Light - Knowledge

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be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief."

2458: 6048: 5412: 4522: 2300: 1225:) that are at the lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause a lasting molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule 1141: 2160:, in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. If the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem. 4496: 1419:, also in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light. 2697:

As in the case for radio waves and the X-rays involved in Compton scattering, physicists have noted that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never completely loses all qualities of one

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added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favor of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained by the wave theory of light if and only if light

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of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descartes was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved

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made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from

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in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will

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of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same

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a particle nor a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena, such as baseballs or ocean waves). Instead, under some approximations light can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of macroscopic metaphor (particles) and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor (waves).

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to study electromagnetic radiation and light. Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic

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in the human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum and the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm. Therefore, two sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m) of visible light do not necessarily appear equally bright. The

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The foveal sensitivity to several near-infrared laser wavelengths was measured. It was found that the eye could respond to radiation at wavelengths at least as far as 1,064 nm. A continuous 1,064 nm laser source appeared red, but a 1,060 nm pulsed laser source appeared green, which suggests the

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wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These

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was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the

1336:. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit. However, its size was not known at that time. If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 1263:

Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420–680 nm to as broadly as 380–800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1,050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310–313 nm.

2328:(particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the 4141:

Antognozzi, M.; Bermingham, C. R.; Harniman, R. L.; Simpson, S.; Senior, J.; Hayward, R.; Hoerber, H.; Dennis, M. R.; Bekshaev, A. Y. (August 2016). "Direct measurements of the extraordinary optical momentum and transverse spin-dependent force using a nano-cantilever".

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The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical substance luminiferous aether proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the

2596:. In 1846 he speculated that light might be some form of disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines. Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether. 2284:

Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the transmitting medium, Descartes's theory of light is regarded as the start of modern physical optics.

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The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.

2080:(NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more significant and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits is an active area of research. At larger scales, light pressure can cause 1305:(approx. 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum. 2377:. Laplace withdrew his suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct). A translation of Newton's essay on light appears in 2622:

confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio waves in the laboratory and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and

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in the seventh century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy.

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et al. demonstrated a single atom emitting one photon at a time, further compelling evidence that light consists of photons. Previously unknown quantum states of light with characteristics unlike classical states, such as

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When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not

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Einstein, A. (1989) . "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" [On the development of our views concerning the nature and constitution of radiation].

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conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from

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was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the

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or the other. Visible light, which occupies a middle ground in frequency, can easily be shown in experiments to be describable using either a wave or particle model, or sometimes both.

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of the waves described in the classical theory of Maxwell. The quantum theory was needed to explain effects even with visual light that Maxwell's classical theory could not (such as

3011: 2654:, suggested that although light was a wave, these waves could gain or lose energy only in finite amounts related to their frequency. Planck called these "lumps" of light energy " 2038:, but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by 2705:

showed that light followed different statistics from that of classical particles. With Einstein, they generalized this result for a whole set of integer spin particles called

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photometry units are designed to take this into account and therefore are a better representation of how "bright" a light appears to be than raw intensity. They relate to raw

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Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite. At that time, the

2833:) were found, and mechanical forces of light on matter were studied. The latter led to levitating and positioning clouds of atoms or even small biological samples in an 1790:'s torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation). 2004:

and are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings. The illumination measured by a

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in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time the polarization was considered as the proof of the particle theory.

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measures light with wavelength weighted with respect to a standardized model of human brightness perception. Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify

2543:, in 1850. His result supported the wave theory and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned, only to partly re-emerge in the twentieth century. 2211:, from around the early centuries AD developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements ( 5664: 3996: 3629: 1674:(or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as 3966: 3458:

Sliney, David H.; Wangemann, Robert T.; Franks, James K.; Wolbarsht, Myron L. (1976). "Visual sensitivity of the eye to infrared laser radiation".

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Normally the human eye responds to light rays from 390 to 760 nm. This can be extended to a range of 310 to 1,050 nm under artificial conditions.

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The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that they take into account how the human eye responds to light. The

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applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the

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The human eye has the ability to respond to all the wavelengths of light from 400–700 nm. This is called the visible part of the spectrum.

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radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible

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Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through a surface between one transparent material and another. It is described by

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attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by

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Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360

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could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was

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sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human eye and without filters which may be costly, photocells and

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objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects also scatter certain wavelength of light via internal scatterance.

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to argue that a body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other words, it would become what is now called a

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When the concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include:

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techniques—opened the way to the study of what became known as ultrafast processes. Applications for solid state research (e.g.

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of light and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was

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provides virtually all the energy used by living things. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called

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when plotted in wavelength units, and roughly 44% of the radiation that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is

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Due to refraction, the straw dipped in water appears bent and the ruler scale compressed when viewed from a shallow angle.

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of nature. Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary particles called

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discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light is rotated when the light rays travel along the

2420:(1635–1703) developed a "pulse theory" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work 1359:

mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as

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generalized this process to treat many-body systems as excitations of quantum fields, a process with the misnomer of

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The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by

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Michelson, A.A. (January 1927). "Measurements of the velocity of light between Mount Wilson and Mount San Antonio".

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Light is a special class of radiant energy embracing wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm (or mμ), or 4000 to 7000 Å.

