 2417: 2374: 2273:, have refractive indexes of around 1.3, 1.5 and 2.4, respectively, for visible light. 1925: 1654: 1634: 1610: 1512: 1418: 1283: 959: 875: 828: 477: 382: 7390: 1562: – but it increases at relativistic speeds and diverges to infinity as 15971: 15897: 15869: 15859: 15854: 15641: 15473: 15465: 15066: 15023: 14819: 14787: 14543: 13597: 12949: 12944: 12731: 12704: 12681: 12656: 12557: 12545: 12278: 12266: 12162: 12128: 12072: 11917: 11887: 11858: 11830: 11801: 11728: 11703: 11657: 11601: 11571: 11547: 11418: 11410: 11361: 11327: 11273: 11253: 11216: 11173: 11144: 11017: 11013: 10914: 10846: 10808: 10737: 10725: 10646: 10621: 10577: 10517: 10489: 10428: 10399: 10339: 10245: 10008: 9913: 9743: 9691: 9679: 9626: 9548: 9395: 9267: 9212: 9110: 9100: 9024: 9003:

Parisi, Megan; Panontin, Tina; Wu, Shu-Chieh; Mctigue, Kaitlin; Vera, Alonso (2023).

8897: 8816: 8791: 8764: 8630: 8595: 8570: 8507: 8452: 8361: 8336: 8286: 8276: 8209: 8062: 8035: 8002: 7990: 7937: 7900: 7846: 7834: 7799: 7781: 7695: 7631: 7598: 7512: 7340: 7309: 7276: 7242: 7232: 7204: 7101: 7074: 7049: 7020: 6949: 6915: 6877: 6868: 6856: 6815: 6811: 6737: 6691: 6656: 6635: 6578: 6513: 6421: 6326: 6287: 6273: 6261: 6150: 6117: 6088: 5971: 5959: 5899: 5889: 5852: 5823: 5785: 5745: 5646: 5639:

A Broader View of Relativity: General Implications of Lorentz and Poincaré Invariance

5613: 5553: 5543: 5511: 5452: 5399: 5364: 5339: 5318: 5297: 5265: 5172: 5153: 5092: 5033: 4967: 4936: 4884: 4821: 4699: 4689:

A typical value for the refractive index of optical fibre is between 1.518 and 1.538.

4600:

of light can depend on the motion of the source relative to the observer, due to the

4178:

As a result of this definition, the value of the speed of light in vacuum is exactly

4105: 3895: 3722: 2828: 2715: 2105: 2022: 2012: 1992: 1976: 1826: 1704: 1463: 1165: 951: 824: 729: 694: 659: 546: 517: 507: 502: 273: 163: 15511: 12812: 12632: 11782: 11483: 11430: 11193:

Marshall, P. (1981). "Nicole Oresme on the Nature, Reflection, and Speed of Light".

10958: 10633: 9661: 9309: 9224: 7912: 7748: 7577: 7445: 5955: 4995: 4093:

was redefined in terms of the hyperfine transition frequency of the ground state of

4013: 3749: 3136:

Another way to measure the speed of light is to independently measure the frequency

3009: 2777:

and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth's orbit.

2296:. In other materials, it is possible for the refractive index to become smaller than 689: 15546: 15536: 15483: 15460: 15038: 14015: 13930: 13921: 12591: 12574: 12537: 12515: 12445: 12431: 12385: 12258: 12022: 12010: 11770: 11695: 11519: 11471: 11400: 11392: 11319: 11245: 11204: 10987: 10946: 10886: 10783: 10717: 10611: 10603: 10565: 10477: 10379: 10282: 10225: 10187: 10175: 10138: 10087: 10035: 9996: 9955: 9731: 9671: 9666: 9454: 9381: 9373: 9355: 9297: 9255: 9204: 9016: 8887: 8727: 8723: 8642: 8622: 8613: 8587: 8519: 8499: 8464: 8444: 8404: 8392: 8328: 8248: 8199: 8021: 7980: 7963: 7933: 7892: 7826: 7773: 7736: 7704: 7683: 7565: 7533: 7500: 7433: 7416: 7386: 7262: 6976: 6907: 6848: 6807: 6733: 6729: 6623: 6568: 6558: 6501: 6409: 6314: 6257: 6253: 6206: 6076: 6039: 5951: 5777: 5741: 5689: 5642: 5257: 5145: 5045: 5025: 4660: 4280: 4247: 4049: 3986: 3921: 3867: 3766: 3415: 3265:) can be determined. The speed of light is then calculated using the equation 3169: 3157: 2985: 2576: 2413: 2350: 2201: 2172: 1937: 1921: 1646: 1630: 1063: 1016: 699: 669: 367: 313: 86: 15606: 12518:; Pearson, F. (1935). "Measurement of the Velocity of Light in a Partial Vacuum". 12470: 11462:

Guarnieri, M. (2015). "Two Millennia of Light: The Long Path to Maxwell's Waves".

10684: 8229:

Toll, J. S. (1956). "Causality and the Dispersion Relation: Logical Foundations".

7896: 7777: 4844: 3879: 3440: 2989: 2308:

of any material, corresponding respectively to the index of refraction and to the

1789:

More generally, it is impossible for signals or energy to travel faster than

15887: 15772: 15621: 15596: 15521: 15516: 15399: 15360: 15322: 15266: 15140: 15076: 12849: 12696: 12058: 11565: 11541: 11288: 10908: 10802: 10333: 9907: 9476:. Vol. II. From 1673 to 1682. London: C. & R. Baldwin. pp. 397–398. 9208: 8754: 8538: 8231: 7740: 7002: 6988: 6927: 6022: 5533: 5119: 4961: 4930: 4290: 4155: 3997: 3970: 3786:

that if it were not, it must nevertheless be extraordinarily rapid. In 1667, the

3782: 3745: 3333: 3081:, whereas the value of the vacuum permeability was historically fixed at exactly 2797: 2629: 2564: 2409: 2152: 2148: 2125: 2093: 1200: 1024: 955: 929: 684: 679: 654: 631: 541: 15404: 11724:

Michelson-Morley Experiments: An Enigma for Physics & The History of Science

11380: 10481: 7830: 7687: 7569: 6318: 5123: 3721:, in which he presented a series of arguments dismissing the emission theory of 3701:

because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes.

3261:

and carefully measuring the change in path length, the wavelength of the light (

2136: 15961: 15925: 15646: 15318: 15302: 15298: 15201: 15171: 15028: 14706: 13552: 13161: 13117: 12640: 11195: 10978: 10950: 10721: 10556: 9364: 8413: 8365: 6627: 6211: 6174: 6146: 6109: 4817:

Elementary and Intermediate Algebra: A Combined Course, Student Support Edition

4601: 4285: 4233: 3898:

measured the ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units of charge, 1/

3778: 3762: 3717: 3485: 3314: 3242: 3207: 3129: 2605: 2539:

10) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the

2216: 2205: 2190: 1917: 1848: 1696: 1626: 1524: 1474: 1355: 891: 756: 724: 585: 145: 130: 12837: 12802: 12786: 12475:"Détermination expérimentale de la vitesse de la lumière: parallaxe du Soleil" 9735: 9675: 9301: 9114: 7793:

Bartlett, D. J.; Desmond, H.; Ferreira, P. G.; Jasche, J. (17 November 2021).

7504: 6911: 6852: 6505: 6080: 6057:

Penrose, R. (1959). "The Apparent Shape of a Relativistically Moving Sphere".

5667: 5477: 1155: 970:

regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial reference frame of the

904:

that light does not travel instantaneously by studying the apparent motion of

15945: 15930: 15824: 15636: 15616: 15611: 15526: 15394: 15222: 15166: 14998: 14951: 14501: 14089: 13989: 13810: 13664: 12910: 12565: 12405: 12270: 12210: 11850: 11774: 11707: 11523: 11475: 11414: 11365: 11331: 11257: 11085: 10842: 10832: 10729: 10705: 9683: 9386: 8565: 8533: 8340: 8290: 8252: 7838: 7254: 7190: 6919: 6860: 6702: 6380:

Ellis, G. F. R.; Uzan, J.-P. (2005). "'c' is the speed of light, isn't it?".

6043: 5963: 5694: 5507: 5269: 5157: 5037: 5029: 4870: 4747: 4429: 3841: 3753: 3390: 3090: 3016: 2793: 2460: 2393:, the speed of light imposes a limit on how quickly data can be sent between 1968: 1901: 1781: 1574: = 2 occurs at a relative velocity of 86.6% of the speed of light ( 1516: 1379: 1032: 863: 590: 472: 12823: 10891: 9612: 8591: 7246: 5903: 5557: 5385: 4158:

than the previous standard. They kept the 1967 definition of second, so the

15656: 15576: 15541: 15071: 15033: 14046: 14038: 13950: 12817: 12549: 12436: 12409: 12390: 12219: 11907: 11422: 10625: 10383: 10229: 10092: 10065: 9459: 9432: 9216: 9094: 8901: 8760: 8634: 8608: 8511: 8456: 7994: 7904: 7785: 6980: 6741: 6582: 6265: 5589: 4455: 4270: 3836: 2746: 2579:, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light-years away. 2160: 2117: 1941: 1692: 1406: 719: 12326: 9791: 8599: 8370:"Light speed reduction to 17 metres per second in an ultracold atomic gas" 8270: 7795:"Constraints on quantum gravity and the photon mass from gamma ray bursts" 3361: 2928:

The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion (

2597: 2571:, around 9461 billion kilometres, 5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 2567:

publications and media. A light-year is the distance light travels in one

897: 15920: 15440: 15409: 14956: 14620: 13023: 10143: 10126: 9020: 8675:"Light breaking its own speed limit: how 'superluminal' shenanigans work" 8486: 7723: 7670: 7495: 7411: 7218: 6449: 5938: 5883: 5635:"Appendix A: Systems of units and the development of relativity theories" 5537: 5012: 4991: 4094: 4066: 3792: 3734: 3165: 3161: 3074: 2738: 2483: 1897: 1366: 879: 848: 704: 580: 235: 203: 12496: 11945: 11265: 11231: 8503: 6692:"HKUST Professors Prove Single Photons Do Not Exceed the Speed of Light" 6563: 1185:

was used as an alternative symbol for the speed of light, introduced by

852: 15902: 15892: 15788: 15651: 15217: 15061: 15056: 13916: 13888: 13674: 12793:

Data Gallery: Michelson Speed of Light (Univariate Location Estimation)

12754: 12450:"Sur une expérience relative à la vitesse de propagation de la lumière" 12286: 12036: 11967: 11405: 11381:"Galileo, Measurement of the Velocity of Light, and the Reaction Times" 11339: 11305: 11249: 10616: 9593:"Supplement 2014: Updates to the 8th edition (2006) of the SI Brochure" 9576:"Resolution B2 on the re-definition of the astronomical unit of length" 9259: 9128: 7879: 7045: 6488: 5845:"Postulates of the special theory of relativity and their consequences" 4432:. The second is, in turn, defined to be the length of time occupied by 4295: 4086: 3917: 3674: 3289:). They used it in 1972 to measure the speed of light in vacuum with a 2560: 2358: 2354: 2324: 2182: 1712: 1217:, which by then had become the standard symbol for the speed of light. 1190: 734: 714: 556: 551: 288: 209: 13499: 12502:

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science

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Software Transactional Memories: An Approach for Multicore Programming

8332: 7414:(1966). "The Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources". 7328: 6963: 6819: 6413: 6396: 5261: 3957: 2334:

None of these options allow information to be transmitted faster than

15879: 15688: 15048: 14696: 14652: 14642: 13973: 13868: 13438: 13371: 13367: 13335: 13264: 13107: 13056: 13046: 12859: 12806: 12727: 12596: 12569: 12235:

Knotts, Sandra; Mohr, Peter J.; Phillips, William D. (January 2017).

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The Natural Laws of the Universe: Understanding Fundamental Constants

4639: 4597: 3990: 3810: 3678: 3277: 3226: 3116:", and so its accuracy was limited by how this standard was defined. 3078: 2802: 2774: 2479: 2401: 2186: 1724: 1598: 1378:

appears often, such as in relativity, it is common to use systems of

991: 975: 909: 894:

measurements to measure large distances to extremely high precision.

883: 867: 532: 350: 11756: 11675: 11323: 10039: 9782:

IAU Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy.

9709: 9360:"Roemer and the first determination of the velocity of light (1676)" 8892: 8867: 7985: 7958: 6222:"Bounding the Speed of Gravity with Gravitational Wave Observations" 5149: 4782:

Between 1960 and 1983 the metre was defined as "the length equal to

948:

had relevance outside of the context of light and electromagnetism.

50: 15591: 14941: 13873: 13847: 13749: 13743: 13738: 13728: 13723: 13718: 13713: 13708: 13489: 13484: 12541: 11306:"Descartes's Theory of Light and Refraction: A Discourse on Method" 11208: 10991: 10787: 10569: 9377: 8417: 8357: 7813: 6301: 6240: 6193: 4631: 3974: 3698: 3211: 2861: 2765: 2509: 2390: 2286: 1688: 1012: 709: 56: 11396: 10804:

Light-Matter Interaction: Physics and Engineering at the Nanoscale

10706:"What Heinrich Hertz discovered about electric waves in 1887–1888" 10607: 10421:

A Century of Excellence in Measurements, Standards, and Technology

9983: 9238:

Standish, E. M. (February 1982). "The JPL planetary ephemerides".

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Hernández-Figueroa, H. E.; Zamboni-Rached, M.; Recami, E. (2007).

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In a medium, light usually does not propagate at a speed equal to

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Boyer, C. B. (1941). "Early Estimates of the Velocity of Light".

8756:

Introduction to parallel processing: algorithms and architectures

7702: 4876:

The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe

4447: 4159: 3993:(the same in every direction) to within 6 nanometres per second. 3831: 3712: 3686: 3206:

A household demonstration of this technique is possible, using a

3164:

and A.C. Gordon-Smith established the frequency for a variety of

2780: 2770: 1820: 1810: 1469: 905: 243: 12820:(Sixty Symbols, University of Nottingham Department of Physics ) 11757:"On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether" 9182:"Lunar Laser Ranging: A Continuing Legacy of the Apollo Program" 9048:"Hubble Reaches the "Undiscovered Country" of Primeval Galaxies" 9009:

Human-Centered Aerospace Systems and Sustainability Applications

7040:

Tolman, R. C. (2009) . "Velocities greater than that of light".

6220:

Cornish, Neil; Blas, Diego; Nardini, Germano (18 October 2017).

5776:. Advanced Series on Theoretical Physical Science. Vol. 4. 5740:. Advanced Series on Theoretical Physical Science. Vol. 8. 5503:

From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency

4634:

have a small but non-zero mass, they travel through empty space

4190:

measuring the wavelength of krypton-86 and other light sources.

2242:. The refractive index of a material is defined as the ratio of 2082:{\displaystyle c={\frac {1}{\sqrt {\varepsilon _{0}\mu _{0}}}}.} 1676:

It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as

1401:

does not appear explicitly because multiplication or division by

15271: 13895: 13443: 13254: 11913:

Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein

7228: 6020:

Terrell, J. (1959). "Invisibility of the Lorentz Contraction".

4715: 4655:

to be shorter along the line of relative motion, they are also

4421: 4090: 3738: 3682: 3124: 2812:

times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is

2750: 2742: 2572: 2101: 1945: 1341: 1331: 1146:

The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by a lowercase

844: 840: 836: 814: 302: 280: 261: 174: 12748:(2004). "Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants". 10873:"Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light" 10652:

Saggi di Naturali Esperienze fatte nell' Accademia del Cimento

9005:"Effects of Communication Delay on Human Spaceflight Missions" 5916: 5506:(Reprint of National Bureau of Standards 1977, 2nd ed.). 3073:). The vacuum permittivity may be determined by measuring the 2439:

Given that the equatorial circumference of the Earth is about

1723:

According to special relativity, the energy of an object with

14832: 13669: 13458: 13427: 13305: 9281:

Berner, J. B.; Bryant, S. H.; Kinman, P. W. (November 2007).

8733: 7792: 4400: 3250: 2953: 2593: 2266: 1908:. Until either of the particles is observed, they exist in a 1852: 1613:, whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter 1181:

times the speed of light in vacuum. Historically, the symbol

871: 217: 72: 10703: 4935:(illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 497. 4208:." This was one of the changes that was incorporated in the 4085:

in terms of the wavelength of a particular spectral line of

15252: 13448: 13433: 13423: 10910:

Electronic Microwave Imaging with Planar Multistatic Arrays

10897:(click on "Historical background" in the table of contents) 8269:(2001). "Analyticity, Causality and Dispersion Relations". 7302:

Muga, J. G.; Mayato, R. S.; Egusquiza, I. L., eds. (2007).

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Variations of the Fine Structure Constant in Space and Time

5888:(2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 12. 4820:(4th illustrated ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 197. 4451: 4425: 2520: 2513: 2121: 1687:

It is generally assumed that the two-way speed of light is

1523:

by which lengths contract and times dilate is known as the

1226:

is used for the speed of waves in any material medium, and

294: 254: 14007: 9283:"Range Measurement as Practiced in the Deep Space Network" 6943:

Liberati, S.; Sonego, S.; Visser, M. (2002). "Faster-than-

5499: 4742:

Nevertheless, at this degree of precision, the effects of

4395:

It is exact because, by a 1983 international agreement, a

2096:, the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of 1211:

on special relativity in 1905, but in 1907 he switched to

10937:

Gross, C. G. (1999). "The Fire That Comes from the Eye".

9602:. International Bureau of Weights and Measures: 14. 2014. 7257:(2015). "Quantum Information Science: Emerging No More". 6141:

Gravity: An Introduction to Einstein's General Relativity

6105:

Gravity: An Introduction to Einstein's General Relativity

4899:

the most accurate standard for the metre is conveniently

3802:

Rømer's observations of the occultations of Io from Earth

3113: 1354:

is different for different unit systems. For example, in

1021:

the appearance of certain high-speed astronomical objects

882:, it can take minutes to hours for signals to travel. In 269: 68: 9935: 8275:. River Edge, N.J.: World Scientific. pp. 577–584. 7154:"Is Faster-Than-Light Travel or Communication Possible?" 6595: 3156:. One option is to measure the resonance frequency of a 2703:

of a second", fixing the value of the speed of light at

2512:

when it became the first crewed spacecraft to orbit the

2120:, the experimental upper bound for its mass is about 10 1344:, one can thus establish a standard for the metre. As a 12722:. In Quinn, T. J.; Leschiutta, S.; Tavella, P. (eds.). 10158:

Essen, L. (1947). "Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves".

9512:"Account of a new discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars" 9002: 8356: 7864: 5987:"What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?" 5985:

Roberts, T.; Schleif, S. (2007). Dlugosz, J. M. (ed.).