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of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. The

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Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a

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produce light by this means and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake.

5002: 2312:(1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. 2077: 1660: 1412: 1232:

There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by means of quantum-absorption.

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Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics with Introduction and Commentary

2658:" (from a Latin word for "how much"). In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to explain the 2444:. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium. 5689: 5349: 3988: 2710: 2281:

like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media.

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Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as

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a beam of white light. The longer wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths (green-blue) are separated.

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in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the

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carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298 000 000 m/s in 1862.

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showed that the wavelength shift seen when low intensity X-rays scattered from electrons (so called

2175:). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted. 1285: 5871: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5334: 5067: 4813: 4723: 4587: 3810: 3751: 2477: 2461: 2366: 2333: 1883:. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as 1759: 1718: 1396:, is less than in vacuum. For example, the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum. 1157: 1145: 778: 500: 252: 4464: 2516: 1730:

There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of

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Lenses and Waves: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematical Science of Optics in the 17th Century

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that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different

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Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light and presented it to the

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studied Gassendi's work at an early age and preferred his view to Descartes's theory of the

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Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path, a phenomenon which can be deduced by

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Limits of the eye's overall range of sensitivity extends from about 310 to 1,050 nanometers

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an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a

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highlighted. The bottom graph (Visible spectrum) is wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).

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with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers.

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in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating

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Usually light momentum is aligned with its direction of motion. However, for example in

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is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change the apparent size of images.

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The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary

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was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory.

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of the reflecting surfaces, and internal scatterance is caused by the difference of

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as a concept which addressed variations between laser light, thermal light, exotic

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Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by

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in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299 796 000 m/s.

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Plant growth is also affected by the colour spectrum of light, a process known as

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colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white

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is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium and n

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to hold sway during the eighteenth century. The particle theory of light led

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is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a

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pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his

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The peak of the black-body spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10

1510: 1183: 1026: 873: 843: 813: 618: 375: 4507: 3700:. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 624. 3595:[The visibility of the ultraviolet to the wave length of 3130]. 2472:. Young's experiments supported the theory that light consists of waves. 1829:

in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be

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a particle and a wave, and (in another sense) as a phenomenon which is

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directly caused by light pressure. As a consequence of light pressure,

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that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation.

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Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "

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and suggested that these light quanta had a "real" existence. In 1923

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by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser

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to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a

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The Natural Laws of the Universe: Understanding Fundamental Constants

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electromagnetic wave traveling along the z-axis, with E denoting the

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the light it receives. Most objects do not reflect or transmit light

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was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.

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in the human retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision.

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Tang, Hong (1 October 2009). "May The Force of Light Be With You".

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Astronomy Methods: A Physical Approach to Astronomical Observations

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is: "Any radiation capable of causing a visual sensation directly."

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consists of measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while

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Luminescence: The Journal of Biological and Chemical Luminescence

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have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history.

1226: 1218: 1094: 1039: 380: 5012: 4477: 2400:

in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization.

6018: 5621: 5611: 4495: 3777:. Fred W. Billmeyer, Max Saltzman (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2675: 2413: 2261: 2153: 1826: 1787: 1747: 1652: 1446: 1441: 1428: 1393: 1298: 1256: 1222: 1102: 1090: 360: 355: 3748:"Harvard Gazette: Researchers now able to stop, restart light" 3630:"Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light" 3457: 2849:, was the crucial technology needed to achieve the celebrated 1613:{\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}\ .} 1140: 5646: 5641: 5631: 5601: 5043: 4710: 2706: 2200: 1838: 1834: 1187: 1135: 1047: 345: 3685: 1477:

object does not allow light to transmit through and instead

5636: 5616: 5596: 5466: 5383: 3959:"Solar Sails Could Send Spacecraft 'Sailing' Through Space" 1976:

Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units:

1767: 1289:

Beam of sun light inside the cavity of Rocca ill'Abissu at

1117: 395: 350: 2740:

was developed using quantum fields based on the works of

1717:. For a particle accelerator used to generate X-rays, see 1247:

and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the

5712: 5606: 5371: 4254: 2500:

could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816

1743: 1113: 3908:

nano-opto-mechanical systems research at Yale University

3094:(1st ed.). Chennai: Orient Blackswan. p. 387. 2805:

describing the waves in the classical picture. In 1977,

2592:. This was the first evidence that light was related to 2256:

property of the luminous body, rejecting the "forms" of

2064:

on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a

1132:, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. 1025:(with longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) and the 4376:

David Cassidy; Gerald Holton; James Rutherford (2002).

3989:"NASA team successfully deploys two solar sail systems" 3775:

Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology

2989:– in particular about light beams visible from the side 2144:; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that goddess 2127:

Historical theories about light, in chronological order

1758:). Solar radiation peaks in the visible region of the 1097:

of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as both

4364:

André-Marie Ampère: Enlightenment and Electrodynamics

4227: 3507:

Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William Charles (2001).

3495:

presence of second harmonic generation in the retina.

3383: 3172: 1548: 183: 76: 2926: 2167:, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek 2123:

momentum is transverse to direction of propagation.