5482:

The NIST reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty

5088:

Einstein from "B" to "Z" – Volume 9 of Einstein studies

4676:

does allow signals to travel slightly faster than

1839:, but they do not. For example, as is discussed in the 1174:

for a different constant that was later shown to equal

1141: 835:

is the upper limit for the speed at which conventional

12789:(National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST) 12724:

Recent advances in metrology and fundamental constants

8784:

Imbs, D.; Raynal, Michel (2009). Malyshkin, V. (ed.).

4016:(1900) showed that this local time (to first order in 12699:. In Amelino-Camelia, G; Kowalski-Glikman, J (eds.). 12513: 12497:"Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light" 12068:

Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity

11625: 9860:. University of California, Riverside. Archived from 6280: 5542:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 22. 4966:(revised ed.). Courier Corporation. p. 79. 3807:

The first quantitative estimate of the speed of light

2761:

the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light

2040: 1936:

is seen in certain astronomical objects, such as the

1011:

In some cases, objects or waves may appear to travel

12783:(International Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) 12215:"Units of measure are getting a fundamental upgrade" 10678: 10676: 10589: 10587: 9173: 8411: 8304:

Libbrecht, K. G.; Libbrecht, M. W. (December 2006).

8143:"Optical constants of C (Carbon, diamond, graphite)" 6942: 5539:

It's About Time: Understanding Einstein's Relativity

4223: 3851: 3218:

can be calculated, "often with less than 5% error".

1843:

section below, many wave velocities can exceed

1711:) have put stringent limits on the possible two-way 1586: = 10 occurs at 99.5% the speed of light ( 12161:(2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 41. 11855:

Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time

11626:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November 1997). 10972:Hamarneh, S. (1972). "Review: Hakim Mohammed Said, 10455: 10453: 10451: 8868:"Physics in finance: Trading at the speed of light" 7532: 7301: 5773:

Special Relativity and Its Experimental Foundations

5500:Jespersen, J.; Fitz-Randolph, J.; Robb, J. (1999). 5356:

Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry

3961:

Hendrik Lorentz (right) with Albert Einstein (1921)

3946:The wave properties of light were well known since 3144:of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum. The value of 2644:There are different ways to determine the value of 1958:

neutrinos were observed to travel faster than light

1466:and waves, including light, must travel in vacuum. 1062:at which light travels in a material is called the 12701:Planck Scale Effects in Astrophysics and Cosmology 12234: 11879: 11822: 11589: 11311:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 9536: 9280: 8979:"Time delay between Mars and Earth – Mars Express" 8915: 8606: 8303: 6696:The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology 6219: 6060:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 4839: 4837: 4399:is defined as the length of the path travelled by 4149: 3935: 3230:An interferometric determination of length. Left: 3020:laboratory experiment in college physics classes. 2796:in the 18th century. This effect results from the 2559:Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in 2368: 2081: 1657:of reference (gravitationally curved spacetime or 1031:is understood to exceed the speed of light beyond 12124:Relativity: An Introduction to Space–Time Physics 11109: 11036: 10673: 10584: 10063: 10015: 9467: 8471: 1920:: under certain conditions the time needed for a 1695:as a function of the orientation of the emitting 1554:1 is negligible for speeds much slower than 1519:(moving clocks run more slowly). The factor 30:"Lightspeed" redirects here. For other uses, see 15943: 13191: 12809:demonstrating group velocity information limits) 12697:"Quantum Foam and Quantum Gravity Phenomenology" 12364:"A Demonstration concerning the Motion of Light" 11721:Consoli, Maurizio; Pluchino, Alessandro (2018). 11676:"On the Relations between Light and Electricity" 10838:Ancient science through the golden age of Greece 10501: 10499: 10448: 9468:Hutton, C.; Shaw, G.; Pearson, R., eds. (1809). 9323: 9321: 9319: 9274: 9155:"StarChild Question of the Month for March 2000" 9096:The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking) 8736:Pavel Alekseyevich Čerenkov: Chelovek i Otkrytie 7617: 5114: 4959: 3276:Before the advent of laser technology, coherent 1454:explores the consequences of this invariance of 1435:and the lack of evidence for motion against the 886:, the speed of light fixes the ultimate minimum 104:Approximate values (to three significant digits) 12415:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 12369:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 11754: 11720: 10807:(illustrated ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 1. 9707: 9505: 9503: 9501: 9499: 9438:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 8837:"Theoretical vs real-world speed limit of Ping" 8777: 7959:"Astrophysics: Burst of support for relativity" 7956: 6526: 4834: 4813: 3761:demolished. Despite this, in his derivation of 2261:is approximately 1.0003. Denser media, such as 2185:(a wave filling the whole space, with only one 1953:instants at which the light rays were emitted. 1409:per second is still relevant, even if omitted. 14737:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records 13151:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records 12292:National Institute of Standards and Technology 12158:Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological 11455: 10866: 10864: 10862: 10357: 10355: 10261:"Finding the Speed of Light with Marshmallows" 10113: 10111: 8746: 8740:Pavel Alekseyevich Čerenkov: Man and Discovery 8734:A. N. Gorbunov; E. P. Čerenkova, eds. (1999). 8609:"Gain-assisted superluminal light propagation" 8607:Wang, L. J.; Kuzmich, A.; Dogariu, A. (2000). 7491:"Embattled neutrino project leaders step down" 5984: 4928: 4108:determined the speed of light in vacuum to be 3287:National Institute of Standards and Technology 2357:material, the electromagnetic equivalent of a 2128:, the experimental upper limit is less sharp, 1821:Faster-than-light observations and experiments 1669:, but the speed of light can differ from 1546:is the speed of the object. The difference of 1412: 1274:exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum. 966:in vacuum. Such particles and waves travel at 15704: 14848: 14023: 13746:(first-ever possible light from bh-bh merger) 13177: 12875: 12717: 12057: 11379:Foschi, Renato; Leone, Matteo (August 2009). 11229: 11166:"Late Thirteenth-Century Synthesis in Optics" 11078:Measuring Speed of Light: Why? Speed of what? 10870: 10496: 10201: 10199: 10197: 10059: 10057: 10055: 10053: 10051: 9534: 9485:was based on a report that Rømer read to the 9431: 9316: 8170:"Researchers now able to stop, restart light" 7860: 7858: 7199:(Revised ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 7001: 6947:signals, special relativity, and causality". 5874: 5811: 5379: 3772: 1665:speed of light is constant and equal to 790: 12720:"Physics behind the definition of the meter" 11543:College physics: reasoning and relationships 10413: 10411: 10409: 10209:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 10071:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 9614:International Bureau of Weights and Measures 9570: 9568: 9496: 9480: 8983:MARS EXPRESS ESA’s mission to the Red Planet 8272:Selected Works of Emil Wolf: with commentary 8205:Fast light, slow light and left-handed light 8027:Fast light, slow light and left-handed light 7461:"Apparent Superluminal Velocity of Galaxies" 6340: 6338: 5387:International Bureau of Weights and Measures 5164: 3826:, which is 27% lower than the actual value. 3711:that light had no speed of travel. In 1021, 3101:used this method in 1907 to find a value of 3023: 2939: 2725: 2489: 1960:turned out to be due to experimental error. 1340:, as well as an accurate measurement of the 1038:The speed at which light propagates through 944:and, in doing so, showed that the parameter 12771:"Test Light Speed in Mile Long Vacuum Tube" 12094:"Time Line for the Definition of the Meter" 11930: 11619: 11378: 10859: 10800: 10593: 10505: 10352: 10108: 9899: 9715:Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 8917:"Time is money when it comes to microwaves" 7597:. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. 6785: 5920:"SNEWS: the SuperNova Early Warning System" 5610:A Unified Grand Tour of Theoretical Physics 4996:"Quantum information and relativity theory" 3928:wire travels along the wire at this speed. 2532:for commands to travel from Earth to Mars. 2519:The communications delay between Earth and 2423: 2327:. The opposite, group velocities exceeding 1752:is equal to one, giving rise to the famous 1153: 15711: 15697: 14855: 14841: 14030: 14016: 13184: 13170: 12882: 12868: 12148: 11992: 11570:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 17. 11010:Visual Communication: Images With Messages 11003: 11001: 10639: 10194: 10117: 10048: 9966: 9409: 9407: 9405: 9146: 8815:(2 ed.). Krieger Publishing Company. 8783: 8649: 8054: 8016: 8014: 8012: 7855: 7482: 7073:(2 ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 62. 6995: 6373: 5572:"Nanoseconds Associated with Grace Hopper" 5080: 5078: 4990: 4814:Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P. (2007). 4512: 4467:The speed of light in imperial is exactly 4133:General Conference on Weights and Measures 2678:. This is described in more detail in the 2144: (roughly 2 × 10 g). 1855:through most glasses can routinely exceed 1744:is the Lorentz factor defined above. When 1405:1 does not affect the result. Its unit of 1160:(meaning 'swiftness, celerity'). In 1856, 797: 783: 49: 12753: 12631: 12611:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 12595: 12491: 12480:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 12458:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 12435: 12389: 12085: 12029: 11960: 11800:. Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 51–57. 11496: 11461: 11404: 11186: 11172:. Harvard University Press. p. 396. 11130: 10965: 10890: 10765: 10689:(in French). Pierre van der Aa. pp. 10645: 10615: 10549: 10547: 10545: 10406: 10142: 10091: 9982: 9581:. International Astronomical Union. 2012. 9565: 9458: 9385: 9350: 9348: 9346: 9231: 9099:. London: Penguin Books. pp. 18–19. 9042: 9040: 8891: 8810: 8804: 8713: 8696: 8485: 7984: 7878: 7812: 7755: 7722: 7669: 7618:Panofsky, W. K. H.; Phillips, M. (1962). 7551: 7362:"Causality and the nature of information" 7270: 6962: 6893: 6680:"It's official: Time machines won't work" 6609: 6572: 6562: 6544: 6487: 6448: 6395: 6379: 6335: 6300: 6239: 6210: 6192: 5937: 5842: 5704:"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" 5693: 5233: 5011: 2845:. Previously the AU was not based on the 2759:used an astronomical measurement to make 1776:tests of relativistic energy and momentum 1762:formula for mass–energy equivalence. The 1682:speed of light may have changed over time 1570:. For example, a time dilation factor of 13758:(first black hole - neutron star merger) 12844:Speed of Light – animated demonstrations 12608:(1900). "Sur la vitesse de la lumière". 12604: 12469: 12318: 12051: 11820: 11755:Michelson, A. A.; Morley, E. W. (1887). 11630:. School of Mathematics and Statistics, 11563: 11539: 11192: 11163: 11143:. Oxford University Press. p. 143. 11136: 11074: 10971: 10417: 10325: 10258: 9708:Pitjeva, E. V.; Standish, E. M. (2009). 9659: 9539:Practical Astronomy with your Calculator 9237: 9180:Dickey, J. O.; et al. (July 1994). 9066:"The Hubble Ultra Deep Field Lithograph" 8865: 7925: 7919: 7653: 7590: 7584: 7147: 7145: 7143: 7120: 6589: 5851:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 20ff. 5765: 5763: 5761: 5733: 5665: 5478:"CODATA value: Speed of Light in Vacuum" 5438: 5431: 5429: 5331: 5276: 4659:as being rotated. This effect, known as 4461: 4054:and redefinition of the metre and second 4041:, in which the speed of light in vacuum 3956: 3924:calculated that an electric signal in a 3797: 3225: 3148:can then be found by using the relation 3123: 2952: 2943: 2779: 2729: 2604:(GPS) receiver measures its distance to 2493: 2427: 2228: 1780: 1718: 1582:). Similarly, a time dilation factor of 1468: 27:Speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum 12647: 12564: 12209: 12154: 11849: 11825:Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein 11116:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 11050:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 10998: 10801:Weiner, John; Nunes, Frederico (2013). 10682: 10459: 10331: 10064:Essen, L.; Gordon-Smith, A. C. (1948). 9847: 9845: 9843: 9841: 9839: 9784:"IAU WG on NSFA Current Best Estimates" 9777: 9775: 9509: 9402: 8976: 8752: 8742:]. Moscow: Nauka. pp. 149–153. 8198: 8048: 8020: 8009: 7189: 6655:(3 ed.). Birkhäuser. p. 152. 6520: 6056: 6019: 5729: 5727: 5234:Mendelson, K. S. (2006). "The story of 5084: 5075: 4869: 3697:argued that the speed of light must be 3501: 2971:Toothed wheel-breaker of the light beam 2582: 2215:, and its earliest part travels at the 1986: 1480:as a function of velocity. It starts at 14: 15944: 15718: 12889: 12669: 12444: 12404: 12114: 12091: 11877: 11795: 11727:. World Scientific. pp. 118–119. 11673: 11443: 11286: 11112:"Abu han Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni" 11007: 10871:MacKay, R. H.; Oldford, R. W. (2000). 10831: 10542: 10361: 9905: 9619:The International System of Units (SI) 9543:. Cambridge University Press. p. 9343: 9179: 9037: 8537:. Institute of Physics. Archived from 8168:Cromie, William J. (24 January 2001). 8167: 8117:"Optical constants of Soda lime glass" 8058:Understanding the Properties of Matter 7489:Reich, Eugenie Samuel (2 April 2012). 7322: 7093: 7042:The Theory of the Relativity of Motion 7039: 6756: 6705:"Optical Precursor of a Single Photon" 6172: 6136: 6130: 6101: 5612:(2 ed.). CRC Press. p. 540. 5603: 5597: 5532: 5392:The International System of Units (SI) 5310: 4863: 4454:in a transition between two specified 2968:Beam-splitting semi-transparent mirror 2373:The speed of light is of relevance to 1358:, the speed of light is approximately 1284:Metre § Speed of light definition 1277: 15692: 14836: 14011: 13165: 12863: 12813:Light discussion on adding velocities 12655:(2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 12325: 12186:"The "explicit-constant" formulation" 12120: 12071:(2 ed.). Macmillan. p. 59. 11360:. Thomas Yoseloff. pp. 205–206. 11358:The Rainbow: From Myth to Mathematics 11352: 11303: 11237:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 10936: 10906: 10750: 10710:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 10509:Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences 10308:"BBC Look East at the speed of light" 10205: 10157: 9912:. ArtDeCiel Publishing. p. 210. 9854:"How is the speed of light measured?" 9851: 9660:Brumfiel, Geoff (14 September 2012). 8928:from the original on 10 December 2022 8564: 7488: 7359: 7353: 7253: 7217: 7151: 7140: 7097:Photonics and lasers: an introduction 7068: 6875: 6826: 6788:"Causality between conducting plates" 6786:Ben-Menahem, Shahar (November 1990). 6345:Gibbs, P. (1997) . Carlip, S. (ed.). 6344: 5870: 5868: 5769: 5758: 5426: 5352: 5289:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5193: 5061:"How is the speed of light measured?" 5058: 4994:; Terno, Daniel R. (6 January 2004). 4031: 1885:) may have a value in excess of 1042:, such as glass or air, is less than 185:Approximate light signal travel times 13316:Stanford gravitational wave detector 12744: 12624: 12342:(in French): 223–236. Archived from 11906: 11596:. Harvard University Press. p. 11587: 11499:"Über die Bewegung der Elektricität" 11464:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 9836: 9772: 9470:"On the Motion of Light by M. Romer" 9152:Further discussion can be found at 9089: 8669: 8526: 8265: 8228: 7410: 7295: 7224:Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods 6764:. University of Virginia. p. 56 6648: 6642: 6471: 6465: 6438: 6432: 5818:. Oxford University Press. pp. 5724: 5676:(Submitted manuscript) (in German). 5668:"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" 5626: 5285: 4636:very slightly more slowly than light 4403:in vacuum during a time interval of 4204:when it is expressed in the SI unit 4135:in 1975 recommended using the value 3756:. Although this argument fails when 2822: 2600:multiplied by the speed of light. A 2528:later. It would then take a further 2007:, which predict that the speed 1433:Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism 1142:Numerical value, notation, and units 890:. The speed of light can be used in 15427:Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation 15380:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker 13123:greatest of a spacecraft population 12676:(3 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 12637:Wave propagation and group velocity 10512:. Crew, H.; de Salvio A. (trans.). 10338:. CRC Press. pp. 47, 384–391. 10131:Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards 8866:Buchanan, Mark (11 February 2015). 7622:Classical Electricity and Magnetism 7469:University of California, Riverside 7162:University of California, Riverside 6355:University of California, Riverside 6173:Abbott, B. P.; et al. (2017). 5995:University of California, Riverside 5701: 5632: 5577:National Museum of American History 5311:Harris, J. W.; et al. (2002). 5208:University of California, Riverside 5200:the symbol for the speed of light?" 4932:Special Relativity and How it Works 3119: 2679: 2124:; if photon mass is generated by a 932:postulated that the speed of light 924:and, therefore, travelled at speed 24: 13468:European Gravitational Observatory 12694: 12313: 11674:Watson, E. C. (1 September 1957). 11110:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. 10913:. Logos Verlag Berlin. p. 1. 9882: 9814:"NPL's Beginner's Guide to Length" 9662:"The astronomical unit gets fixed" 7100:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 9. 5865: 5353:Cohen, E. R.; et al. (2007). 5187: 4845:"Definitions of the SI base units" 3878:. His method was improved upon by 3651:17th CGPM, definition of the metre 3594:K. D. Froome, radio interferometry 1995:, light is described as a type of 25: 15983: 15197:Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation 14648:Furthest landing on another world 14544:Land vehicle (propulsively-driven 14152:FIBA Basketball World Cup records 13752:(first-ever "mass gap" collision) 13052:furthest landing on another world 12777:, September 1930, pp. 17–18. 12764: 11592:The equations: icons of knowledge 11546:. Cengage Learning. p. 787. 11170:A source book in medieval science 11045:"Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham" 9600:The International System of Units 9052:Space Telescope Science Institute 7458: 6347:"Is The Speed of Light Constant?" 6180:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 5815:Introducing Einstein's Relativity 5734:Hsu, J.-P.; Zhang, Y. Z. (2001). 3858:History of electromagnetic theory 3852:Connections with electromagnetism 3221: 3056:established by Maxwell's theory: 1999:. The classical behaviour of the 15675: 15674: 14810:List of longest-living organisms 14658:Furthest travel on another world 13062:furthest travel on another world 12856:, 28 September 1878, p. 193 12718:Helmcke, J.; Riehle, F. (2001). 12200: 12178: 11986: 11900: 11871: 11843: 11814: 11789: 11748: 11714: 11667: 11650: 11564:Bergmann, Peter Gabriel (1992). 11530: 11490: 11437: 11372: 11346: 11297: 11280: 11223: 11157: 11103: 11068: 11030: 10930: 10900: 10825: 10794: 10759: 10744: 10697: 10300: 10252: 10151: 9926: 9876: 9806: 9698: 9653: 9642:from the original on 4 June 2021 9606: 9585: 9528: 9413: 9133:International Astronomical Union 9129:"The IAU and astronomical units" 8948:"Day 4: Lunar Orbits 7, 8 and 9" 5849:The Special Theory to Relativity 5415:from the original on 4 June 2021 4776: 4766: 4757: 4736: 4692: 4672:It has been speculated that the 4254: 4240: 4226: 3669: 2866:International Astronomical Union 2853:Previously, the inverse of 1841:propagation of light in a medium 1840: 1372:In branches of physics in which 764: 763: 750: 389: 12237:"An Introduction to the New SI" 12037:"Resolution 2 of the 15th CGPM" 11968:"Resolution 6 of the 15th CGPM" 11938:"Resolution 1 of the 15th CGPM" 11444:Newton, I. (1704). "Prop. XI". 10553: 10427:. CRC Press. pp. 191–193. 9818:UK National Physical Laboratory 9490: 9354: 9329:"Resolution 1 of the 17th CGPM" 9121: 9083: 9058: 8996: 8970: 8940: 8908: 8859: 8829: 8813:Optical Fibers for Transmission 8690: 8650:Whitehouse, D. (19 July 2000). 8555: 8347: 8297: 8259: 8222: 8192: 8161: 8135: 8109: 8075: 7950: 7644: 7611: 7526: 7452: 7404: 7180: 7114: 7087: 7062: 7033: 6936: 6776: 6750: 6669: 6529:"Quantum Gravity Phenomenology" 6163: 6095: 6050: 6013: 5978: 5910: 5836: 5805: 5737:Lorentz and Poincaré Invariance 5659: 5564: 5526: 5227: 5165:Uzan, J-P; Leclercq, B (2008). 5105: 5052: 4683: 4666: 4645: 4624: 4607: 4590: 4150:Defined as an explicit constant 3715:(Ibn al-Haytham) published the 3180:The Essen–Gordon-Smith result, 2384: 2369:Practical effects of finiteness 1365:miles per second, or roughly 1 1209:original German-language papers 978:can be accelerated to approach 32:Speed of light (disambiguation) 15004:Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc) 14862: 14762:Category on tallest structures 13209:Gravitational-wave observatory 12840:(Live-Counter – Illustrations) 11540:Giordano, Nicholas J. (2009). 11230:Sakellariadis, Spyros (1982). 10335:The Fabry-Perot interferometer 10259:Stauffer, R. H. (April 1997). 8977:Ormston, Thomas (8 May 2012). 8728:10.3367/ufnr.0093.196710n.0385 7539:Journal of High Energy Physics 6827:Fearn, H. (10 November 2006). 