1844:

Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an

1440:

The study of light and the interaction of light and

1058:

are also light. The primary properties of light are

37:"Visible light" redirects here. For other uses, see 4230:"Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell" 3847:"Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5" 3745: 3500: 2225:refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun". 5665:Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate 4562: 3549:Dash, Madhab Chandra; Dash, Satya Prakash (2009). 3417: 3389: 3131: 2604:radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in 1612: 239: 169: 4413: 4411: 4023:"Untersuchungen über die Druckkräfte des Lichtes" 2131: 1864:. Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by 1415:in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the other at the 1112:The main source of natural light on Earth is the 1062:, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength 6064: 3310:Introduction to Optics and Lasers in Engineering 3811:"Spectrum and the Color Sensitivity of the Eye" 3506: 2736:. And at the end of the 1940s a full theory of 1260:chemical way that humans detect visible light. 4408: 3423: 3211: 3123: 2215:) out of which emerge the gross elements. The 5028: 4548: 4319: 4317: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4228:O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F (August 2002). 3627: 2343:Newton's theory could be used to predict the 1627:is the angle between the ray and the surface 1509:inside the object. Like transparent objects, 959: 4124: 3390:Ohannesian, Lena; Streeter, Anthony (2001). 3289:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 ( 3238: 2713:. The photon is a massless boson of spin 1. 1919:Certain other mechanisms can produce light: 1462:offer many clues as to the nature of light. 1217:EMR in the visible light region consists of 164: 113: 4366:, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 222. 4324:Theories of light, from Descartes to Newton 4071: 3584: 3555:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 213. 3253:: 2020-06-14 AbdzexK uban. pp. 43–44. 3129: 2630:In the quantum theory, photons are seen as 2584:direction in the presence of a transparent 2140:postulated that everything was composed of 1868:. In living things, this process is called 1417:Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 6047: 5035: 5021: 4555: 4541: 4314: 4273: 3451: 3362:. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. 1891:is one example. This mechanism is used in 1301:is defined to be exactly 299 792 458 1136:Electromagnetic spectrum and visible light 966: 952: 4155: 4097: 3710: 3679: 3677: 3645: 3598:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 3461:Journal of the Optical Society of America 3176:Camera lenses: from box camera to digital 3130:Buser, Pierre A.; Imbert, Michel (1992). 2879: 2685:came to picture light as (in some sense) 2546: 5816:International Commission on Illumination 3548: 3542: 3424:Ahluwalia, V.K.; Goyal, Madhuri (2000). 3349: 2556: 2456: 2446: 2298: 1904: 1526: 1284: 1166:(EMR) is classified by wavelength into 1139: 1021:. The visible band sits adjacent to the 45: 27:Electromagnetic radiation humans can see 4440: 4417: 4286:"Shastra Pratibha 2015 Seniors Booklet" 4128:The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein 4017: 3746:Harvard News Office (24 January 2001). 3683: 3590: 2793:). This led to the introduction of the 2611:A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism 2379:The large scale structure of space-time 2276:. In 1637 he published a theory of the 1705:are all examples of this manipulation. 1497:. Surface scatterance is caused by the 1320:, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a 14: 6065: 5806:Color Association of the United States 4896:Wireless electronic devices and health 4466:Introduction to Molecular Spectroscopy 4462: 3926: 3674: 3303: 3232: 3085: 3079: 5016: 4536: 4202: 3772: 3355: 2919:use it to hide themselves from prey. 2868:. The latter are of much interest in 2858:demonstration of quantum entanglement 2332:of light (which had been observed by 4922:List of civilian radiation accidents 4891:Wireless device radiation and health 4886:Biological dose units and quantities 4836:Electromagnetic radiation and health 4346:, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004, 3969:from the original on 21 October 2012 3927:Svitil, Kathy A. (5 February 2004). 3871: 3628:Oldford, R. W; MacKay, R. J (2000). 3609:from the original on 24 October 2013 3218:. Laxmi Publications. p. 1416. 2179:(c. second century) wrote about the 1912:illuminated by colourful artificial 1493:the incoming light, which is called 4396:from the original on 8 October 2022 4205:Fundamentals of Optical Engineering 4106:from the original on 8 October 2022 3939:from the original on 9 October 2012 3569:from the original on 8 October 2022 3527:from the original on 8 October 2022 3393:Handbook of Pharmaceutical Analysis 3193:from the original on 8 October 2022 3108:from the original on 8 October 2022 2674:named these light quanta particles 2365:of 1704. His reputation helped the 2324:of 1675 that light was composed of 1120:, from ancient campfires to modern 1105:, is an important research area in 24: 5670:Blue–green distinction in language 4871:Radioactivity in the life sciences 4326:A.I. Sabra CUP Archive,1981 p. 48 4255:Ptolemy and A. Mark Smith (1996). 