6734:10.1103/physrevlett.106.243602 6258:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.161102 5445:Instrumentation Reference Book 5065:The Physics and Relativity FAQ 4984: 4953: 4922: 4807: 4446:of the radiation emitted by a 4428:website or the explanation by 4389: 4352: 4309: 3089:through the definition of the 2872:light time for unit distance: 2792:, discovered and explained by 2639: 2626:Lunar Laser Ranging experiment 2397:. If a processor operates at 1 2166: 2151:. In 2009, the observation of 1766:factor approaches infinity as 1637:. As such, the parameter 1515:(moving objects shorten), and 1498:equivalence of mass and energy 1152:, for "constant" or the Latin 1050:in wire cables is slower than 319: 13: 1: 14220:Athletics record progressions 13901:Gravitational wave background 13453:LIGO Scientific Collaboration 9625:(8th ed.), p. 126, 7897:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.010402 7778:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.043901 7391:10.1016/S0030-4018(02)01638-3 7121:Wertheim, M. (20 June 2007). 6759:"Notes on Special Relativity" 5712:. Translated by Jeffery, G. B 5702:Perrett, W. Walker, J (ed.). 5398:(8th ed.), p. 112, 4800: 3862:History of special relativity 2847:International System of Units 2788:Another method is to use the 1904:of two particles that can be 1484:1 and approaches infinity as 1346:dimensional physical constant 1296:International System of Units 14177:Grand Prix motorcycle racing 13704:First observation (GW150914) 13490:TAMA 20, later known as LISM 13193:Gravitational-wave astronomy 12703:. Springer. pp. 321ff. 12673:Optical Fiber Communications 10907:Ahmed, Sherif Sayed (2014). 9209:10.1126/science.265.5171.482 8652:"Beam Smashes Light Barrier" 8529:"Switching light on and off" 8091:O (Water, heavy water, ice)" 7957:Amelino-Camelia, G. (2009). 7710:Astronomy & Astrophysics 6812:10.1016/0370-2693(90)91167-A 6533:Living Reviews in Relativity 6527:Amelino-Camelia, G. (2013). 5171:. Springer. pp. 43–44. 4619:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment 4102:National Bureau of Standards 4039:special theory of relativity 2670:and using their relation to 2204:of the pulse travels at the 1913:transmitted in this manner. 1659:accelerated reference frames 1452:special theory of relativity 829:special theory of relativity 7: 15850:Relativistic Doppler effect 15794:Inertial frame of reference 15019:Relativistic Doppler effect 14037: 13838:Tests of general relativity 12795:(download data gathered by 11916:. Oxford University Press. 11762:American Journal of Science 11680:American Journal of Physics 10755:. London: Macmillan and Co. 10482:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1346 10019:American Journal of Physics 9970:American Journal of Physics 9939:American Journal of Physics 9758:. Jet Propulsion Laboratory 9427:(in French): 233–236. 1676. 8952:The Apollo 8 Flight Journal 8843:. June 2007. Archived from 8313:American Journal of Physics 7831:10.1103/PhysRevD.104.103516 7688:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4964 7193:(1994). Tuan, S. F. (ed.). 6383:American Journal of Physics 6319:10.1103/PhysRevD.102.024028 5885:Flat and Curved Space-times 5606:"Appendix C: Natural units" 5241:American Journal of Physics 5129:American Journal of Physics 4651:Whereas moving objects are 4615:Michelson–Morley experiment 4219: 3996:Because of this experiment 3890:in 1862. In the year 1856, 3744:In the early 17th century, 3321:History of measurements of 3253:), with a known frequency ( 3249:beam of light (e.g. from a 2246:to the phase velocity 1429:inertial frame of reference 1413:Fundamental role in physics 938:inertial frame of reference 920:proposed that light was an 498:Relativistic Doppler effect 436:Inertial frame of reference 67:seconds to travel from the 36:Lightspeed (disambiguation) 10: 15988: 15845:Relativity of simultaneity 15490:In computational physics: 15014:Relativity of simultaneity 14303:Australian Football League 13500:Caltech 40m interferometer 12127:. CRC Press. p. 140. 11118:. University of St Andrews 10951:10.1177/107385849900500108 10722:10.1007/s00407-020-00260-1 9535:Duffett-Smith, P. (1988). 9517:Philosophical Transactions 9491:(Cohen, 1940, p. 346) 9487:French Academy of Sciences 8703:Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 8368:; Behroozi, C. H. (1999). 8174:Harvard University Gazette 8061:. CRC Press. p. 131. 7929:The Thermodynamic Universe 7741:10.1051/0004-6361:20030263 7626:. Addison-Wesley. p. 7015:. W. H. Freeman. pp. 6628:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.105011 5361:Royal Society of Chemistry 5338:. CRC Press. p. 235. 4903:so that there are exactly 4879:. Vintage Books. pp. 4057: 3939: 3855: 3773:First measurement attempts 3707:initially agreed with the 3705:Early Islamic philosophers 3304: 2586: 2189:) propagate is called the 2170: 1900:. An example involves the 1824: 1795:relativity of simultaneity 1462:is the speed at which all 1416: 1281: 1257:or electric constant, and 1046:; similarly, the speed of 994:and appears in the famous 493:Relativity of simultaneity 29: 15911: 15878: 15817: 15781: 15747: 15726: 15672: 15504: 15369: 15341: 15327:Lense–Thirring precession 15210: 15159: 15121: 15100: 15089: 15047: 14991: 14975: 14917: 14909:Doubly special relativity 14881: 14870: 14775: 14749: 14727: 14686: 14635: 14512: 14489: 14482: 14475: 14444: 14424: 14311: 14290: 14238: 14210: 14115: 14108: 14077: 14045: 13909: 13856: 13825: 13765: 13691: 13684: 13657: 13624: 13590: 13574: 13565: 13545: 13524: 13508: 13477: 13416: 13405: 13360: 13344: 13278: 13237: 13226: 13217: 13199: 13138: 13113:greatest on another world 13108:greatest of a spaceflight 13097: 13036: 12895: 12653:Classical Electrodynamics 11567:The riddle of gravitation 11168:. In Edward Grant (ed.). 10768:The Astrophysical Journal 9736:10.1007/s10569-009-9203-8 9676:10.1038/nature.2012.11416 9479:The account published in 9302:10.1109/JPROC.2007.905128 8811:Midwinter, J. E. (1991). 8208:. CRC Press. p. 25. 8030:. CRC Press. pp. 25 7505:10.1038/nature.2012.10371 7305:Time in Quantum Mechanics 6912:10.1134/S1054660X07050155 6853:10.1080/09500340600952085 6757:Fowler, M. (March 2008). 6506:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.403 6475:Reviews of Modern Physics 6081:10.1017/S0305004100033776 5956:10.1088/1367-2630/6/1/114 5317:. Springer. p. 499. 5091:. Springer. p. 226. 5000:Reviews of Modern Physics 4960:Albert Shadowitz (1988). 4733:of a revolution) per day. 3653: 3352: 3338: 3232:constructive interference 3024:Electromagnetic constants 2940:Time of flight techniques 2726:Astronomical measurements 2602:Global Positioning System 2490:Spaceflight and astronomy 2278:Bose–Einstein condensates 2276:In exotic materials like 1699:in a magnetic field (see 1348:, the numerical value of 1288:Since 1983, the constant 1199:with its modern meaning. 1029:expansion of the universe 974:. Particles with nonzero 860:electromagnetic radiation 365: 348: 330: 311: 300: 286: 267: 252: 241: 226: 215: 201: 189: 184: 173: 162: 144: 129: 108: 103: 85: 80: 48: 15865:Bell's spaceship paradox 15187:Post-Newtonian formalism 15177:Einstein field equations 15113:Mathematical formulation 14937:Hyperbolic orthogonality 14187:World Rally Championship 13941:Supermassive black holes 12852:", Albert A. Nicholson, 12787:Speed of light in vacuum 11775:10.1366/0003702874447824 11632:University of St Andrews 11524:10.1002/andp.18571781203 11476:10.1109/MIE.2015.2421754 11293:. Macmillan. p. 76. 11287:Cajori, Florian (1922). 11164:Lindberg, D. C. (1974). 11137:Lindberg, D. C. (1996). 11055:University of St Andrews 10751:Hertz, Heinrich (1893). 9906:Hughes, Stephan (2012). 9887:. University of Virginia 9752:"Astrodynamic Constants" 8253:10.1103/PhysRev.104.1760 7926:Sidharth, B. G. (2008). 7591:Harrison, E. R. (2003). 7308:. Springer. p. 48. 7196:Modern Quantum Mechanics 6833:Journal of Modern Optics 6212:10.3847/2041-8213/aa920c 6044:10.1103/PhysRev.116.1041 5695:10.1002/andp.19053221004 5439:Sydenham, P. H. (2003). 5335:The Electronics Handbook 5332:Whitaker, J. C. (2005). 5030:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.93 4303: 4146:for the speed of light. 4069:determined the speed as 3882:who obtained a value of 3236:destructive interference 2773:'s innermost major moon 2680:"Interferometry" section 2424:Large distances on Earth 2314:Kramers–Kronig relations 2302:real and imaginary parts 1956:A 2011 experiment where 1701:Hughes–Drever experiment 1590: = 0.995 1578: = 0.866 1448:Einstein synchronization 1334:. By using the value of 1294:has been defined in the 513:Bell's spaceship paradox 15835:Mass–energy equivalence 15768:Galilean transformation 15734:Principle of relativity 14898:Galilean transformation 14889:Principle of relativity 14798:List of weather records 14793:Extreme points of Earth 14161:Formula One motorsport 14055:Category: World records 13780:Resonant mass detectors 12781:Definition of the metre 12775:Popular Science Monthly 12570:"The Velocity of Light" 11995:Applied Physics Letters 11304:Smith, A. Mark (1987). 10462:Physical Review Letters 10332:Vaughan, J. M. (1989). 9290:Proceedings of the IEEE 8592:10.1103/PhysRevA.48.R34 8083:"Optical constants of H 8055:de Podesta, M. (2002). 7867:Physical Review Letters 7758:Physical Review Letters 7733:2003A&A...402..409E 7657:Physical Review Letters 7570:10.1007/JHEP10(2012)093 6713:Physical Review Letters 6227:Physical Review Letters 5441:"Measurement of length" 5116:Feigenbaum, Mitchell J. 5085:Stachel, J. J. (2002). 4929:Moses Fayngold (2008). 4210:2019 revision of the SI 4026:principle of relativity 4010:Lorentz's aether theory 3028:An option for deriving 2997:setup as used by Fizeau 2541:Hubble Ultra-Deep Field 2310:attenuation coefficient 2259:refractive index of air 2098:quantum electrodynamics 1815:tachyonic antitelephone 1619:quantum electrodynamics 1384:geometrized unit system 1266:impedance of free space 1132:refractive index of air 996:mass–energy equivalence 962:, also travel at speed 958:perturbations, such as 627:Galilean transformation 488:Mass–energy equivalence 401:Principle of relativity 15809:Lorentz transformation 14983:Lorentz transformation 14157:FIFA World Cup records 14140:Twenty20 International 14061:Guinness World Records 12437:10.1098/rstl.1694.0048 12391:10.1098/rstl.1677.0024 12376:(136): 893–894. 1677. 12192:. 2011. Archived from 12092:Penzes, W. B. (2009). 11944:. 1967. Archived from 11878:Miller, A. I. (1981). 11796:French, A. P. (1983). 11497:Kirchhoff, G. (1857). 11008:Lester, P. M. (2005). 10384:10.1098/rspa.1958.0172 10230:10.1098/rspa.1950.0172 10093:10.1098/rspa.1948.0085 9481: 9460:10.1098/rstl.1677.0024 9445:(136): 893–895. 1677. 8954:. NASA. Archived from 7094:Quimby, R. S. (2006). 6981:10.1006/aphy.2002.6233 6876:Fearn, H. (May 2007). 6652:Astrophysical formulae 6137:Hartle, J. B. (2003). 6102:Hartle, J. B. (2003). 5925:New Journal of Physics 5843:Sriranjan, B. (2004). 5812:d'Inverno, R. (1992). 5700:English translation: 5604:Lawrie, I. D. (2002). 5059:Gibbs, Philip (1997). 4050:Increased accuracy of 4006:Lorentz transformation 3962: 3803: 3624:, laser interferometry 3566:Essen and Gordon-Smith 3291:fractional uncertainty 3239: 3175:electromagnetic theory 3133: 2981: 2950: 2785: 2735: 2500: 2476:high-frequency trading 2436: 2235: 2104:. In QED, photons are 2083: 1786: 1623:quantum chromodynamics 1493: 1441:one-way speed of light 1423:One-way speed of light 1382:of measurement or the 1246:or magnetic constant, 1154: 451:Lorentz transformation 242:the length of Earth's 15952:Fundamental constants 15451:Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou 15192:Raychaudhuri equation 15131:Equivalence principle 14783:Solar System extremes 14712:Spacecraft population 14678:Deepest ocean vehicle 14374:Major League Baseball 14298:National Rugby League 14135:One Day International 14068:Limca Book of Records 13965:Rotating neutron star 13776:Laser interferometers 13089:Deepest ocean vehicle 12850:The Velocity of Light 12521:Astrophysical Journal 12319:Historical references 11821:Darrigol, O. (2000). 11628:"James Clerk Maxwell" 11588:Bais, Sander (2005). 11075:Lauginie, P. (2004). 10892:10.1214/ss/1009212817 10686:Traitée de la Lumière 10506:Galilei, G. (1954) . 9756:Solar System Dynamics 7594:Masks of the Universe 7370:Optics Communications 7259:OSA Century of Optics 5770:Zhang, Y. Z. (1997). 5666:Einstein, A. (1905). 5449:Butterworth–Heinemann 5443:. In Boyes, W (ed.). 3960: 3936:"Luminiferous aether" 3801: 3788:Accademia del Cimento 3733:In the 13th century, 3689:advanced Empedocles' 3416:Hippolyte Fizeau 3393:, aberration of light 3348:Accademia del Cimento 3229: 3127: 2956: 2947: 2783: 2757:Ole Christensen Rømer 2733: 2497: 2434: 2406:printed circuit board 2379:round-trip delay time 2232: 2084: 2001:electromagnetic field 1784: 1719:Upper limit on speeds 1709:Resonator experiments 1472: 1395:. Using these units, 1282:Further information: 1048:electromagnetic waves 1040:transparent materials 851:) can travel through 431:Einstein's postulates 15739:Theory of relativity 15492:Numerical relativity 15333:pulsar timing arrays 13857:Effects / properties 13786:Atom interferometers 13699:List of observations 13626:Pulsar timing arrays 13118:greatest of a person 12155:Rindler, W. (2006). 11354:Boyer, Carl Benjamin 10683:Huygens, C. (1690). 10144:10.6028/bulletin.070 9885:"The Speed of Light" 9788:US Naval Observatory 9510:Bradley, J. (1729). 9021:10.54941/ahfe1003920 8753:Parhami, B. (1999). 8673:(26 February 2008). 8149:. Mikhail Polyanskiy 8147:refractiveindex.info 8123:. Mikhail Polyanskiy 8121:refractiveindex.info 8097:. Mikhail Polyanskiy 8095:refractiveindex.info 7265:. pp. 320–326. 7044:(Reprint ed.). 6839:(16–17): 2569–2581. 6649:Lang, K. R. (1999). 6439:Mota, D. F. (2006). 5645:. pp. 427–428. 5286:Lide, D. R. (2004). 4276:Speed of electricity 4089:, and, in 1967, the 4060:History of the metre 3892:Wilhelm Eduard Weber 3866:In the 19th century 3728:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 3259:interference pattern 3077:and dimensions of a 2589:Distance measurement 2583:Distance measurement 2465:transparent material 2312:, are linked by the 2038: 1997:electromagnetic wave 1987:Propagation of light 1268:. This article uses 1162:Wilhelm Eduard Weber 1054:. The ratio between 984:theory of relativity 942:theory of relativity 936:with respect to any 922:electromagnetic wave 902:demonstrated in 1676 406:Theory of relativity 15957:Physical quantities 15888:Minkowski spacetime 15804:Maxwell's equations 15763:Galilean relativity 15384:Friedmann equations 15278:Hulse–Taylor binary 15240:Gravitational waves 15136:Riemannian geometry 14962:Proper acceleration 14947:Maxwell's equations 14893:Galilean relativity 14732:Spaceflight records 14663:Closest to the Sun) 14643:Furthest spacecraft 14606:Water-borne vehicle 14432:Indian Super League 14396:Major League Soccer 13946:Stellar black holes 13926:quantum fluctuation 13806:Pulsar timing array 13793:Indirect detection 13733:neutron star merger 13516:INDIGO (LIGO-India) 13146:Spaceflight records 13047:furthest spacecraft 13009:Water-borne vehicle 12950:propulsively-driven 12854:Scientific American 12834:, 30 November 2006) 12797:Albert A. Michelson 12670:Keiser, G. (2000). 12588:1886Natur..34...29. 12534:1935ApJ....82...26M 12487:: 501–503, 792–796. 12428:1694RSPT...18..237C 12382:1677RSPT...12..893. 12349:on 8 September 2022 12339:Journal des sçavans 12255:2017PhTea..55...16K 12242:The Physics Teacher 12213:(2 November 2016). 12007:1973ApPhL..22..196B 11829:. Clarendon Press. 11692:1957AmJPh..25..335W 11559:Extract of page 787 11516:1857AnP...178..529K 10878:Statistical Science 10780:1927ApJ....65....1M 10474:1972PhRvL..29.1346E 10376:1958RSPSA.247..109F 10312:BBC Norfolk website 10279:1997PhTea..35..231S 10266:The Physics Teacher 10222:1950RSPSA.204..260E 10172:1947Natur.159..611E 10084:1948RSPSA.194..348E 10032:1999AmJPh..67..681J 9993:2008AmJPh..76..812A 9952:1968AmJPh..36..847C 9728:2009CeMDA.103..365P 9704:See the following: 9482:Journal des sçavans 9451:1677RSPT...12..893. 9424:Journal des sçavans 9252:1982CeMec..26..181S 9240:Celestial Mechanics 9201:1994Sci...265..482D 9015:. AHFE Open Acces. 8884:2015Natur.518..161B 8847:on 2 September 2010 8698:Cherenkov, Pavel A. 8584:1993PhRvA..48...34C 8504:10.1038/nature02176 8496:2003Natur.426..638B 8441:2001Natur.409..490L 8416:; Behroozi, C. H.; 8389:1999Natur.397..594V 8325:2006AmJPh..74.1055L 8245:1956PhRv..104.1760T 7977:2009Natur.462..291A 7889:2007PhRvL..98a0402A 7823:2021PhRvD.104j3516B 7770:2004PhRvL..93d3901F 7680:1999PhRvL..82.4964S 7562:2012JHEP...10..093A 7534:OPERA Collaboration 7430:1966Natur.211..468R 7383:2002OptCo.209...85W 6973:2002AnPhy.298..167L 6904:2007LaPhy..17..695F 6845:2006JMOp...53.2569F 6804:1990PhLB..250..133B 6726:2011PhRvL.106x3602Z 6620:2009PhRvD..80j5011H 6564:10.12942/lrr-2013-5 6555:2013LRR....16....5A 6498:2003RvMP...75..403U 6459:2004astro.ph..1631M 6406:2005AmJPh..73..240E 6311:2020PhRvD.102b4028L 6250:2017PhRvL.119p1102C 6203:2017ApJ...848L..13A 6073:1959PCPS...55..137P 6036:1959PhRv..116.1041T 5948:2004NJPh....6..114A 5876:Ellis, George F. R. 5686:1905AnP...322..891E 5590:Grace Murray Hopper 5314:Handbook of Physics 5254:2006AmJPh..74..995M 5194:Gibbs, P. (2004) . 5142:1988AmJPh..56...18F 5022:2004RvMP...76...93P 4948:Extract of page 497 4915:standard metre rule 4518:The exact value is 4163:hyperfine frequency 4083:metre was redefined 3983:Albert A. Michelson 3967:luminiferous aether 3952:luminiferous aether 3942:Luminiferous aether 3916:, by discharging a 3758:aberration of light 3695:Heron of Alexandria 3537:Albert A. Michelson 3326: 3311:early modern period 3168:of microwaves of a 3048:vacuum permeability 3038:vacuum permittivity 2790:aberration of light 2377:: the one-way and 2363:Cherenkov radiation 2306:dielectric constant 2005:Maxwell's equations 1934:superluminal motion 1831:Superluminal motion 1703:), and of rotating 1655:non-inertial frames 1651:gravitational waves 1560:Galilean relativity 1437:luminiferous aether 1278:Use in unit systems 1255:vacuum permittivity 1244:vacuum permeability 1187:James Clerk Maxwell 960:gravitational waves 918:James Clerk Maxwell 916:published in 1865, 888:communication delay 817:, commonly denoted 622:Galilean relativity 542:Minkowski spacetime 446:Maxwell's equations 229:geostationary orbit 110:kilometres per hour 45: 15967:Special relativity 15898:Spacetime diagrams 15840:Length contraction 15720:Special relativity 15433:Reissner–Nordström 15351:Brans–Dicke theory 15182:Linearized gravity 15009:Length contraction 14927:Frame of reference 14904:Special relativity 14815:Smallest organisms 14776:Physical phenomena 14757:Tallest structures 13833:General relativity 13537:Einstein Telescope 13439:Fermilab holometer 13204:Gravitational wave 13067:closest to the Sun 12890:Extremes of motion 12695:Ng, Y. J. (2004). 12514:Michelson, A. A.; 12206:See, for example: 12196:on 11 August 2014. 12121:Adams, S. (1997). 11886:. Addison–Wesley. 11798:Special relativity 11638:on 28 January 2011 11613:Extract of page 40 11583:Extract of page 17 11536:See, for example: 11250:10.1007/BF00348308 11016:. pp. 10–11. 10647:Magalotti, Lorenzo 10530:on 30 January 2019 10514:Dover Publications 10444:on 13 August 2009. 9932:See, for example: 9858:Usenet Physics FAQ 9852:Gibbs, P. (1997). 9794:on 8 December 2009 9560:Extract of page 62 9260:10.1007/BF01230883 8561:See, for example: 8541:on 5 December 2008 8353:See, for example: 8180:on 28 October 2011 7650:See, for example: 7465:Usenet Physics FAQ 7360:Wynne, K. (2002). 7337:Wiley Interscience 7186:See, for example: 7158:Usenet Physics FAQ 7152:Gibbs, P. (1997). 7127:The New York Times 7069:Hecht, E. (1987). 