3766: 3750:. News.harvard.edu. Archived from 3662:from the original on 24 March 2017 2288: 2252:(1596–1650) held that light was a 2190: 1432: 200: 25: 6089: 5042: 4488: 4072:Nichols, E.F; Hull, G.F. (1903). 3999:from the original on 14 June 2012 3070:International Lighting Vocabulary 3048:International Lighting Vocabulary 2856:Other remarkable results are the 2759: 2641: 2430:to the direction of propagation. 2347:of light, but could only explain 2023: 1848:, can produce visible radiation: 1274: 1005:and is usually defined as having 122: 6046: 6037: 6036: 5827:International Colour Association 5410: 4520: 4506: 4494: 4456: 4259:. Diane Publishing. p. 23. 4053:from the original on 6 June 2022 3853:from the original on 12 May 2019 3827:from the original on 5 July 2010 3092:Textbook of Practical Physiology 3086:Pal, G.K.; Pal, Pravati (2001). 2943: 2929: 2841:by laser beam. This, along with 1797:" in the spectrum of each atom. 1708: 1473:or pass through. Conversely, an 1324:, Rømer observed the motions of 5822:International Colour Consortium 4449: 4434: 4422:Theoretical Concepts in Physics 4369: 4356: 4336: 4248: 4221: 4196: 4134: 4118: 4074:"The Pressure due to Radiation" 4065: 4011: 3981: 3951: 3929:"Asteroids Get Spun By the Sun" 3920: 3900: 3865: 3839: 3803: 3739: 3704: 3621: 3427:A Textbook of Organic Chemistry 3239:Uzan, J-P; Leclercq, B (2008). 1738:, the radiation emitted by the 1450:. The observation and study of 1101:. The study of light, known as 5887:List of Crayola crayon colours 5811:International Colour Authority 4207:. Discovery Publishing House. 3297: 3245:. Translated by Robert Mizon. 3205: 3173:Gregory Hallock Smith (2006). 3166: 3036: 2915:use light to locate mates and 2814:were subsequently discovered. 2480:). Young showed by means of a 2407: 2132:Classical Greece and Hellenism 2012:(CCD) tend to respond to some 1961: 496:Atomic, molecular, and optical 161: 155: 141: 110: 104: 90: 83: 39:Visible light (disambiguation) 13: 1: 4511:The dictionary definition of 3591:Saidman, Jean (15 May 1933). 3058:. Number 17.4. CIE, 4th ed.. 3029: 2569:and perpendicular B denoting 2494:Nova theoria lucis et colorum 2392:The fact that light could be 2173:On the nature of the Universe 2078:nanoelectromechanical systems 2056:For example, a one-milliwatt 1734:. A simple thermal source is 1516: 1413:Rowland Institute for Science 1236:depends on a kind of natural 5690:Traditional colours of Japan 5467:Achromatic colours (Neutral) 5350:Multi-primary colour display 3326:10.1017/CBO9781139174190.004 2264:as well as the "species" of 2244: 2076:-scale applications such as 2060:exerts a force of about 3.3 1715:Lightsource Renewable Energy 1085:, is one of the fundamental 7: 5124:Spectral power distribution 4759:Cosmic background radiation 4445:. Springer Verlag New York. 2922: 2530:Michelson–Morley experiment 2295:Corpuscular theory of light 2099:Although the motion of the 1182:that we perceive as light, 10: 6094: 5550:Colour realism (art style) 5208:Evolution of colour vision 4988: 4846:Lasers and aviation safety 4463:Barrow, Gordon M. (1962). 3886:10.1109/MSPEC.2009.5268000 3552:Fundamentals of Ecology 3E 3396:. CRC Press. p. 187. 2870:quantum information theory 2851:Bose–Einstein condensation 2763: 2606:On Physical Lines of Force 2550: 2292: 2149:a source such as the sun. 2092:The possibility of making 2027: 1965: 1723: 1712: 1681:The refractive quality of 1520: 1505:between the particles and 1426: 1278: 1234:Infrared sensing in snakes 1155: 1124:. With the development of 1001:. Visible light spans the 36: 29: 6078:Electromagnetic radiation 6032: 6004: 5917: 5867:List of colours (compact) 5842: 5835: 5786: 5705: 5685:Colour in Chinese culture 5655: 5587: 5578: 5497: 5430: 5419: 5408: 5308: 5255: 5137: 5060: 5051: 4986: 4950: 4914: 4876:Radioactive contamination 4801: 4729:Electromagnetic radiation 4719: 4631: 4578: 4571: 4418:Longair, Malcolm (2003). 4078:The Astrophysical Journal 3510:Color and Light in Nature 3269:(inactive 28 July 2024). 3267:10.1007/978-0-387-74081-2 3215:Comprehensive Physics XII 3179:. SPIE Press. p. 4. 2817:Development of short and 2709:(after Bose) that follow 2588:, an effect now known as 2553:Electromagnetic radiation 2412:To explain the origin of 2236:in the fifth century and 2136:In the fifth century BC, 1422: 1164:electromagnetic radiation 991:electromagnetic radiation 5872:List of colours by shade 5335:Digital image processing 5068:Electromagnetic spectrum 4989:See also the categories 4927:1996 Costa Rica accident 4588:Acoustic radiation force 4342:Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis, 4047:10.1002/andp.19013111102 3304:Laufer, Gabriel (1996). 3054:27 February 2010 at the 3024: 2821:laser pulses—created by 2711:Bose–Einstein statistics 2650:, attempting to explain 2608:. In 1873, he published 2599:Faraday's work inspired 2367:particle theory of light 2048:Due to the magnitude of 1988:intended for human use. 1764:incandescent light bulbs 1760:electromagnetic spectrum 1719:Synchrotron light source 1401:Bose–Einstein condensate 1158:Electromagnetic spectrum 1146:electromagnetic spectrum 1009:in the range of 400–700 253:Einstein field equations 5877:List of colour palettes 4901:Radiation heat-transfer 4754:Gravitational radiation 3697:Encyclopædia Britannica 3684:Newcomb, Simon (1911). 3430:. Narosa. p. 110. 3212:Narinder Kumar (2008). 2981:Journal of Luminescence 2738:quantum electrodynamics 1986:Illumination (lighting) 1469:object allows light to 1013:(nm), corresponding to 556:Theories of gravitation 471:Electroweak interaction 5100:Structural colouration 4942:1990 Zaragoza accident 4937:1984 Moroccan accident 4906:Linear energy transfer 4580:Non-ionizing radiation 4525:Quotations related to 3773:Berns, Roy S. (2019). 