6782:See, for example: 6720:(243602): 243602. 6675:See, for example: 6351:Usenet Physics FAQ 6169:See, for example: 6001:on 15 October 2009 5991:Usenet Physics FAQ 5744:. pp. 543ff. 5673:Annalen der Physik 5435:See, for example: 5282:See, for example: 5204:Usenet Physics FAQ 5111:See, for example: 5071:on 21 August 2015. 4979:Extract of page 79 4963:Special Relativity 4744:general relativity 4674:Scharnhorst effect 4507:inches per second. 4262:Outer space portal 4212:, also termed the 4032:Special relativity 3963: 3846:stellar aberration 3816:Christiaan Huygens 3804: 3568:, cavity resonator 3441:Léon Foucault 3391:James Bradley 3368:, moons of Jupiter 3350:, covered lanterns 3336:, covered lanterns 3320: 3240: 3134: 3005:method of Foucault 2982: 2951: 2786: 2736: 2714:by definition, as 2634:Deep Space Network 2546:evolution of stars 2501: 2437: 2375:telecommunications 2236: 2106:massless particles 2079: 2031:, by the equation 1965:expanding universe 1787: 1705:optical resonators 1635:general relativity 1611:Lorentz invariance 1513:length contraction 1494: 1464:massless particles 1419:Special relativity 1189:in 1865. In 1894, 1033:a certain boundary 952:Massless particles 757:Physics portal 478:Length contraction 383:Special relativity 164:astronomical units 43: 15939: 15938: 15870:Ehrenfest paradox 15860:Relativistic disk 15855:Thomas precession 15830:Relativistic mass 15686: 15685: 15500: 15499: 15479:Ozsváth–Schücking 15085: 15084: 15067:Minkowski diagram 15024:Thomas precession 14967:Relativistic mass 14830: 14829: 14820:Largest organisms 14788:Extremes on Earth 14767:Superlative trees 14745: 14744: 14673:Highest altitude) 14631: 14630: 14563:Production model 14440: 14439: 14005: 14004: 13821: 13820: 13772:Direct detection 13620: 13619: 13616: 13615: 13598:Big Bang Observer 13561: 13560: 13401: 13400: 13159: 13158: 12969:production model 12737:978-1-58603-167-1 12710:978-3-540-25263-4 12687:978-0-07-232101-2 12662:978-0-471-30932-1 12625:Modern references 12287:"SI Redefinition" 12263:10.1119/1.4972491 12168:978-0-19-856731-8 12134:978-0-7484-0621-0 12078:978-0-7167-2327-1 12015:10.1063/1.1654608 11923:978-0-19-520438-4 11893:978-0-201-04679-3 11864:978-0-393-32604-8 11836:978-0-19-850594-5 11807:978-0-442-30782-0 11734:978-9-813-27818-9 11700:10.1119/1.1934460 11662:978-1-77375-139-9 11607:978-0-674-01967-6 11577:978-0-486-27378-5 11553:978-0-534-42471-8 11179:978-0-674-82360-0 11150:978-0-19-823992-5 11023:978-0-534-63720-0 11014:Thomson Wadsworth 10926:Extract of page 1 10920:978-3-8325-3621-3 10852:978-0-486-27495-9 10820:Extract of page 1 10814:978-0-19-856766-0 10523:978-0-486-60099-4 10468:(19): 1346–1349. 10434:978-0-8493-1247-2 10370:(1248): 109–122. 10345:978-0-85274-138-2 10287:10.1119/1.2344657 10216:(1077): 260–277. 10166:(4044): 611–612. 10078:(1038): 348–361. 10001:10.1119/1.2919743 9960:10.1119/1.1975166 9919:978-1-62050-961-6 9864:on 21 August 2015 9824:on 31 August 2010 9554:978-0-521-35699-2 9489:in November 1676 9387:2027/uc1.b4375710 9296:(11): 2202–2214. 9195:(5171): 482–490. 9106:978-0-141-98958-7 9054:. 5 January 2010. 9050:(Press release). 9030:978-1-958651-74-2 8958:on 4 January 2011 8878:(7538): 161–163. 8822:978-0-89464-595-2 8797:978-3-642-03274-5 8770:978-0-306-45970-2 8621:(6793): 277–279. 8571:Physical Review A 8527:Dumé, B. (2003). 8480:(6967): 638–641. 8435:(6819): 490–493. 8383:(6720): 594–598. 8333:10.1119/1.2335476 8319:(12): 1055–1060. 8282:978-981-281-187-5 8215:978-0-7503-0926-4 8068:978-0-415-25788-6 8041:978-0-7503-0926-4 8022:Milonni, Peter W. 7971:(7271): 291–292. 7943:978-981-281-234-6 7800:Physical Review D 7705:Mavromatos, N. E. 7664:(25): 4964–4966. 7637:978-0-201-05702-7 7604:978-0-521-77351-5 7400:on 25 March 2009. 7346:978-0-470-10885-7 7315:978-3-540-73472-7 7282:978-1-943-58004-0 7255:Caves, Carlton M. 7210:978-0-201-53929-5 7123:"The Shadow Goes" 7107:978-0-471-71974-8 7080:978-0-201-11609-0 7055:978-1-103-17233-7 7026:978-0-7167-2327-1 7012:Spacetime Physics 6950:Annals of Physics 6792:Physics Letters B 6684:Los Angeles Times 6662:978-3-540-29692-8 6598:Physical Review D 6414:10.1119/1.1819929 6288:Physical Review D 6156:978-981-02-2749-4 6123:978-981-02-2749-4 5880:Williams, Ruth M. 5858:978-81-203-1963-9 5829:978-0-19-859686-8 5791:978-981-02-2749-4 5751:978-981-02-4721-8 5652:978-981-256-651-5 5619:978-0-7503-0604-1 5517:978-0-486-40913-9 5458:978-0-7506-7123-1 5370:978-0-85404-433-7 5345:978-0-8493-1889-4 5324:978-0-387-95269-7 5303:978-0-8493-0485-9 5262:10.1119/1.2238887 5178:978-0-387-73454-5 5098:978-0-8176-4143-6 4973:978-0-486-65743-1 4942:978-3-527-40607-4 4890:978-0-679-77631-4 4827:978-0-618-75354-3 4700:angular frequency 4106:Boulder, Colorado 3896:Rudolf Kohlrausch 3829:In his 1704 book 3709:Aristotelian view 3667: 3666: 3539:, rotating mirror 3500:Rosa and Dorsey, 3443:, rotating mirror 3087:10 H⋅m 2829:astronomical unit 2823:Astronomical unit 2432: 2074: 2073: 2023:magnetic constant 2013:electric constant 1993:classical physics 1977:cosmological time 1963:In models of the 1938:relativistic jets 1827:Faster-than-light 1166:Rudolf Kohlrausch 1069:of the material ( 1023:, and particular 1013:faster than light 825:physical constant 823:, is a universal 807: 806: 547:Spacetime diagram 518:Ehrenfest paradox 508:Relativistic disk 503:Thomas precession 483:Relativistic mass 377: 376: 373:2.5 million years 272:to Earth (1 87:metres per second 16:(Redirected from 15979: 15713: 15706: 15699: 15690: 15689: 15678: 15677: 15461:van Stockum dust 15233:Two-body problem 15151:Mach's principle 15098: 15097: 15039:Terrell rotation 14879: 14878: 14857: 14850: 14843: 14834: 14833: 14702:On another world 14537:Transcontinental 14532:Propeller-driven 14487: 14486: 14480: 14479: 14445:National records 14230:National records 14113: 14112: 14109:Sporting records 14032: 14025: 14018: 14009: 14008: 13937:Binary inspiral 13931:Phase transition 13922:Cosmic inflation 13689: 13688: 13572: 13571: 13414: 13413: 13235: 13234: 13224: 13223: 13186: 13179: 13172: 13163: 13162: 13082:highest altitude 12938:transcontinental 12933:propeller-driven 12884: 12877: 12870: 12861: 12860: 12829: 12805:(Java applet by 12759: 12757: 12741: 12714: 12691: 12666: 12644: 12619: 12601: 12599: 12597:10.1038/034029c0 12561: 12510: 12493:Michelson, A. A. 12488: 12466: 12454: 12441: 12439: 12422:(214): 237–256. 12399: 12398:on 29 July 2007. 12394:. Archived from 12393: 12358: 12356: 12354: 12348: 12335: 12307: 12304: 12302: 12300: 12282: 12231: 12229: 12227: 12204: 12198: 12197: 12182: 12176: 12175: 12152: 12146: 12145: 12118: 12112: 12111: 12109: 12107: 12098: 12089: 12083: 12082: 12055: 12049: 12048: 12046: 12044: 12033: 12027: 12026: 11990: 11984: 11983: 11981: 11979: 11964: 11958: 11957: 11955: 11953: 11948:on 11 April 2021 11934: 11928: 11927: 11904: 11898: 11897: 11885: 11875: 11869: 11868: 11857:. W. W. Norton. 11847: 11841: 11840: 11828: 11818: 11812: 11811: 11793: 11787: 11786: 11769:(203): 333–345. 11752: 11746: 11745: 11743: 11741: 11718: 11712: 11711: 11671: 11665: 11654: 11648: 11647: 11645: 11643: 11634:. Archived from 11623: 11617: 11611: 11595: 11581: 11557: 11534: 11528: 11527: 11494: 11488: 11487: 11470:(2): 54–56, 60. 11459: 11453: 11451: 11441: 11435: 11434: 11408: 11391:(8): 1251–1259. 11376: 11370: 11369: 11350: 11344: 11343: 11301: 11295: 11294: 11284: 11278: 11277: 11227: 11221: 11220: 11190: 11184: 11183: 11161: 11155: 11154: 11134: 11128: 11127: 11125: 11123: 11107: 11101: 11100: 11098: 11096: 11090: 11083: 11072: 11066: 11065: 11063: 11061: 11042:Robertson, E. F. 11034: 11028: 11027: 11005: 10996: 10995: 10969: 10963: 10962: 10934: 10928: 10924: 10904: 10898: 10896: 10894: 10868: 10857: 10856: 10829: 10823: 10818: 10798: 10792: 10791: 10763: 10757: 10756: 10748: 10742: 10741: 10701: 10695: 10694: 10680: 10671: 10670: 10669: 10667: 10643: 10637: 10636: 10619: 10602:(8): 1251–1259, 10591: 10582: 10581: 10551: 10540: 10539: 10537: 10535: 10526:. Archived from 10503: 10494: 10493: 10457: 10446: 10445: 10443: 10437:. Archived from 10426: 10415: 10404: 10403: 10359: 10350: 10349: 10329: 10323: 10322: 10320: 10318: 10304: 10298: 10297: 10295: 10293: 10256: 10250: 10249: 10203: 10192: 10191: 10180:10.1038/159611a0 10155: 10149: 10148: 10146: 10115: 10106: 10105: 10095: 10061: 10046: 10043: 10012: 9986: 9963: 9930: 9924: 9923: 9903: 9897: 9896: 9894: 9892: 9880: 9874: 9873: 9871: 9869: 9849: 9834: 9833: 9831: 9829: 9820:. Archived from 9810: 9804: 9803: 9801: 9799: 9790:. Archived from 9779: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9763: 9747: 9702: 9696: 9695: 9657: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9647: 9641: 9624: 9610: 9604: 9603: 9597: 9589: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9572: 9563: 9558: 9542: 9532: 9526: 9525: 9507: 9494: 9484: 9477: 9464: 9462: 9428: 9420: 9411: 9400: 9399: 9389: 9352: 9341: 9340: 9338: 9336: 9325: 9314: 9313: 9287: 9278: 9272: 9271: 9235: 9229: 9228: 9186: 9177: 9171: 9170: 9168: 9166: 9150: 9144: 9143: 9141: 9139: 9125: 9119: 9118: 9087: 9081: 9080: 9078: 9076: 9070: 9062: 9056: 9055: 9044: 9035: 9034: 9000: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8989: 8974: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8963: 8944: 8938: 8937: 8935: 8933: 8919: 8912: 8906: 8905: 8895: 8863: 8857: 8856: 8854: 8852: 8833: 8827: 8826: 8808: 8802: 8801: 8781: 8775: 8774: 8750: 8744: 8743: 8731: 8711: 8694: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8681: 8666: 8664: 8662: 8646: 8627:10.1038/35018520 8603: 8559: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8546: 8523: 8489: 8487:quant-ph/0311092 8468: 8449:10.1038/35054017 8426: 8408: 8374: 8351: 8345: 8344: 8310: 8301: 8295: 8294: 8263: 8257: 8256: 8239:(6): 1760–1770. 8226: 8220: 8219: 8196: 8190: 8189: 8187: 8185: 8176:. Archived from 8165: 8159: 8158: 8156: 8154: 8139: 8133: 8132: 8130: 8128: 8113: 8107: 8106: 8104: 8102: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8052: 8046: 8045: 8018: 8007: 8006: 7988: 7954: 7948: 7947: 7934:World Scientific 7923: 7917: 7916: 7882: 7862: 7853: 7850: 7816: 7789: 7752: 7726: 7724:astro-ph/0210124 7699: 7673: 7671:astro-ph/9810479 7648: 7642: 7641: 7625: 7615: 7609: 7608: 7588: 7582: 7581: 7555: 7530: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7519: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7477: 7475: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7438:10.1038/211468a0 7408: 7402: 7401: 7399: 7393:. Archived from 7366: 7357: 7351: 7350: 7326: 7320: 7319: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7274: 7250: 7214: 7184: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7173: 7168:on 10 March 2010 7164:. Archived from 7149: 7138: 7137: 7135: 7133: 7118: 7112: 7111: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7066: 7060: 7059: 7037: 7031: 7030: 6999: 6993: 6992: 6966: 6940: 6934: 6931: 6897: 6872: 6823: 6798:(1–2): 133–138. 6780: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6769: 6763: 6754: 6748: 6745: 6709: 6699: 6687: 6673: 6667: 6666: 6646: 6640: 6639: 6613: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6576: 6566: 6548: 6524: 6518: 6517: 6491: 6469: 6463: 6462: 6452: 6450:astro-ph/0401631 6436: 6430: 6429: 6399: 6377: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6366: 6357:. Archived from 6342: 6333: 6330: 6304: 6277: 6243: 6216: 6214: 6196: 6167: 6161: 6160: 6144: 6134: 6128: 6127: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6030:(4): 1041–1045. 6017: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6006: 5997:. Archived from 5982: 5976: 5975: 5941: 5939:astro-ph/0406214 5914: 5908: 5907: 5872: 5863: 5862: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5798: 5778:World Scientific 5767: 5756: 5755: 5742:World Scientific 5731: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5717: 5699: 5697: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5643:World Scientific 5633:Hsu, L. (2006). 5630: 5624: 5623: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5586: 5584: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5534:Mermin, N. David 5530: 5524: 5521: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5473: 5470: 5466: 5433: 5424: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5414: 5397: 5383: 5377: 5374: 5349: 5328: 5307: 5296:. pp. 2–9. 5280: 5274: 5273: 5231: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5214:on 25 March 2010 5210:. Archived from 5191: 5185: 5182: 5161: 5122:(January 1988). 5120:Mermin, N. David 5109: 5103: 5102: 5082: 5073: 5072: 5067:. Archived from 5056: 5050: 5049: 5015: 5013:quant-ph/0212023 4988: 4982: 4977: 4957: 4951: 4946: 4926: 4920: 4919: 4912: 4911: 4908: 4898: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4849:physics.nist.gov 4841: 4832: 4831: 4811: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4780: 4774: 4770: 4764: 4761: 4755: 4740: 4734: 4732: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4713: 4710: 4707: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4681: 4670: 4664: 4661:Terrell rotation 4649: 4643: 4628: 4622: 4611: 4605: 4594: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4577: 4571: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4541: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4527: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4500: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4474: 4465: 4459: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4437: 4420: 4419: 4418: 4417: 4414: 4407: 4393: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4382: 4379: 4376: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4356: 4350: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4322: 4313: 4281:Speed of gravity 4264: 4259: 4258: 4257: 4250: 4248:Astronomy portal 4245: 4244: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4230: 4207: 4203: 4202: 4199: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4126: 4124: 4120: 4117: 4080: 4078: 4074: 3987:Edward W. Morley 3922:Gustav Kirchhoff 3915: 3914: 3889: 3887: 3877: 3875: 3868:Hippolyte Fizeau 3825: 3823: 3767:Pierre de Fermat 3662: 3661: 3658: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3567: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3503: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3429: 3428: 3425: 3404: 3403: 3400: 3379: 3378: 3375: 3327: 3319: 3300: 3298: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3170:microwave cavity 3158:cavity resonator 3128:Electromagnetic 3120:Cavity resonance 3111: 3109: 3106: 3088: 3086: 3060: = 1/( 2986:Hippolyte Fizeau 2959:Fizeau apparatus 2935: 2933: 2923: 2921: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2858: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2818: 2817: 2811: 2810: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2689: 2623: 2621: 2615: 2614: kilometres 2613: 2577:Proxima Centauri 2563:, especially in 2538: 2531: 2527: 2458: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2433: 2414:signal integrity 2400: 2351:charged particle 2299: 2240:refractive index 2173:Refractive index 2143: 2142: 2088: 2086: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2062: 2061: 2052: 2048: 2003:is described by 1922:virtual particle 1770:approaches 1761: 1739: 1647:speed of gravity 1631:particle physics 1553: 1541: 1527:and is given by 1510: 1488:approaches 1483: 1404: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1377: 1369:per nanosecond. 1364: 1363: 1353: 1339: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1323: 1316: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1293: 1273: 1231: 1225: 1216: 1198: 1180: 1179: 1173: 1159: 1151: 1137: 1129: 1127: 1126: 1120: 1119: 1113: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1094: 1093: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1073: 1068: 1064:refractive index 1061: 1057: 1053: 1045: 1017:phase velocities 1007: 989: 981: 969: 965: 947: 935: 927: 834: 822: 799: 792: 785: 772: 767: 766: 759: 755: 754: 647: 574: 535: 466: 424: 393: 379: 378: 368:Andromeda Galaxy 361: 359: 344: 342: 322: 321: 158: 157: 154: 140: 139: 131:miles per second 125: 124: 121: 118: 99: 98: 95: 66: 62: 53: 46: 42: 21: 15987: 15986: 15982: 15981: 15980: 15978: 15977: 15976: 15942: 15941: 15940: 15935: 15907: 15874: 15813: 15789:Relative motion 15777: 15773:Aether theories 15756: 15743: 15722: 15717: 15687: 15682: 15668: 15496: 15400:BKL singularity 15390:Lemaître–Tolman 15365: 15361:Quantum gravity 15343: 15337: 15323:geodetic effect 15297:(together with 15267:LISA Pathfinder 15206: 15155: 15141:Penrose diagram 15123: 15117: 15092: 15081: 15077:Minkowski space 15043: 14987: 14971: 14919: 14913: 14873: 14866: 14861: 14831: 14826: 14771: 14741: 14723: 14682: 14668:Furthest flight 14653:Furthest humans 14627: 14589:by acceleration 14580:Production car 14572:by acceleration 14508: 14471: 14436: 14420: 14401:Track and field 14307: 14286: 14234: 14225:Olympic records 14206: 14104: 14073: 14041: 14036: 14006: 14001: 13910:Types / sources 13905: 13852: 13843:Metric theories 13817: 13761: 13680: 13653: 13612: 13586: 13568:interferometers 13567: 13557: 13541: 13532:Cosmic Explorer 13520: 13504: 13473: 13409:interferometers 13408: 13397: 13392:Mario Schenberg 13356: 13340: 13274: 13270:Mario Schenberg 13229: 13213: 13195: 13190: 13160: 13155: 13134: 13093: 13077:furthest flight 13057:furthest humans 13032: 12995:by acceleration 12986:production car 12978:by acceleration 12891: 12888: 12827: 12767: 12762: 12738: 12730:. p. 453. 12711: 12688: 12663: 12627: 12622: 12528:(2091): 26–61. 12471:Foucault, J. L. 12452: 12362: 12352: 12350: 12346: 12333: 12321: 12316: 12314:Further reading 12311: 12310: 12298: 12296: 12285: 12225: 12223: 12205: 12201: 12184: 12183: 12179: 12169: 12153: 12149: 12135: 12119: 12115: 12105: 12103: 12096: 12090: 12086: 12079: 12056: 12052: 12042: 12040: 12035: 12034: 12030: 11991: 11987: 11977: 11975: 11966: 11965: 11961: 11951: 11949: 11936: 11935: 11931: 11924: 11905: 11901: 11894: 11876: 11872: 11865: 11848: 11844: 11837: 11819: 11815: 11808: 11794: 11790: 11753: 11749: 11739: 11737: 11735: 11719: 11715: 11672: 11668: 11655: 11651: 11641: 11639: 11624: 11620: 11608: 11578: 11554: 11535: 11531: 11510:(12): 529–244. 11495: 11491: 11460: 11456: 11442: 11438: 11377: 11373: 11351: 11347: 11324:10.2307/1006537 11302: 11298: 11285: 11281: 11228: 11224: 11203:(3): 357–374 . 11191: 11187: 11180: 11162: 11158: 11151: 11135: 11131: 11121: 11119: 11108: 11104: 11094: 11092: 11088: 11081: 11073: 11069: 11059: 11057: 11038:O'Connor, J. J. 11035: 11031: 11024: 11006: 10999: 10970: 10966: 10935: 10931: 10921: 10905: 10901: 10869: 10860: 10853: 10845:. p. 248. 10830: 10826: 10815: 10799: 10795: 10764: 10760: 10749: 10745: 10702: 10698: 10681: 10674: 10665: 10663: 10644: 10640: 10592: 10585: 10552: 10543: 10533: 10531: 10524: 10504: 10497: 10458: 10449: 10441: 10435: 10424: 10416: 10407: 10360: 10353: 10346: 10330: 10326: 10316: 10314: 10306: 10305: 10301: 10291: 10289: 10257: 10253: 10204: 10195: 10156: 10152: 10116: 10109: 10062: 10049: 10040:10.1119/1.19352 9931: 9927: 9920: 9904: 9900: 9890: 9888: 9881: 9877: 9867: 9865: 9850: 9837: 9827: 9825: 9812: 9811: 9807: 9797: 9795: 9780: 9773: 9761: 9759: 9750: 9703: 9699: 9658: 9654: 9645: 9643: 9639: 9633: 9622: 9611: 9607: 9595: 9591: 9590: 9586: 9578: 9574: 9573: 9566: 9555: 9533: 9529: 9508: 9497: 9478: 9466:Reproduced in 9465: 9430:Translated in 9429: 9418: 9412: 9403: 9353: 9344: 9334: 9332: 9327: 9326: 9317: 9285: 9279: 9275: 9236: 9232: 9184: 9178: 9174: 9164: 9162: 9153: 9151: 9147: 9137: 9135: 9127: 9126: 9122: 9107: 9088: 9084: 9074: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9063: 9059: 9046: 9045: 9038: 9031: 9001: 8997: 8987: 8985: 8975: 8971: 8961: 8959: 8946: 8945: 8941: 8931: 8929: 8924:. 10 May 2013. 8922:Financial Times 8914: 8913: 8909: 8893:10.1038/518161a 8864: 8860: 8850: 8848: 8835: 8834: 8830: 8823: 8809: 8805: 8798: 8782: 8778: 8771: 8751: 8747: 8695: 8691: 8679: 8677: 8660: 8658: 8560: 8556: 8544: 8542: 8424: 8372: 8352: 8348: 8308: 8302: 8298: 8283: 8264: 8260: 8232:Physical Review 8227: 8223: 8216: 8197: 8193: 8183: 8181: 8166: 8162: 8152: 8150: 8141: 8140: 8136: 8126: 8124: 8115: 8114: 8110: 8100: 8098: 8090: 8086: 8081: 8080: 8076: 8069: 8053: 8049: 8042: 8019: 8010: 7986:10.1038/462291a 7955: 7951: 7944: 7936:. p. 134. 7924: 7920: 7863: 7856: 7649: 7645: 7638: 7616: 7612: 7605: 7589: 7585: 7531: 7527: 7517: 7515: 7487: 7483: 7473: 7471: 7457: 7453: 7409: 7405: 7397: 7377:(1–3): 84–100. 7364: 7358: 7354: 7347: 7332:Localized Waves 7327: 7323: 7316: 7300: 7296: 7283: 7239: 7231:. p. 170. 7211: 7185: 7181: 7171: 7169: 7150: 7141: 7131: 7129: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7092: 7088: 7081: 7067: 7063: 7056: 7038: 7034: 7027: 7000: 6996: 6941: 6937: 6781: 6777: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6755: 6751: 6707: 6698:. 19 July 2011. 6690: 6686:. 25 July 2011. 6678: 6674: 6670: 6663: 6647: 6643: 6604:(100): 105011. 6594: 6590: 6525: 6521: 6470: 6466: 6437: 6433: 6378: 6374: 6364: 6362: 6361:on 2 April 2010 6343: 6336: 6168: 6164: 6157: 6149:. p. 332. 6135: 6131: 6124: 6100: 6096: 6055: 6051: 6023:Physical Review 6018: 6014: 6004: 6002: 5983: 5979: 5915: 5911: 5896: 5873: 5866: 5859: 5841: 5837: 5830: 5810: 5806: 5796: 5794: 5792: 5768: 5759: 5752: 5732: 5725: 5715: 5713: 5680:(10): 890–921. 5664: 5660: 5653: 5631: 5627: 5620: 5602: 5598: 5582: 5580: 5570: 5569: 5565: 5550: 5531: 5527: 5518: 5510:. p. 280. 5490: 5488: 5476: 5468: 5464: 5459: 5434: 5427: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5406: 5395: 5384: 5380: 5371: 5363:. p. 184. 5346: 5325: 5304: 5281: 5277: 5248:(11): 995–997. 5232: 5228: 5217: 5215: 5192: 5188: 5179: 5150:10.1119/1.15422 5110: 5106: 5099: 5083: 5076: 5057: 5053: 4989: 4985: 4974: 4958: 4954: 4943: 4927: 4923: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4896: 4891: 4868: 4864: 4854: 4852: 4843: 4842: 4835: 4828: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4741: 4737: 4727: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4719: 4718:(approximately 4711: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4671: 4667: 4650: 4646: 4629: 4625: 4612: 4608: 4595: 4591: 4581: 4578: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4562: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4536: 4533: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4504: 4498: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4472: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4441: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4404: 4394: 4390: 4380: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4353: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4330: 4328: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4291:Velocity factor 4260: 4255: 4253: 4246: 4241: 4239: 4232: 4225: 4222: 4205: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4152: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4122: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4076: 4072: 4070: 4062: 4056: 4034: 3998:Hendrik Lorentz 3971:preferred frame 3944: 3938: 3913: 3907: 3901: 3899: 3885: 3883: 3873: 3871: 3864: 3854: 3821: 3819: 3783:Galileo Galilei 3775: 3746:Johannes Kepler 3691:emission theory 3672: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3579: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3565: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3519: 3515: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3458: 3454: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418:, toothed wheel 3401: 3398: 3396: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3307: 3296: 3294: 3224: 3198: 3194: 3192: 3186: 3183: 3181: 3140:and wavelength 3122: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3084: 3082: 3072: 3066: 3055: 3045: 3026: 2980: 2977:Telescopic tube 2957:Diagram of the 2942: 2931: 2929: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2854: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2825: 2815: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2798:vector addition 2728: 2716:described below 2709: 2706: 2704: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2668: 2659: 2642: 2630:radar astronomy 2619: 2617: 2611: 2609: 2591: 2585: 2565:popular science 2554:of the universe 2536: 2529: 2525: 2492: 2454: 2452: 2442: 2440: 2428: 2426: 2398: 2387: 2371: 2353:does that in a 2297: 2252: 2225: 2214: 2199: 2175: 2169: 2156:GRB 090510 2153:gamma-ray burst 2149:quantum gravity 2134: 2129: 2126:Higgs mechanism 2094:quantum physics 2067: 2063: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2039: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2020: 1989: 1973:proper distance 1833: 1823: 1753: 1735: 1721: 1551: 1528: 1500: 1481: 1425: 1415: 1402: 1396: 1388: 1387: 1373: 1361: 1359: 1349: 1335: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1318: 1314: 1313: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1289: 1286: 1280: 1269: 1263: 1252: 1241: 1234: 1227: 1221: 1212: 1194: 1177: 1175: 1169: 1147: 1144: 1135: 1124: 1122: 1117: 1115: 1108: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1099: 1097: 1096: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1079: 1078: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1043: 1025:quantum effects 999: 987: 979: 967: 963: 945: 933: 930:Albert Einstein 925: 832: 818: 803: 762: 749: 748: 741: 740: 739: 649: 648: 645: 637: 636: 632:Aether theories 617: 616: 615: 596: 595: 576: 575: 570: 562: 561: 537: 536: 531: 523: 522: 468: 467: 464: 456: 455: 426: 425: 422: 357: 355: 340: 338: 317: 155: 152: 150: 137: 135: 122: 119: 116: 114: 96: 93: 91: 76: 64: 60: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 15985: 15975: 15974: 15969: 15964: 15959: 15954: 15937: 15936: 15934: 15933: 15928: 15923: 15917: 15915: 15909: 15908: 15906: 15905: 15900: 15895: 15890: 15884: 15882: 15876: 15875: 15873: 15872: 15867: 15862: 15857: 15852: 15847: 15842: 15837: 15832: 15827: 15821: 15819: 15815: 15814: 15812: 15811: 15806: 15801: 15799:Speed of light 15796: 15791: 15785: 15783: 15779: 15778: 15776: 15775: 15770: 15765: 15759: 15757: 15755: 15754: 15748: 15745: 15744: 15742: 15741: 15736: 15730: 15728: 15724: 15723: 15716: 15715: 15708: 15701: 15693: 15684: 15683: 15673: 15670: 15669: 15667: 15666: 15659: 15654: 15649: 15644: 15639: 15634: 15629: 15624: 15619: 15614: 15609: 15604: 15599: 15594: 15589: 15587:Choquet-Bruhat 15584: 15579: 15574: 15569: 15564: 15559: 15554: 15549: 15544: 15539: 15534: 15529: 15524: 15519: 15514: 15508: 15506: 15502: 15501: 15498: 15497: 15495: 15494: 15487: 15486: 15481: 15476: 15469: 15468: 15463: 15458: 15453: 15448: 15439:Axisymmetric: 15436: 15435: 15430: 15424: 15413: 15412: 15407: 15402: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15378:Cosmological: 15375: 15373: 15367: 15366: 15364: 15363: 15358: 15353: 15347: 15345: 15339: 15338: 15336: 15335: 15330: 15319:frame-dragging 15316: 15311: 15306: 15303:Einstein rings 15299:Einstein cross 15292: 15281: 15280: 15275: 15269: 15264: 15259: 15246: 15236: 15235: 15230: 15225: 15220: 15214: 15212: 15208: 15207: 15205: 15204: 15202:Ernst equation 15199: 15194: 15189: 15184: 15179: 15174: 15172:BSSN formalism 15169: 15163: 15161: 15157: 15156: 15154: 15153: 15148: 15143: 15138: 15133: 15127: 15125: 15119: 15118: 15116: 15115: 15110: 15104: 15102: 15095: 15087: 15086: 15083: 15082: 15080: 15079: 15074: 15069: 15064: 15059: 15053: 15051: 15045: 15044: 15042: 15041: 15036: 15031: 15029:Ladder paradox 15026: 15021: 15016: 15011: 15006: 15001: 14995: 14993: 14989: 14988: 14986: 14985: 14979: 14977: 14973: 14972: 14970: 14969: 14964: 14959: 14954: 14949: 14944: 14939: 14934: 14932:Speed of light 14929: 14923: 14921: 14915: 14914: 14912: 14911: 14906: 14901: 14895: 14885: 14883: 14876: 14868: 14867: 14860: 14859: 14852: 14845: 14837: 14828: 14827: 14825: 14824: 14823: 14822: 14817: 14812: 14804: 14803: 14802: 14801: 14800: 14795: 14779: 14777: 14773: 14772: 14770: 14769: 14764: 14759: 14753: 14751: 14747: 14746: 14743: 14742: 14740: 14739: 14734: 14728: 14725: 14724: 14722: 14721: 14716: 14715: 14714: 14709: 14704: 14699: 14690: 14688: 14684: 14683: 14681: 14680: 14675: 14670: 14665: 14660: 14655: 14650: 14645: 14639: 14637: 14633: 14632: 14629: 14628: 14626: 14625: 14624: 14623: 14618: 14613: 14603: 14598: 14597: 14596: 14591: 14586: 14578: 14577: 14576: 14575: 14574: 14569: 14556: 14551: 14546: 14541: 14540: 14539: 14534: 14524: 14518: 14516: 14510: 14509: 14507: 14506: 14505: 14504: 14499: 14490: 14484: 14477: 14476:Motion records 14473: 14472: 14470: 14469: 14464: 14459: 14454: 14448: 14446: 14442: 14441: 14438: 14437: 14435: 14434: 14428: 14426: 14422: 14421: 14419: 14418: 14417: 14416: 14411: 14409:Regular season 14403: 14398: 14393: 14392: 14391: 14386: 14381: 14371: 14370: 14369: 14364: 14359: 14351: 14350: 14349: 14344: 14336: 14335: 14334: 14329: 14324: 14322:Regular season 14315: 14313: 14309: 14308: 14306: 14305: 14300: 14294: 14292: 14288: 14287: 14285: 14284: 14279: 14274: 14273: 14272: 14262: 14261: 14260: 14255: 14244: 14242: 14236: 14235: 14233: 14232: 14227: 14222: 14216: 14214: 14208: 14207: 14205: 14204: 14199: 14197:Figure skating 14194: 14189: 14184: 14179: 14174: 14173: 14172: 14167: 14159: 14154: 14149: 14144: 14143: 14142: 14137: 14132: 14122: 14116: 14110: 14106: 14105: 14103: 14102: 14097: 14092: 14087: 14081: 14079: 14075: 14074: 14072: 14071: 14064: 14057: 14051: 14049: 14043: 14042: 14035: 14034: 14027: 14020: 14012: 14003: 14002: 14000: 13999: 13998: 13997: 13983: 13982: 13981: 13968: 13967: 13966: 13960: 13959: 13958: 13953: 13948: 13943: 13935: 13934: 13933: 13928: 13913: 13911: 13907: 13906: 13904: 13903: 13898: 13892: 13887:Chirp signal ( 13885: 13882: 13880:speed of light 13876: 13871: 13866: 13860: 13858: 13854: 13853: 13851: 13850: 13845: 13840: 13835: 13829: 13827: 13823: 13822: 13819: 13818: 13816: 13815: 13814: 13813: 13808: 13803: 13791: 13790: 13789: 13781: 13778: 13769: 13767: 13763: 13762: 13760: 13759: 13753: 13747: 13741: 13736: 13726: 13721: 13716: 13711: 13706: 13701: 13695: 13693: 13686: 13682: 13681: 13679: 13678: 13672: 13667: 13661: 13659: 13655: 13654: 13652: 13651: 13646: 13641: 13636: 13630: 13628: 13622: 13621: 13618: 13617: 13614: 13613: 13611: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13594: 13592: 13588: 13587: 13585: 13584: 13578: 13576: 13569: 13563: 13562: 13559: 13558: 13556: 13555: 13553:LIGO-Australia 13549: 13547: 13546:Past proposals 13543: 13542: 13540: 13539: 13534: 13528: 13526: 13522: 13521: 13519: 13518: 13512: 13510: 13506: 13505: 13503: 13502: 13497: 13492: 13487: 13481: 13479: 13475: 13474: 13472: 13471: 13464:Advanced Virgo 13461: 13456: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13431: 13420: 13418: 13411: 13403: 13402: 13399: 13398: 13396: 13395: 13390:(downsized to 13385: 13380: 13375: 13370:(downsized to 13364: 13362: 13361:Past proposals 13358: 13357: 13355: 13354: 13348: 13346: 13342: 13341: 13339: 13338: 13333: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13303: 13293: 13282: 13280: 13276: 13275: 13273: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13252: 13241: 13239: 13232: 13221: 13215: 13214: 13212: 13211: 13206: 13200: 13197: 13196: 13189: 13188: 13181: 13174: 13166: 13157: 13156: 13154: 13153: 13148: 13142: 13140: 13136: 13135: 13133: 13132: 13127: 13126: 13125: 13120: 13115: 13110: 13101: 13099: 13095: 13094: 13092: 13091: 13086: 13085: 13084: 13079: 13071: 13070: 13069: 13064: 13059: 13054: 13049: 13040: 13038: 13034: 13033: 13031: 13030: 13029: 13028: 13027: 13026: 13021: 13016: 13006: 13005: 13004: 12999: 12998: 12997: 12992: 12984: 12983: 12982: 12981: 12980: 12975: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12942: 12941: 12940: 12935: 12925: 12915: 12914: 12913: 12908: 12899: 12897: 12893: 12892: 12887: 12886: 12879: 12872: 12864: 12858: 12857: 12846: 12841: 12838:Speed of Light 12835: 12830:4 discussion ( 12824:Speed of Light 12821: 12818:Speed of Light 12815: 12810: 12800: 12790: 12784: 12778: 12766: 12765:External links 12763: 12761: 12760: 12755:hep-th/0208093 12742: 12736: 12715: 12709: 12692: 12686: 12667: 12661: 12649:Jackson, J. D. 12645: 12641:Academic Press 12628: 12626: 12623: 12621: 12620: 12602: 12582:(863): 29–32. 12562: 12542:10.1086/143655 12511: 12489: 12467: 12442: 12402: 12401: 12400: 12361:Translated as 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12309: 12308: 12306: 12305: 12283: 12232: 12211:Conover, Emily 12199: 12177: 12167: 12147: 12133: 12113: 12084: 12077: 12063:Wheeler, J. A. 12050: 12028: 11985: 11959: 11929: 11922: 11899: 11892: 11870: 11863: 11842: 11835: 11813: 11806: 11788: 11747: 11733: 11713: 11686:(6): 335–343. 11666: 11649: 11618: 11616: 11615: 11606: 11585: 11576: 11561: 11552: 11529: 11489: 11454: 11436: 11371: 11345: 11296: 11279: 11222: 11209:10.1086/352787 11185: 11178: 11156: 11149: 11129: 11102: 11091:on 4 July 2015 11067: 11029: 11022: 10997: 10992:10.1086/350861 10974:Ibn al-Haitham 10964: 10939:Neuroscientist 10929: 10919: 10899: 10885:(3): 254–278. 10858: 10851: 10824: 10813: 10793: 10788:10.1086/143021 10758: 10753:Electric Waves 10743: 10716:(2): 125–171. 10696: 10672: 10638: 10583: 10570:10.1086/358523 10541: 10522: 10516:. p. 43. 10495: 10447: 10433: 10405: 10351: 10344: 10324: 10299: 10251: 10193: 10150: 10107: 10047: 10045: 10044: 10026:(8): 681–714. 10013: 9977:(9): 812–815. 9964: 9925: 9918: 9898: 9875: 9835: 9805: 9771: 9769: 9768: 9748: 9722:(4): 365–372. 9697: 9652: 9631: 9605: 9584: 9564: 9553: 9527: 9495: 9401: 9378:10.1086/347594 9372:(2): 327–379. 9342: 9315: 9273: 9246:(2): 181–186. 9230: 9172: 9145: 9120: 9105: 9082: 9057: 9036: 9029: 8995: 8969: 8939: 8907: 8858: 8828: 8821: 8803: 8796: 8776: 8769: 8745: 8716:Usp. Fiz. Nauk 8689: 8687: 8686: 8667: 8647: 8604: 8578:(1): R34–R37. 8554: 8552: 8551: 8524: 8469: 8409: 8346: 8296: 8281: 8258: 8221: 8214: 8200:Milonni, P. W. 8191: 8160: 8134: 8108: 8088: 8084: 8074: 8067: 8047: 8040: 8008: 7949: 7942: 7918: 7880:hep-ph/0306245 7854: 7852: 7851: 7807:(10): 103516. 7790: 7753: 7717:(2): 409–424. 7700: 7643: 7636: 7610: 7603: 7583: 7525: 7481: 7451: 7403: 7352: 7345: 7339:. p. 26. 7321: 7314: 7294: 7292: 7291: 7281: 7251: 7237: 7215: 7209: 7191:Sakurai, J. J. 7179: 7139: 7113: 7106: 7086: 7079: 7061: 7054: 7048:. p. 54. 7032: 7025: 7007:Wheeler, J. A. 6994: 6957:(1): 167–185. 6935: 6933: 6932: 6888:(5): 695–699. 6873: 6824: 6775: 6749: 6747: 6746: 6700: 6688: 6668: 6661: 6641: 6588: 6519: 6489:hep-ph/0205340 6464: 6431: 6390:(3): 240–227. 6372: 6334: 6332: 6331: 6278: 6234:(16): 161102. 6217: 6162: 6155: 6147:Addison-Wesley 6129: 6122: 6110:Addison-Wesley 6094: 6067:(1): 137–139. 6049: 6012: 5977: 5909: 5894: 5864: 5857: 5835: 5828: 5804: 5790: 5757: 5750: 5723: 5658: 5651: 5641:(2 ed.). 5625: 5618: 5596: 5563: 5548: 5525: 5523: 5522: 5516: 5497: 5474: 5457: 5451:. p. 56. 5447:(3 ed.). 5425: 5404: 5378: 5376: 5375: 5369: 5359:(3 ed.). 5350: 5344: 5329: 5323: 5308: 5302: 5275: 5226: 5186: 5184: 5183: 5177: 5162: 5104: 5097: 5074: 5051: 4983: 4972: 4952: 4941: 4921: 4889: 4862: 4833: 4826: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4796: 4775: 4765: 4756: 4735: 4691: 4682: 4665: 4644: 4623: 4621:, for example. 4606: 4602:Doppler effect 4589: 4511: 4509: 4508: 4460: 4388: 4351: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4299: 4293: 4288: 4286:Speed of sound 4283: 4278: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4265: 4251: 4237: 4234:Physics portal 4221: 4218: 4175:of a second". 4151: 4148: 4055: 4048: 4033: 4030: 4014:Henri Poincaré 3979:the experiment 3940:Main article: 3937: 3934: 3926:resistanceless 3911: 3905: 3853: 3850: 3779:Isaac Beeckman 3774: 3771: 3750:René Descartes 3718:Book of Optics 3671: 3668: 3665: 3664: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3644: 3641: 3625: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3610: 3595: 3592: 3588: 3587: 3584: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3555: 3540: 3534: 3530: 3529: 3523: 3505: 3498: 3494: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486:Heinrich Hertz 3483: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3472:Werner Siemens 3470: 3466: 3465: 3462: 3444: 3438: 3434: 3433: 3430: 3419: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3405: 3394: 3388: 3384: 3383: 3380: 3369: 3359: 3355: 3354: 3351: 3345: 3341: 3340: 3337: 3331: 3315:ancient Greece 3306: 3303: 3243:Interferometry 3223: 3222:Interferometry 3220: 3208:microwave oven 3130:standing waves 3121: 3118: 3070: 3064: 3053: 3043: 3025: 3022: 3010:François Arago 2979: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2962: 2949:±11 km/s. 2941: 2938: 2926: 2925: 2891: 2876: 2824: 2821: 2749:, such as the 2727: 2724: 2666: 2657: 2641: 2638: 2606:GPS satellites 2587:Main article: 2584: 2581: 2506:ground control 2491: 2488: 2425: 2422: 2386: 2383: 2370: 2367: 2365:, is emitted. 