3482:10.1364/JOSA.66.000339 2899:mostly in the form of 2880:Use for light on Earth 2803:electromagnetic fields 2573: 2547:Electromagnetic theory 2482:diffraction experiment 2473: 2466:double-slit experiment 2454: 2306: 2010:charge-coupled devices 1916: 1631:in the first medium, θ 1614: 1532: 1437: 1297:The speed of light in 1294: 1153: 241: 171: 58: 32:Light (disambiguation) 5882:List of colour spaces 5801:Color Marketing Group 5556:On Vision and Colours 5489:Tinctures in heraldry 5472:Polychromatic colours 5457:Complementary colours 5445:Monochromatic colours 4932:1987 Goiânia accident 4734:Synchrotron radiation 4724:Earth's energy budget 4706:Radioactive materials 4701:Particle accelerators 4443:Understanding Physics 4379:Understanding Physics 3713:Astrophysical Journal 3647:10.1214/ss/1009212817 3138:. MIT Press. p. 3006:List of light sources 2862:quantum teleportation 2722:electromagnetic field 2560: 2517:Académie des Sciences 2506:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 2460: 2450: 2302: 2183:of light in his book 2044:, the speed of light. 2000:by a quantity called 1908: 1854:synchrotron radiation 1807:light-emitting diodes 1746:at around 6,000 1726:List of light sources 1724:Further information: 1703:refracting telescopes 1645:indices of refraction 1615: 1530: 1436: 1288: 1143: 434:Philosophy of physics 242: 172: 49: 5862:List of colours: N–Z 5857:List of colours: G–M 5852:List of colours: A–F 5774:Tint, shade and tone 5657:Cultural differences 5003:Radiation protection 4856:Radiation protection 4744:Black-body radiation 4651:Background radiation 4566:(physics and health) 4503:at Wikimedia Commons 3913:25 June 2010 at the 3356:Bradt, Hale (2004). 3306:"Geometrical Optics" 3072:, the definition of 2664:Arthur Holly Compton 2660:photoelectric effect 2652:black-body radiation 2521:Siméon Denis Poisson 2371:Pierre-Simon Laplace 1732:black-body radiation 1546: 1093:that represents the 566:Theory of everything 444:Quantum field theory 181: 74: 30:For other uses, see 5909:List of web colours 5904:List of RAL colours 5310:Colour reproduction 5275:Lüscher colour test 5112:Colour of chemicals 4973:Radiation hardening 4915:Radiation incidents 4851:Medical radiography 4810:Radiation syndrome 4764:Cherenkov radiation 4441:Cassidy, D (2002). 4166:2016NatPh..12..731A 4090:1903ApJ....17..315N 4039:1901AnP...311..433L 3818:Thulescientific.com 3725:1927ApJ....65....1M 3634:Statistical Science 3474:1976JOSA...66..339S 3318:1996iole.book.....L 3259:2008nlu..book.....U 2866:quantum logic gates 2791:degree of coherence 2754:Shinichiro Tomonaga 2734:second quantization 2703:Satyendra Nath Bose 2616:Maxwell's equations 2601:James Clerk Maxwell 2442:luminiferous aether 2398:Étienne-Louis Malus 2322:Hypothesis of Light 2320:. He stated in his 2036:Maxwell's equations 1968:Photometry (optics) 1924:Electroluminescence 1889:Cathodoluminescence 1862:Cherenkov radiation 1850:cyclotron radiation 1823:mercury-vapor lamps 1489:and to some degree 1378:Albert A. Michelson 1291:Fondachelli-Fantina 1194:. The designation " 1099:waves and particles 516:Non-linear dynamics 454:Quantum computation 449:Quantum information 323:Satyendra Nath Bose 5318:Colour photography 5270:Colour preferences 5213:Impossible colours 5203:Colour vision test 5198:Colour temperature 5176:Colour calibration 5105:Animal colouration 4968:Radioactive source 4789:Radiation exposure 4769:Askaryan radiation 4749:Particle radiation 4633:Ionizing radiation 4362:James R. Hofmann, 4203:Singh, S. (2009). 3965:. 31 August 2004. 3906:See, for example, 3754:on 28 October 2011 2975:Huygens' principle 2970:Fermat's principle 2965:Colour temperature 2831:Raman spectroscopy 2668:Compton scattering 2574: 2563:linearly polarized 2502:André-Marie Ampère 2474: 2455: 2452:Christiaan Huygens 2432:Christiaan Huygens 2402:Jean-Baptiste Biot 2387:George F. R. Ellis 2334:Francesco Grimaldi 2307: 2270:Robert Grosseteste 2105:Nichols radiometer 2101:Crookes radiometer 2030:Radiation pressure 1917: 1687:Magnifying glasses 1610: 1533: 1438: 1409:Harvard University 1295: 1269:photomorphogenesis 1154: 541:General relativity 536:Special relativity 476:Strong interaction 237: 167: 59: 6060: 6059: 6000: 5999: 5782: 5781: 5706:Colour dimensions 5695:Human skin colour 5574: 5573: 5564:Theory of Colours 5462:Analogous colours 5406: 5405: 5340:Colour management 5257:Colour psychology 5139:Colour perception 5010: 5009: 4991:Radiation effects 4861:Radiation therapy 4797: 4796: 4739:Thermal radiation 4676:Neutron radiation 4641:Radioactive decay 4499:Media related to 4389:978-0-387-98756-9 4332:978-0-521-28436-3 4266:978-0-87169-862-9 4174:10.1038/nphys3732 3995:. 9 August 2004. 