2250: 2223: 2217:front velocity 2212: 2206:group velocity 2197: 2191:phase velocity 2168: 2165: 2090: 2089: 2078: 2070: 2066: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2043: 2028: 2018: 1988: 1985: 1942:radio galaxies 1918:Hartman effect 1902:quantum states 1849:phase velocity 1822: 1819: 1720: 1717: 1627:Standard Model 1525:Lorentz factor 1475:Lorentz factor 1414: 1411: 1356:imperial units 1279: 1276: 1261: 1250: 1239: 1232: 1143: 1140: 1058:and the speed 992:space and time 892:time of flight 843:(and thus any 811:speed of light 805: 804: 802: 801: 794: 787: 779: 776: 775: 774: 773: 760: 743: 742: 738: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 651: 650: 644: 643: 642: 639: 638: 635: 634: 629: 624: 618: 614: 613: 610: 604: 603: 602: 601: 598: 597: 594: 593: 588: 583: 577: 569: 568: 567: 564: 563: 560: 559: 554: 549: 544: 538: 530: 529: 528: 525: 524: 521: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 469: 463: 462: 461: 458: 457: 454: 453: 448: 443: 441:Speed of light 438: 433: 427: 421: 420: 419: 416: 415: 414: 413: 408: 403: 395: 394: 386: 385: 375: 374: 371: 363: 362: 353: 346: 345: 336: 333:nearest galaxy 328: 327: 324: 309: 308: 305: 298: 297: 291: 284: 283: 277: 265: 264: 258: 250: 249: 246: 239: 238: 232: 224: 223: 220: 213: 212: 206: 199: 198: 193: 187: 186: 182: 181: 178: 171: 170: 167: 160: 159: 148: 146:miles per hour 142: 141: 133: 127: 126: 112: 106: 105: 101: 100: 89: 83: 82: 78: 77: 63:minutes and 17 54: 44:Speed of light 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15984: 15973: 15970: 15968: 15965: 15963: 15960: 15958: 15955: 15953: 15950: 15949: 15947: 15932: 15929: 15927: 15924: 15922: 15919: 15918: 15916: 15914: 15910: 15904: 15901: 15899: 15896: 15894: 15891: 15889: 15886: 15885: 15883: 15881: 15877: 15871: 15868: 15866: 15863: 15861: 15858: 15856: 15853: 15851: 15848: 15846: 15843: 15841: 15838: 15836: 15833: 15831: 15828: 15826: 15825:Time dilation 15823: 15822: 15820: 15816: 15810: 15807: 15805: 15802: 15800: 15797: 15795: 15792: 15790: 15787: 15786: 15784: 15780: 15774: 15771: 15769: 15766: 15764: 15761: 15760: 15758: 15753: 15750: 15749: 15746: 15740: 15737: 15735: 15732: 15731: 15729: 15725: 15721: 15714: 15709: 15707: 15702: 15700: 15695: 15694: 15691: 15681: 15671: 15665: 15664: 15660: 15658: 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15638: 15635: 15633: 15630: 15628: 15625: 15623: 15620: 15618: 15615: 15613: 15610: 15608: 15605: 15603: 15600: 15598: 15595: 15593: 15590: 15588: 15585: 15583: 15580: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15572:Chandrasekhar 15570: 15568: 15565: 15563: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15553: 15550: 15548: 15545: 15543: 15540: 15538: 15535: 15533: 15532:Schwarzschild 15530: 15528: 15525: 15523: 15520: 15518: 15515: 15513: 15510: 15509: 15507: 15503: 15493: 15489: 15488: 15485: 15482: 15480: 15477: 15475: 15471: 15470: 15467: 15464: 15462: 15459: 15457: 15454: 15452: 15449: 15446: 15442: 15438: 15437: 15434: 15431: 15428: 15425: 15423: 15419: 15418:Schwarzschild 15415: 15414: 15411: 15408: 15406: 15403: 15401: 15398: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15385: 15381: 15377: 15376: 15374: 15372: 15368: 15362: 15359: 15357: 15354: 15352: 15349: 15348: 15346: 15340: 15334: 15331: 15328: 15324: 15320: 15317: 15315: 15314:Shapiro delay 15312: 15310: 15307: 15304: 15300: 15296: 15293: 15290: 15286: 15283: 15282: 15279: 15276: 15273: 15270: 15268: 15265: 15263: 15260: 15258: 15257:collaboration 15254: 15250: 15247: 15245: 15241: 15238: 15237: 15234: 15231: 15229: 15226: 15224: 15223:Event horizon 15221: 15219: 15216: 15215: 15213: 15209: 15203: 15200: 15198: 15195: 15193: 15190: 15188: 15185: 15183: 15180: 15178: 15175: 15173: 15170: 15168: 15167:ADM formalism 15165: 15164: 15162: 15158: 15152: 15149: 15147: 15144: 15142: 15139: 15137: 15134: 15132: 15129: 15128: 15126: 15120: 15114: 15111: 15109: 15106: 15105: 15103: 15099: 15096: 15094: 15088: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15072:Biquaternions 15070: 15068: 15065: 15063: 15060: 15058: 15055: 15054: 15052: 15050: 15046: 15040: 15037: 15035: 15032: 15030: 15027: 15025: 15022: 15020: 15017: 15015: 15012: 15010: 15007: 15005: 15002: 15000: 14999:Time dilation 14997: 14996: 14994: 14990: 14984: 14981: 14980: 14978: 14974: 14968: 14965: 14963: 14960: 14958: 14955: 14953: 14952:Proper length 14950: 14948: 14945: 14943: 14940: 14938: 14935: 14933: 14930: 14928: 14925: 14924: 14922: 14916: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14899: 14896: 14894: 14890: 14887: 14886: 14884: 14880: 14877: 14875: 14869: 14865: 14858: 14853: 14851: 14846: 14844: 14839: 14838: 14835: 14821: 14818: 14816: 14813: 14811: 14808: 14807: 14805: 14799: 14796: 14794: 14791: 14790: 14789: 14786: 14785: 14784: 14781: 14780: 14778: 14774: 14768: 14765: 14763: 14760: 14758: 14755: 14754: 14752: 14748: 14738: 14735: 14733: 14730: 14729: 14726: 14720: 14717: 14713: 14710: 14708: 14705: 14703: 14700: 14698: 14695: 14694: 14692: 14691: 14689: 14685: 14679: 14676: 14674: 14671: 14669: 14666: 14664: 14661: 14659: 14656: 14654: 14651: 14649: 14646: 14644: 14641: 14640: 14638: 14634: 14622: 14621:Transatlantic 14619: 14617: 14614: 14612: 14609: 14608: 14607: 14604: 14602: 14599: 14595: 14592: 14590: 14587: 14585: 14582: 14581: 14579: 14573: 14570: 14568: 14565: 14564: 14562: 14561: 14560: 14557: 14555: 14552: 14550: 14547: 14545: 14542: 14538: 14535: 14533: 14530: 14529: 14528: 14525: 14523: 14520: 14519: 14517: 14515: 14511: 14503: 14500: 14498: 14495: 14494: 14492: 14491: 14488: 14485: 14481: 14478: 14474: 14468: 14465: 14463: 14460: 14458: 14455: 14453: 14450: 14449: 14447: 14443: 14433: 14430: 14429: 14427: 14423: 14415: 14412: 14410: 14407: 14406: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14394: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14380: 14377: 14376: 14375: 14372: 14368: 14365: 14363: 14360: 14358: 14355: 14354: 14352: 14348: 14345: 14343: 14340: 14339: 14337: 14333: 14330: 14328: 14325: 14323: 14320: 14319: 14317: 14316: 14314: 14310: 14304: 14301: 14299: 14296: 14295: 14293: 14289: 14283: 14280: 14278: 14275: 14271: 14268: 14267: 14266: 14263: 14259: 14256: 14254: 14251: 14250: 14249: 14246: 14245: 14243: 14241: 14240:Weightlifting 14237: 14231: 14228: 14226: 14223: 14221: 14218: 14217: 14215: 14213: 14209: 14203: 14200: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14192:Speed skating 14190: 14188: 14185: 14183: 14180: 14178: 14175: 14171: 14168: 14166: 14163: 14162: 14160: 14158: 14155: 14153: 14150: 14148: 14145: 14141: 14138: 14136: 14133: 14131: 14128: 14127: 14126: 14123: 14121: 14118: 14117: 14114: 14111: 14107: 14101: 14098: 14096: 14093: 14091: 14088: 14086: 14083: 14082: 14080: 14076: 14070: 14069: 14065: 14063: 14062: 14058: 14056: 14053: 14052: 14050: 14048: 14047:World records 14044: 14040: 14033: 14028: 14026: 14021: 14019: 14014: 14013: 14010: 13995: 13994:other unknown 13991: 13990:cosmic string 13987: 13986: 13984: 13979: 13975: 13972: 13971: 13969: 13964: 13963: 13961: 13957: 13954: 13952: 13951:Neutron stars 13949: 13947: 13944: 13942: 13939: 13938: 13936: 13932: 13929: 13927: 13923: 13920: 13919: 13918: 13915: 13914: 13912: 13908: 13902: 13899: 13897: 13893: 13890: 13886: 13883: 13881: 13877: 13875: 13872: 13870: 13867: 13865: 13862: 13861: 13859: 13855: 13849: 13846: 13844: 13841: 13839: 13836: 13834: 13831: 13830: 13828: 13824: 13812: 13811:Binary pulsar 13809: 13807: 13804: 13802: 13798: 13795: 13794: 13792: 13788: 13787: 13782: 13779: 13777: 13774: 13773: 13771: 13770: 13768: 13764: 13757: 13754: 13751: 13748: 13745: 13742: 13740: 13737: 13734: 13730: 13727: 13725: 13722: 13720: 13717: 13715: 13712: 13710: 13707: 13705: 13702: 13700: 13697: 13696: 13694: 13690: 13687: 13683: 13677:: Gravity Spy 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13666: 13665:Einstein@Home 13663: 13662: 13660: 13658:Data analysis 13656: 13650: 13647: 13645: 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13631: 13629: 13627: 13623: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13595: 13593: 13589: 13583: 13580: 13579: 13577: 13573: 13570: 13564: 13554: 13551: 13550: 13548: 13544: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13529: 13527: 13523: 13517: 13514: 13513: 13511: 13507: 13501: 13498: 13496: 13493: 13491: 13488: 13486: 13483: 13482: 13480: 13476: 13469: 13465: 13462: 13460: 13457: 13454: 13450: 13449:Advanced LIGO 13447: 13445: 13442: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13432: 13429: 13425: 13422: 13421: 13419: 13415: 13412: 13410: 13404: 13393: 13389: 13386: 13384: 13381: 13379: 13376: 13373: 13369: 13366: 13365: 13363: 13359: 13353: 13350: 13349: 13347: 13343: 13337: 13334: 13332: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13322: 13319: 13317: 13314: 13311: 13307: 13304: 13301: 13297: 13294: 13291: 13287: 13284: 13283: 13281: 13277: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13260: 13256: 13253: 13250: 13246: 13243: 13242: 13240: 13236: 13233: 13231: 13228:Resonant mass 13225: 13222: 13220: 13216: 13210: 13207: 13205: 13202: 13201: 13198: 13194: 13187: 13182: 13180: 13175: 13173: 13168: 13167: 13164: 13152: 13149: 13147: 13144: 13143: 13141: 13137: 13131: 13128: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13114: 13111: 13109: 13106: 13105: 13103: 13102: 13100: 13096: 13090: 13087: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13075: 13074: 13072: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13058: 13055: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13045: 13044: 13042: 13041: 13039: 13035: 13025: 13024:transatlantic 13022: 13020: 13017: 13015: 13012: 13011: 13010: 13007: 13003: 13000: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12987: 12985: 12979: 12976: 12974: 12971: 12970: 12968: 12967: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12947: 12946: 12943: 12939: 12936: 12934: 12931: 12930: 12929: 12926: 12924: 12921: 12920: 12919: 12916: 12912: 12909: 12907: 12904: 12903: 12901: 12900: 12898: 12894: 12885: 12880: 12878: 12873: 12871: 12866: 12865: 12862: 12855: 12851: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12839: 12836: 12833: 12825: 12822: 12819: 12816: 12814: 12811: 12808: 12804: 12801: 12798: 12794: 12791: 12788: 12785: 12782: 12779: 12776: 12772: 12769: 12768: 12756: 12751: 12747: 12743: 12739: 12733: 12729: 12725: 12721: 12716: 12712: 12706: 12702: 12698: 12693: 12689: 12683: 12679: 12675: 12674: 12668: 12664: 12658: 12654: 12650: 12646: 12642: 12638: 12634: 12633:Brillouin, L. 12630: 12629: 12617: 12614:(in French). 12613: 12612: 12607: 12603: 12598: 12593: 12589: 12585: 12581: 12577: 12576: 12571: 12567: 12563: 12559: 12555: 12551: 12547: 12543: 12539: 12535: 12531: 12527: 12523: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12508: 12504: 12503: 12498: 12494: 12490: 12486: 12483:(in French). 12482: 12481: 12476: 12472: 12468: 12465:: 90–92, 132. 12464: 12461:(in French). 12460: 12459: 12451: 12447: 12446:Fizeau, H. L. 12443: 12438: 12433: 12429: 12425: 12421: 12417: 12416: 12411: 12407: 12403: 12397: 12392: 12387: 12383: 12379: 12375: 12371: 12370: 12365: 12360: 12359: 12345: 12341: 12340: 12332: 12328: 12324: 12323: 12295:. 11 May 2018 12294: 12293: 12288: 12284: 12280: 12276: 12272: 12268: 12264: 12260: 12256: 12252: 12248: 12244: 12243: 12238: 12233: 12222: 12221: 12216: 12212: 12208: 12207: 12203: 12195: 12191: 12187: 12181: 12174: 12170: 12164: 12160: 12159: 12151: 12144: 12142: 12136: 12130: 12126: 12125: 12117: 12102: 12095: 12088: 12080: 12074: 12070: 12069: 12064: 12060: 12059:Taylor, E. F. 12054: 12038: 12032: 12024: 12020: 12016: 12012: 12008: 12004: 12000: 11996: 11989: 11973: 11969: 11963: 11947: 11943: 11939: 11933: 11925: 11919: 11915: 11914: 11909: 11903: 11895: 11889: 11884: 11883: 11874: 11866: 11860: 11856: 11852: 11846: 11838: 11832: 11827: 11826: 11817: 11809: 11803: 11799: 11792: 11784: 11780: 11776: 11772: 11768: 11764: 11763: 11758: 11751: 11736: 11730: 11726: 11725: 11717: 11709: 11705: 11701: 11697: 11693: 11689: 11685: 11681: 11677: 11670: 11663: 11659: 11653: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11622: 11614: 11609: 11603: 11599: 11594: 11593: 11586: 11584: 11579: 11573: 11569: 11568: 11562: 11560: 11555: 11549: 11545: 11544: 11538: 11537: 11533: 11525: 11521: 11517: 11513: 11509: 11506: 11505: 11500: 11493: 11485: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11469: 11465: 11458: 11449: 11448: 11440: 11432: 11428: 11424: 11420: 11416: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11398: 11397:10.1068/p6263 11394: 11390: 11386: 11382: 11375: 11367: 11363: 11359: 11355: 11349: 11341: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11312: 11307: 11300: 11292: 11291: 11283: 11275: 11271: 11267: 11263: 11259: 11255: 11251: 11247: 11243: 11239: 11238: 11233: 11226: 11218: 11214: 11210: 11206: 11202: 11198: 11197: 11189: 11181: 11175: 11171: 11167: 11160: 11152: 11146: 11142: 11141: 11133: 11117: 11113: 11106: 11087: 11080: 11079: 11071: 11056: 11052: 11051: 11046: 11043: 11039: 11033: 11025: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11004: 11002: 10993: 10989: 10985: 10981: 10980: 10975: 10968: 10960: 10956: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10933: 10927: 10922: 10916: 10912: 10911: 10903: 10893: 10888: 10884: 10880: 10879: 10874: 10867: 10865: 10863: 10854: 10848: 10844: 10843:Courier Dover 10840: 10839: 10834: 10828: 10821: 10816: 10810: 10806: 10805: 10797: 10789: 10785: 10781: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10762: 10754: 10747: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10727: 10723: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10707: 10700: 10692: 10688: 10687: 10679: 10677: 10662: 10658: 10654: 10653: 10648: 10642: 10635: 10631: 10627: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10609: 10608:10.1068/p6263 10605: 10601: 10597: 10590: 10588: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10558: 10550: 10548: 10546: 10529: 10525: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10510: 10502: 10500: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10467: 10463: 10456: 10454: 10452: 10440: 10436: 10430: 10423: 10422: 10414: 10412: 10410: 10401: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10358: 10356: 10347: 10341: 10337: 10336: 10328: 10313: 10309: 10303: 10288: 10284: 10280: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10267: 10262: 10255: 10247: 10243: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10223: 10219: 10215: 10211: 10210: 10202: 10200: 10198: 10189: 10185: 10181: 10177: 10173: 10169: 10165: 10161: 10154: 10145: 10140: 10136: 10132: 10128: 10124: 10123:Dorsey, N. E. 10120: 10114: 10112: 10103: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10077: 10073: 10072: 10067: 10060: 10058: 10056: 10054: 10052: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10021: 10020: 10014: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9990: 9985: 9980: 9976: 9972: 9971: 9965: 9961: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9940: 9934: 9933: 9929: 9921: 9915: 9911: 9910: 9902: 9886: 9879: 9863: 9859: 9855: 9848: 9846: 9844: 9842: 9840: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9809: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9778: 9776: 9757: 9753: 9749: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9733: 9729: 9725: 9721: 9717: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9705: 9701: 9693: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9677: 9673: 9669: 9668: 9663: 9656: 9638: 9634: 9632:92-822-2213-6 9628: 9621: 9620: 9615: 9609: 9601: 9594: 9588: 9577: 9571: 9569: 9561: 9556: 9550: 9546: 9541: 9540: 9531: 9523: 9519: 9518: 9513: 9506: 9504: 9502: 9500: 9492: 9488: 9483: 9475: 9471: 9461: 9456: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9439: 9434: 9426: 9425: 9416: 9410: 9408: 9406: 9397: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9379: 9375: 9371: 9367: 9366: 9361: 9357: 9351: 9349: 9347: 9330: 9324: 9322: 9320: 9311: 9307: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9291: 9284: 9277: 9269: 9265: 9261: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9245: 9241: 9234: 9226: 9222: 9218: 9214: 9210: 9206: 9202: 9198: 9194: 9190: 9183: 9176: 9160: 9156: 9149: 9134: 9130: 9124: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9102: 9098: 9097: 9092: 9086: 9067: 9061: 9053: 9049: 9043: 9041: 9032: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 8999: 8984: 8980: 8973: 8957: 8953: 8949: 8943: 8927: 8923: 8918: 8911: 8903: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8862: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8832: 8824: 8818: 8814: 8807: 8799: 8793: 8789: 8788: 8780: 8772: 8766: 8763:. p. 5. 8762: 8758: 8757: 8749: 8741: 8737: 8729: 8725: 8721: 8717: 8709: 8705: 8704: 8699: 8693: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8657: 8653: 8648: 8644: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8615: 8610: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8572: 8567: 8563: 8562: 8558: 8540: 8536: 8535: 8534:Physics World 8530: 8525: 8521: 8517: 8513: 8509: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8479: 8475: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8397:10.1038/17561 8394: 8390: 8386: 8382: 8378: 8371: 8367: 8363: 8362:Harris, S. E. 8359: 8355: 8354: 8350: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8307: 8300: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8278: 8274: 8273: 8268: 8262: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8233: 8225: 8217: 8211: 8207: 8206: 8201: 8195: 8179: 8175: 8171: 8164: 8148: 8144: 8138: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8096: 8092: 8078: 8070: 8064: 8060: 8059: 8051: 8043: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8028: 8023: 8017: 8015: 8013: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7965: 7960: 7953: 7945: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7930: 7922: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7873:(1): 010402. 7872: 7868: 7861: 7859: 7848: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7764:(4): 043901. 7763: 7759: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7658: 7652: 7651: 7647: 7639: 7633: 7629: 7624: 7623: 7614: 7606: 7600: 7596: 7595: 7587: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7540: 7535: 7529: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7497: 7492: 7485: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7459:Chase, I. P. 7455: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7424:(5048): 468. 7423: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7407: 7396: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7363: 7356: 7348: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7333: 7325: 7317: 7311: 7307: 7306: 7298: 7289: 7284: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7238:0-7923-2549-4 7234: 7230: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7197: 7192: 7188: 7187: 7183: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7148: 7146: 7144: 7128: 7124: 7117: 7109: 7103: 7099: 7098: 7090: 7082: 7076: 7072: 7065: 7057: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7036: 7028: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7013: 7008: 7004: 7003:Taylor, E. F. 6998: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6965: 6964:gr-qc/0107091 6960: 6956: 6952: 6951: 6946: 6939: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6882:Laser Physics 6879: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6784: 6783: 6779: 6760: 6753: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6714: 6706: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6676: 6672: 6664: 6658: 6654: 6653: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6592: 6584: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6476: 6468: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6442: 6435: 6428: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6398: 6397:gr-qc/0305099 6393: 6389: 6385: 6384: 6376: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6341: 6339: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6295:(2): 024028. 6294: 6290: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6170: 6166: 6158: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6142: 6133: 6125: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6106: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6061: 6053: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6024: 6016: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5926: 5921: 5913: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5895:0-19-850657-0 5891: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5877: 5871: 5869: 5860: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5839: 5831: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5816: 5808: 5793: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5774: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5753: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5730: 5728: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5696: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5662: 5654: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5629: 5621: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5600: 5593: 5591: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5567: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5549:0-691-12201-6 5545: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5529: 5519: 5513: 5509: 5508:Courier Dover 5505: 5504: 5498: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5472: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5430: 5411: 5407: 5405:92-822-2213-6 5401: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5382: 5372: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5357: 5351: 5347: 5341: 5337: 5336: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5309: 5305: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5230: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5199: 5190: 5180: 5174: 5170: 5169: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5081: 5079: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5055: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5006:(1): 93–123. 