3933:Discover Magazine 3788:978-1-119-36668-3 3562:978-1-259-08109-5 3520:978-0-521-77504-5 3437:978-81-7319-159-6 3403:978-0-8247-4194-5 3369:978-0-521-53551-9 3335:978-0-521-45233-5 3276:978-0-387-73454-5 3225:978-81-7008-592-8 3186:978-0-8194-6093-6 3149:978-0-262-02336-8 3101:978-81-250-2021-9 3064:978-3-900734-07-7 2683:quantum mechanics 2437:Treatise on Light 2152:In about 300 BC, 2002:luminous efficacy 1956:Radioactive decay 1939:Triboluminescence 1900:computer monitors 1866:chemoluminescence 1606: 1499:surface roughness 1452:optical phenomena 1387:Mount San Antonio 1032:optical radiation 987:visible radiation 976: 975: 439:Quantum mechanics 313:Ernest Rutherford 293:Erwin Schrödinger 288:Werner Heisenberg 138: 86: 16:(Redirected from 6085: 6050: 6049: 6040: 6039: 5840: 5839: 5585: 5584: 5517:Secondary colour 5428: 5427: 5414: 5290:National colours 5285:Political colour 5265:Colour symbolism 5223:Opponent process 5181:Colour constancy 5159:Colour blindness 5090:Spectral colours 5058: 5057: 5037: 5030: 5023: 5014: 5013: 4951:Related articles 4866:Radiation damage 4691:Nuclear reactors 4576: 4575: 4557: 4550: 4543: 4534: 4533: 4524: 4510: 4498: 4482: 4481: 4471: 4461: 4460: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4425: 4415: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4373: 4367: 4360: 4354: 4340: 4334: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4301: 4295:. Archived from 4290: 4282: 4271: 4270: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4236:on 19 March 2017 4232:. 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Lewis 2594:electromagnetism 2590:Faraday rotation 2121:evanescent waves 2091: 2071: 2055: 2047: 1934:Sonoluminescence 1893:cathode-ray tube 1780:thermal emission 1619: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1587: 1586: 1574: 1573: 1558: 1557: 1503:refractive index 1369: 1367: 1364: 1352:Hippolyte Fizeau 1346: 1344: 1341: 1180:visible spectrum 1084: 1082: 1079: 1003:visible spectrum 968: 961: 954: 619:Skłodowska-Curie 501:Condensed matter 466:Weak interaction 461:Electromagnetism 318:Louis de Broglie 246: 244: 243: 238: 236: 235: 223: 215: 214: 196: 195: 176: 174: 173: 168: 154: 153: 144: 139: 137: 126: 103: 102: 93: 88: 87: 79: 61: 60: 21: 6093: 6092: 6088: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6028: 5996: 5913: 5831: 5788: 5778: 5701: 5680:Blue in culture 5676:Colour history 5651: 5570: 5544:Colour analysis 5539:Colour triangle 5493: 5450:black-and-white 5422: 5415: 5402: 5345:Colour printing 5304: 5251: 5133: 5047: 5041: 5011: 5006: 5005: 4982: 4978:Havana syndrome 4963:Nuclear physics 4946: 4910: 4803: 4793: 4779:Unruh radiation 4715: 4696:Nuclear weapons 4681:Nuclear fission 4627: 4567: 4561: 4491: 4486: 4485: 4472:. McGraw-Hill. 4469: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4439: 4435: 4416: 4409: 4399: 4397: 4390: 4374: 4370: 4361: 4357: 4341: 4337: 4322: 4315: 4305: 4303: 4299: 4288: 4284: 4283: 4274: 4267: 4253: 4249: 4239: 4237: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4201: 4197: 4139: 4135: 4123: 4119: 4109: 4107: 4070: 4066: 4056: 4054: 4033:(11): 433–458. 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3972: 3970: 3957: 3956: 3952: 3942: 3940: 3925: 3921: 3915:Wayback Machine 3905: 3901: 3870: 3866: 3856: 3854: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3830: 3828: 3824: 3813: 3809: 3808: 3804: 3789: 3771: 3767: 3757: 3755: 3744: 3740: 3709: 3705: 3682: 3675: 3665: 3663: 3626: 3622: 3612: 3610: 3589: 3585: 3572: 3570: 3563: 3547: 3543: 3530: 3528: 3521: 3505: 3501: 3456: 3452: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3388: 3384: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3354: 3350: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3302: 3298: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3247:Springer-Praxis 3237: 3233: 3226: 3210: 3206: 3196: 3194: 3187: 3171: 3167: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3128: 3124: 3111: 3109: 3102: 3084: 3080: 3067: 3056:Wayback Machine 3041: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3022: 2994:Light Fantastic 2949: 2942: 2935: 2928: 2925: 2911:. For example, 2909:bioluminescence 2882: 2843:Doppler cooling 2799:squeezed states 2771:John R. Klauder 2768: 2762: 2746:Richard Feynman 2644: 2578:Michael Faraday 2555: 2549: 2510:transverse wave 2492:. He argued in 2464:'s sketch of a 2410: 2383:Stephen Hawking 2310:Pierre Gassendi 2304:Pierre Gassendi 2297: 2291: 2289:Particle theory 2274:Johannes Kepler 2247: 2193: 2191:Classical India 2134: 2129: 2089: 2069: 2053: 2045: 2032: 2026: 1974: 1966:Main articles: 1964: 1896:television sets 1885:phosphorescence 1872:. For example, 1870:bioluminescence 1837:or a microwave 1813:lamps (such as 1728: 1722: 1711: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1626: 1598: 1594: 1582: 1578: 1569: 1565: 1553: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1525: 1519: 1460:aurora borealis 1431: 1425: 1403:of the element 1365: 1362: 1360: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1328:and one of its 1283: 1277: 1255:located in the 1238:thermal imaging 1200:static electric 1160: 1150:visible portion 1138: 1126:electric lights 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072:speed in vacuum 972: 943: 942: 939: 938: 937: 927: 919: 918: 579: 571: 570: 561:Quantum gravity 511:Complex systems 409: 401: 400: 336: 328: 327: 273:Albert Einstein 263: 255: 228: 224: 219: 207: 203: 188: 184: 182: 179: 178: 177: 149: 145: 140: 130: 125: 98: 94: 89: 78: 77: 75: 72: 71: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6091: 6081: 6080: 6075: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6054: 6044: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6010: 6008: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5923: 5921: 5915: 5914: 5912: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5895: 5894: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5848: 5846: 5837: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5792: 5790: 5784: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5730:Pastel colours 5722: 5721: 5720: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5661: 5659: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5593: 5591: 5582: 5576: 5575: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5568: 5560: 5559:(Schopenhauer) 5552: 5547: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5514: 5512:Primary colour 5503: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5453: 5452: 5436: 5434: 5425: 5417: 5416: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5398:Colour mapping 5395: 5390: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5376: 5375: 5374: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5331: 5330: 5325: 5323:Colour balance 5314: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5280:Kruithof curve 5277: 5272: 5267: 5261: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5249: 5242: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5230: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5166: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5152:Sonochromatism 5143: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5120: 5119: 5109: 5108: 5107: 5102: 5092: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5064: 5062: 5061:Colour physics 5055: 5053:Colour science 5049: 5048: 5040: 5039: 5032: 5025: 5017: 5008: 5007: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4954: 4952: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4918: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4826:Health physics 4823: 4822: 4821: 4816: 4807: 4805: 4799: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4784:Dark radiation 4781: 4776: 4774:Bremsstrahlung 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4686:Nuclear fusion 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4656:Alpha particle 4653: 4648: 4643: 4637: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4584: 4582: 4573: 4569: 4568: 4560: 4559: 4552: 4545: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4518: 4504: 4490: 4489:External links 4487: 4484: 4483: 4448: 4433: 4407: 4388: 4382:. Birkhäuser. 4368: 4355: 4335: 4313: 4302:on 30 May 2015 4272: 4265: 4247: 4220: 4214:978-8183564366 4213: 4195: 4150:(8): 731–735. 4144:Nature Physics 4133: 4117: 4099:10.1086/141035 4084:(5): 315–351. 4064: 4010: 3980: 3950: 3919: 3899: 3864: 3838: 3802: 3787: 3765: 3738: 3733:10.1086/143021 3703: 3692:Chisholm, Hugh 3673: 3640:(3): 254–278. 3620: 3583: 3561: 3541: 3519: 3499: 3468:(4): 339–341. 3450: 3436: 3416: 3402: 3382: 3368: 3348: 3334: 3312:. p. 11. 3296: 3275: 3231: 3224: 3204: 3185: 3165: 3148: 3122: 3100: 3078: 3034: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3020: 3015: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2990: 2984: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2954: 2951:Science portal 2940: 2937:Physics portal 2924: 2921: 2905:photosynthesis 2895:use to create 2881: 2878: 2812:squeezed light 2807:H. Jeff Kimble 2795:coherent state 2789:of light (see 2783:Leonard Mandel 2779:Roy J. Glauber 2766:Quantum optics 2764:Main article: 2761: 2760:Quantum optics 2758: 2726:Pascual Jordan 2720:quantized the 2701:In 1924–1925, 2643: 2642:Quantum theory 2640: 2636:spectral lines 2620:Heinrich Hertz 2618:. Soon after, 2582:magnetic field 2571:magnetic field 2567:electric field 2551:Main article: 2548: 2545: 2537:speed of light 2490:Leonhard Euler 2409: 2406: 2293:Main article: 2290: 2287: 2258:Ibn al-Haytham 2250:René Descartes 2246: 2243: 2192: 2189: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2028:Main article: 2025: 2024:Light pressure 2022: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1942: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1858:bremsstrahlung 1795:emission lines 1754:; 10,340 1710: 1707: 1695:contact lenses 1640: 1636: 1632: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1609: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1521:Main article: 1518: 1515: 1427:Main article: 1424: 1421: 1407:, one team at 1281:Speed of light 1279:Main article: 1276: 1275:Speed of light 1273: 1156:Main article: 1137: 1134: 1122:kerosene lamps 1107:modern physics 974: 973: 971: 970: 963: 956: 948: 945: 944: 941: 940: 935:Modern physics 933: 932: 928: 925: 924: 921: 920: 917: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 769:P. W. Anderson 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 580: 577: 576: 573: 572: 569: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 531:Plasma physics 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 457: 456: 451: 446: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 410: 407: 406: 403: 402: 399: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 337: 334: 333: 330: 329: 326: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 303:Wolfgang Pauli 300: 298:Pascual Jordan 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 264: 261: 260: 257: 256: 247: 234: 231: 227: 222: 218: 213: 210: 206: 202: 199: 194: 191: 187: 166: 163: 160: 157: 152: 148: 143: 136: 133: 129: 124: 121: 118: 115: 112: 109: 106: 101: 97: 92: 85: 82: 68: 67: 65:Modern physics 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6090: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6053: 6045: 6043: 6035: 6034: 6031: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6007: 6003: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5893: 5890: 5889: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5834: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5789:organisations 5785: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5738: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5725:Colourfulness 5723: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5658: 5654: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5577: 5566: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5508: 