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4987: 4980: 4975: 4969: 4965: 4964: 4956: 4949: 4944: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4925: 4918: 4916: 4902: 4892: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4877: 4872: 4866: 4851:. 29 May 2019 4850: 4846: 4840: 4838: 4829: 4823: 4819: 4818: 4810: 4806: 4779: 4769: 4760: 4753: 4749: 4748:proper length 4745: 4739: 4717: 4701: 4695: 4686: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4648: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4620: 4616: 4610: 4603: 4599: 4596:However, the 4593: 4515: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4457: 4456:energy states 4453: 4449: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4358:Exact value: 4355: 4315:Exact value: 4312: 4308: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4268: 4263: 4252: 4249: 4238: 4235: 4229: 4224: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4191: 4176: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4147: 4134: 4130: 4112: = 4111: 4107: 4103: 4098: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4079:3.0 km/s 4068: 4061: 4053: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4029: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3981:performed by 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3959: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3943: 3933: 3929: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3910: 3904: 3897: 3893: 3881: 3880:Léon Foucault 3869: 3863: 3859: 3849: 3847: 3843: 3842:James Bradley 3838: 3834: 3833: 3827: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3800: 3796: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3754:lunar eclipse 3751: 3747: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3731: 3729: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3670:Early history 3650: 3647: 3646: 3642: 3626: 3623: 3619: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3570: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3531: 3528: 3524: 3506: 3499: 3496: 3495: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3467: 3463: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3431: 3420: 3417: 3414: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3370: 3367: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3353:inconclusive 3349: 3346: 3343: 3342: 3339:inconclusive 3335: 3332: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3318: 3316: 3312: 3302: 3292: 3288: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3269: = 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3219: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3201:3.0 km/s 3178: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3152: = 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3131: 3126: 3117: 3115: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3080: 3076: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3052: 3049: 3042: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3021: 3018: 3017:oscilloscopes 3015:Today, using 3013: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2990:Léon Foucault 2987: 2976: 2974:Remote mirror 2973: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2960: 2955: 2946: 2937: 2922:(3) AU/d 2913: = 2911:(4) AU/s 2896: = 2895: 2892: 2879: = 2875: 2871: 2870: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2830: 2820: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2794:James Bradley 2791: 2782: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2732: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2533: 2522: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2496: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2461:optical fibre 2450: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2145: 2141: 2140: 2132: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2116:described by 2114: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2076: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2041: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2027: 2024: 2017: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1969:Hubble sphere 1966: 1961: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1911: 1910:superposition 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1883:closing speed 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1832: 1828: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1783: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1760: 1756: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1729: 1726: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1693:energy levels 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1517:time dilation 1514: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1491: 1487: 1479: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1424: 1420: 1410: 1408: 1399: 1391: 1385: 1381: 1380:natural units 1376: 1370: 1368: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1285: 1275: 1272: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1249: 1245: 1238: 1230: 1224: 1218: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1157: 1150: 1139: 1133: 1065: 1049: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1006: 1002: 997: 993: 990:interrelates 985: 977: 973: 961: 957: 953: 949: 943: 939: 931: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 893: 889: 885: 881: 878:with distant 877: 876:communicating 873: 869: 865: 864:visible light 861: 858:All forms of 856: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 830: 826: 821: 816: 812: 800: 795: 793: 788: 786: 781: 780: 778: 777: 771: 761: 758: 753: 747: 746: 745: 744: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 652: 641: 640: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 619: 611: 609: 606: 605: 600: 599: 592: 591:Four-momentum 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 578: 573: 566: 565: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 539: 534: 527: 526: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 473:Time dilation 471: 470: 460: 459: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 428: 418: 417: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 398: 397: 396: 392: 388: 387: 384: 381: 380: 372: 369: 364: 354: 352: 347: 337: 334: 329: 325: 315: 310: 306: 304: 299: 296: 292: 290: 285: 282: 278: 275: 271: 266: 263: 259: 256: 251: 247: 245: 240: 237: 233: 230: 225: 221: 219: 214: 211: 207: 205: 200: 197: 194: 192: 188: 183: 179: 176: 172: 168: 165: 161: 149: 147: 143: 134: 132: 128: 113: 111: 107: 102: 90: 88: 84: 79: 74: 70: 58: 52: 47: 41: 37: 33: 19: 15818:Consequences 15798: 15662: 15356:Kaluza–Klein 15108:Introduction 15034:Twin paradox 14931: 14594:Power output 14584:by top speed 14567:by top speed 14549:Wheel-driven 14496: 14291:In Australia 14165:constructors 14066: 14059: 13993: 13977: 13879: 13878:Travel with 13864:Polarization 13783: 13685:Observations 13407:Ground-based 12990:by top speed 12973:by top speed 12955:wheel-driven 12945:Land vehicle 12905: 12831: 12774: 12723: 12700: 12672: 12652: 12636: 12615: 12609: 12606:Perrotin, J. 12579: 12573: 12525: 12519: 12516:Pease, F. 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Retrieved 4848: 4816: 4809: 4794:experiments. 4778: 4768: 4759: 4754:-compatible. 4738: 4694: 4685: 4677: 4668: 4656: 4652: 4647: 4626: 4609: 4592: 4514: 4463: 4444: cycles 4391: 4354: 4311: 4271:Light-second 4213: 4192: 4177: 4156:reproducible 4153: 4128: 4125:1.1 m/s 4109: 4099: 4063: 4051: 4042: 4035: 4021: 4017: 3995: 3964: 3948:Thomas Young 3945: 3930: 3908: 3902: 3865: 3837:Isaac Newton 3830: 3828: 3805: 3793:microseconds 3776: 3743: 3732: 3716: 3703: 3673: 3621: 3322: 3308: 3283: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3254: 3241: 3215: 3205: 3179: 3166:normal modes 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3135: 3110:22 km/s 3067: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3040: 3033: 3029: 3027: 3014: 3002: 2994: 2983: 2965:Light source 2927: 2893: 2873: 2868:(IAU), was: 2855: 2852: 2826: 2787: 2755: 2747:Solar System 2737: 2719: 2684: 2675: 2671: 2663: 2654: 2649: 2645: 2643: 2598:transit time 2592: 2558: 2534: 2530:4–24 minutes 2526:4–24 minutes 2518: 2502: 2473: 2468: 2448: 2438: 2388: 2385:Small scales 2372: 2346: 2344: 2339: 2335: 2333: 2328: 2318: 2293: 2291: 2281: 2275: 2255:polarization 2247: 2243: 2239: 2237: 2220: 2209: 2194: 2178: 2176: 2161:Planck scale 2146: 2138: 2130: 2118:Proca theory 2112: 2110: 2091: 2025: 2015: 2008: 1990: 1962: 1955: 1931: 1915: 1896:, as in the 1893: 1891: 1886: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1861: 1856: 1844: 1836: 1834: 1813:such as the 1802: 1798: 1790: 1788: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1734:is given by 1731: 1727: 1722: 1686: 1677: 1675: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1645:is also the 1642: 1638: 1614: 1602: 1596: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1555: 1547: 1543: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1520: 1506: 1502: 1495: 1489: 1485: 1477: 1459: 1455: 1446:By adopting 1445: 1426: 1407:light-second 1397: 1389: 1374: 1371: 1350: 1336: 1299: 1290: 1287: 1270: 1258: 1247: 1236: 1228: 1222: 1219: 1213: 1204: 1195: 1182: 1170: 1148: 1145: 1121: km/s ( 1037: 1010: 1004: 1000: 950: 896: 880:space probes 862:, including 857: 819: 810: 808: 465:Consequences 440: 411:Formulations 314:nearest star 195: 190: 55:On average, 40: 15926:Proper mass 15921:Proper time 15782:Foundations 15445:Kerr–Newman 15416:Spherical: 15285:Other tests 15228:Singularity 15160:Formulation 15122:Fundamental 14976:Formulation 14957:Proper time 14918:Fundamental 14697:Spaceflight 14462:Philippines 14414:Post-season 14327:Post-season 13985:Hypothesis 13962:Continuous 13566:Space-based 12832:In Our Time 12826:, BBC Radio 12746:Duff, M. J. 12566:Newcomb, S. 12043:9 September 11851:Galison, P. 11406:2318/132957 11318:(3): i–92. 11244:(1): 1–12. 10617:2318/132957 10317:15 February 10292:15 February 10119:Rosa, E. B. 9883:Fowler, M. 9762:10 February 9646:16 December 9091:Mack, Katie 8962:16 December 8722:(10): 385. 8712:Reprinted: 7703:Ellis, J.; 7518:11 February 7496:Nature News 7474:26 November 6365:26 November 6112:. pp. 6005:27 November 5780:. pp. 5716:27 November 5419:16 December 5218:16 November 4479:698 yd 4298:(fictional) 4296:Warp factor 4131:, the 15th 4095:caesium-133 4067:Louis Essen 4008:. Based on 3844:discovered 3763:Snell's law 3735:Roger Bacon 3643:−0.006 ppm 3490:200 000 000 3475:260 000 000 3189:9 km/s 3162:Louis Essen 3132:in a cavity 3075:capacitance 2888:(10) s 2739:Outer space 2640:Measurement 2569:Julian year 2561:light-years 2550:of galaxies 2484:fibre optic 2361:, known as 2167:In a medium 1898:EPR paradox 1601:(with 1566:approaches 1128: mi/s) 928:. In 1905, 849:information 586:Proper mass 581:Proper time 423:Foundations 360: years 349:across the 343: years 81:Exact value 15946:Categories 15931:4-momentum 15903:Light cone 15893:World line 15597:Zel'dovich 15505:Scientists 15484:Alcubierre 15291:of Mercury 15289:precession 15218:Black hole 15101:Background 15093:relativity 15062:World line 15057:Light cone 14882:Background 14874:relativity 14864:Relativity 14806:Organisms 14750:Structures 14559:Motorcycle 14522:Spacecraft 14357:Individual 14342:Individual 13988:Colliding 13917:Stochastic 13889:chirp mass 13784:Proposed: 13675:Zooniverse 12965:motorcycle 12923:Spacecraft 12803:Subluminal 12618:: 731–734. 12406:Halley, E. 12299:6 February 12226:6 February 12106:11 January 12001:(4): 196. 11978:13 October 11642:13 October 11504:Ann. Phys. 11385:Perception 11122:12 January 11060:12 January 10986:(1): 119. 10833:Sarton, G. 10596:Perception 10534:29 January 10273:(4): 231. 10137:(6): 433. 9946:(9): 847. 9868:13 January 9828:28 October 9524:: 637–660. 9138:11 October 9115:1180972461 9075:4 February 8680:9 February 8671:Gbur, Greg 8661:9 February 8545:8 December 8418:Hau, L. V. 8414:Dutton, Z. 8366:Dutton, Z. 8358:Hau, L. V. 8267:Wolf, Emil 8184:8 November 8153:7 November 8127:7 November 8101:7 November 7814:2109.07850 7546:(10): 93. 7046:BiblioLife 6482:(2): 403. 6302:2005.03121 6241:1707.06101 6194:1710.05834 6187:(2): L13. 4871:Penrose, R 4855:8 February 4801:References 4640:supernovae 4087:krypton-86 4058:See also: 3918:Leyden jar 3888: km/s 3876: km/s 3856:See also: 3824: km/s 3675:Empedocles 3612:+0.14 ppm 3586:+0.14 ppm 3309:Until the 2803:arcseconds 2457: km/s 2395:processors 2359:shock wave 2355:dielectric 2349:). When a 2325:slow light 2321:dispersion 2183:plane wave 2171:See also: 2092:In modern 1983:artifact. 1981:coordinate 1950:projection 1932:So-called 1825:See also: 1730:and speed 1713:anisotropy 1417:See also: 1220:Sometimes 1193:redefined 1191:Paul Drude 1019:of waves, 870:viewed on 675:FitzGerald 660:Sommerfeld 612:Precursors 557:Light cone 552:World line 307:3.26 years 289:light-year 18:Lightspeed 15880:Spacetime 15727:Overviews 15567:Robertson 15552:Friedmann 15547:Eddington 15537:de Sitter 15371:Solutions 15249:detectors 15244:astronomy 15211:Phenomena 15146:Geodesics 15049:Spacetime 14992:Phenomena 14687:Endurance 14616:Submerged 14457:Palestine 14312:In the US 14270:1998–2018 14258:1998–2018 14253:1993–1997 14212:Athletics 13974:Supernova 13869:Spin-flip 13495:TENKO-100 13372:MiniGRAIL 13336:Weber bar 13265:MiniGRAIL 13219:Detectors 13098:Endurance 13073:Aircraft 13019:submerged 12807:Greg Egan 12728:IOS Press 12558:123010613 12327:Rømer, O. 12279:117581000 12271:0031-921X 11708:0002-9505 11415:0301-0066 11366:763848561 11332:0065-9746 11274:118187860 11258:0003-9519 11217:144035661 11095:12 August 10945:: 58–64. 10738:253895826 10730:1432-0657 10649:(2001) , 10578:145400212 10564:(1): 24. 10490:120300510 10400:121444888 10246:121261770 10009:117454437 9984:0705.3996 9744:121374703 9692:123424704 9684:1476-4687 9396:145428377 9335:23 August 9268:121966516 9165:22 August 9159:StarChild 8732:, and in 8412:Liu, C.; 8341:0002-9505 8291:261134839 8003:205051022 7847:237532210 7839:2470-0010 7696:119339066 7553:1109.4897 7513:211730430 7272:1302.1864 7172:20 August 7132:21 August 6920:1054-660X 6895:0706.0553 6869:119892992 6861:0950-0340 6636:118346408 6611:1002.1284 6546:0806.0339 6514:118684485 6422:119530637 6327:220514677 6274:206300556 6089:123023118 5972:119431247 5964:1367-2630 5709:Fourmilab 5491:21 August 5294:CRC Press 5270:0002-9505 5158:0002-9505 5038:0034-6861 4917:in Paris. 4632:neutrinos 4598:frequency 4483:2 ft 4187: m/s 4144: m/s 3991:isotropic 3777:In 1629, 3679:Aristotle 3504:constants 3325:(in m/s) 3234:; Right: 3212:antinodes 3079:capacitor 2712: m/s 2486:signals. 2480:microwave 2451:is about 2447:and that 2402:gigahertz 2391:computers 2234:velocity. 2187:frequency 2065:μ 2055:ε 1906:entangled 1811:paradoxes 1807:causality 1748:is zero, 1725:rest mass 1689:isotropic 1599:spacetime 1310: m/s 1168:had used 1156:celeritas 976:rest mass 898:Ole Rømer 884:computing 868:starlight 847:carrying 725:Ehrenfest 695:Minkowski 665:Michelson 533:Spacetime 366:from the 351:Milky Way 331:from the 326:4.2 years 318:1.3 312:from the 15972:Velocity 15913:Dynamics 15680:Category 15557:Lemaître 15522:Einstein 15512:Poincaré 15472:Others: 15456:Taub–NUT 15422:interior 15344:theories 15342:Advanced 15309:redshift 15124:concepts 14942:Rapidity 14920:concepts 14719:Aircraft 14636:Distance 14554:On rails 14527:Aircraft 14467:Thailand 14425:In India 14367:All-Star 14332:All-Star 14202:Swimming 14182:Juggling 14095:Shortest 14085:Heaviest 13976:or from 13894:Carried 13884:h strain 13874:Redshift 13848:Graviton 13756:GW200105 13750:GW190814 13744:GW190521 13739:GW190412 13729:GW170817 13724:GW170814 13719:GW170608 13714:GW170104 13709:GW151226 13644:NANOGrav 13591:Proposed 13525:Proposed 13485:TAMA 300 13388:Graviton 13345:Proposed 13286:EXPLORER 13245:NAUTILUS 13230:antennas 13139:See also 13130:Aircraft 13037:Distance 12960:on rails 12928:Aircraft 12651:(1975). 12635:(1960). 12568:(1886). 12550:17816642 12509:: 71–77. 12495:(1878). 12473:(1862). 12448:(1849). 12408:(1694). 12353:10 March 12329:(1676). 12065:(1992). 11952:14 March 11910:(1982). 11908:Pais, A. 11853:(2003). 11783:98374065 11484:20759821 11431:11747908 11423:19817156 11356:(1959). 11266:41133639 10959:84148912 10835:(1993). 10634:11747908 10626:19817156 10125:(1907). 9891:21 April 9637:archived 9616:(2006), 9358:(1940). 9310:12149700 9225:10157934 9217:17781305 9093:(2021). 8932:25 April 8926:Archived 8902:25673397 8656:BBC News 8635:10917523 8512:14668857 8457:11206540 8420:(2001). 8202:(2004). 8024:(2004). 7995:19924200 7913:31249827 7905:17358459 7786:15323762 7749:15388873 7578:17652398 7446:41065207 7412:Rees, M. 7247:28854083 7221:(1993). 7009:(1992). 6742:21770570 6583:28179844 6539:(1): 5. 6266:29099221 5904:44694623 5882:(2000). 5558:57283944 5536:(2005). 5410:archived 5389:(2006), 5196:"Why is 5124:"E = mc" 4873:(2004). 4653:measured 4630:Because 4487:⁠5 4475: mi 4347:) AU/day 4220:See also 4002:contract 3975:isotropy 3699:infinite 3663:(exact) 3620:Evenson 3557:+12 ppm 3344:<1667 3330:<1638 3247:coherent 3036:and the 2862:best fit 2766:diameter 2632:and the 2622: mi 2556:itself. 2510:Apollo 8 2445: km 2287:rubidium 2202:envelope 2135:10 2021:and the 1740:, where 1607:symmetry 1542:, where 1298:(SI) as 1264:for the 1253:for the 1242:for the 1201:Einstein 972:observer 908:'s moon 770:Category 720:von Laue 690:Poincaré 680:Herglotz 655:Einstein 572:Dynamics 370:to Earth 335:to Earth 316:to Sun ( 257:to Earth 231:to Earth 191:Distance 177:per year 57:sunlight 15752:History 15622:Hawking 15617:Penrose 15602:Novikov 15582:Wheeler 15527:Hilbert 15517:Lorentz 15474:pp-wave 15295:lensing 15091:General 14872:Special 14611:Sailing 14601:British 14514:Vehicle 14170:drivers 14147:Cycling 14125:Cricket 14100:Tallest 14039:Records 13996:sources 13980:sources 13978:unknown 13797:B-modes 13766:Methods 13731:(first 13608:TianQin 13575:Planned 13509:Planned 13326:GEOGRAV 13296:ALLEGRO 13014:sailing 13002:British 12918:Vehicle 12584:Bibcode 12530:Bibcode 12424:Bibcode 12378:Bibcode 12251:Bibcode 12023:1841238 12003:Bibcode 11688:Bibcode 11512:Bibcode 11340:1006537 10776:Bibcode 10470:Bibcode 10372:Bibcode 10275:Bibcode 10218:Bibcode 10188:4101717 10168:Bibcode 10080:Bibcode 10028:Bibcode 9989:Bibcode 9948:Bibcode 9724:Bibcode 9447:Bibcode 9248:Bibcode 9197:Bibcode 9189:Science 8988:16 July 8880:Bibcode 8841:Pingdom 8643:4358601 8600:9909684 8580:Bibcode 8520:4320280 8492:Bibcode 8465:1894748 8437:Bibcode 8405:4423307 8385:Bibcode 8321:Bibcode 8241:Bibcode 7973:Bibcode 7885:Bibcode 7819:Bibcode 7766:Bibcode 7729:Bibcode 7676:Bibcode 7558:Bibcode 7426:Bibcode 7379:Bibcode 7288:copied. 6969:Bibcode 6900:Bibcode 6841:Bibcode 6820:1449261 6800:Bibcode 6722:Bibcode 6616:Bibcode 6574:5255913 6551:Bibcode 6494:Bibcode 6455:Bibcode 6443:(PhD). 6402:Bibcode 6307:Bibcode 6246:Bibcode 6199:Bibcode 6069:Bibcode 6032:Bibcode 5944:Bibcode 5932:: 114. 5797:23 July 5782:172–173 5682:Bibcode 5583:1 March 5250:Bibcode 5138:Bibcode 5046:7481797 5018:Bibcode 4901:defined 4726:365.256 4723:⁄ 4716:radians 4585:⁠ 4573:⁠ 4566:⁠ 4554:⁠ 4548:⁠ 4520:⁠ 4502:⁠ 4448:caesium 4430:Penrose 4408:⁄ 4369: π 4160:caesium 3900:√ 3832:Opticks 3713:Alhazen 3687:Ptolemy 3464:−0.60% 3407:+0.40% 3366:Huygens 3334:Galileo 3305:History 2915:173.144 2881:499.004 2843: m 2771:Jupiter 2690:⁄ 2682:below. 2573:parsecs 2304:of the 2271:diamond 2102:photons 1946:quasars 1661:), the 1649:and of 1609:called 1532:= (1 − 1317:⁄ 1300:exactly 1207:in his 1176:√ 1112:⁠ 1098:⁠ 1092:⁠ 1076:⁠ 1027:). 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