5507:Colour mixing 5505: 5504: 5502: 5500: 5499:Colour theory 5496: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5479:Light-on-dark 5477: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5446: 5443: 5442: 5441: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5433: 5432:Colour scheme 5429: 5426: 5424: 5418: 5413: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5385: 5382: 5381: 5380: 5377: 5373: 5370: 5369: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5307: 5301: 5300:Chromotherapy 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5243: 5241: 5240:Tetrachromacy 5238: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5225: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5164:Achromatopsia 5162: 5161: 5160: 5157: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5148: 5147:Chromesthesia 5145: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5113: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5050: 5045: 5038: 5033: 5031: 5026: 5024: 5019: 5018: 5015: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4995:Radioactivity 4992: 4985: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4800: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4718: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4661:Beta particle 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4646:Cluster decay 4644: 4642: 4639: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4577: 4574: 4572:Main articles 4570: 4565: 4558: 4553: 4551: 4546: 4544: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4528: 4523: 4519: 4517:at Wiktionary 4516: 4515: 4509: 4505: 4502: 4497: 4493: 4492: 4479: 4475: 4470:(Scanned PDF) 4468: 4467: 4459: 4452: 4444: 4437: 4429: 4424: 4423: 4414: 4412: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4381: 4380: 4372: 4365: 4359: 4353: 4352:1-4020-2697-8 4349: 4345: 4339: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4318: 4298: 4294: 4287: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4268: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4216: 4210: 4206: 4199: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4129: 4121: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4014: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3984: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3954: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3909: 3903: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3880:(10): 46–51. 3879: 3875: 3874:IEEE Spectrum 3868: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3823: 3819: 3812: 3806: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3769: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3699: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3687:"Light" 3680: 3678: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3608: 3604: 3601:(in French). 3600: 3599: 3594: 3587: 3580: 3568: 3564: 3558: 3554: 3553: 3545: 3538: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3503: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3462: 3454: 3439: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3420: 3405: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3386: 3371: 3365: 3361: 3360: 3352: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3292: 3286: 3278: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3235: 3227: 3221: 3217: 3216: 3208: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3178: 3177: 3169: 3162: 3151: 3145: 3141: 3136: 3135: 3126: 3119: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3082: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3050: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3013: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2982: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2946: 2941: 2938: 2932: 2927: 2920: 2918: 2917:vampire squid 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2887:provides the 2886: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2767: 2757: 2755: 2751: 2750:Freeman Dyson 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2730:Vladimir Fock 2727: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2695: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2544: 2542: 2541:Léon Foucault 2538: 2533: 2531: 2525: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2428:perpendicular 2425: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2405: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2363: 2358: 2357:gravitational 2354: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2286: 2282: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2223: 2222:Vishnu Purana 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2197:ancient India 2188: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2142:four elements 2139: 2124: 2122: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2097: 2095: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2058:laser pointer 2051: 2043: 2042: 2037: 2031: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1973: 1969: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1929:Scintillation 1927: 1925: 1922: 1921: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1811:gas discharge 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1720: 1716: 1709:Light sources 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1630: 1607: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1559: 1554: 1550: 1542: 1541: 1540: 1538: 1529: 1524: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1448: 1443: 1435: 1430: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1374:Léon Foucault 1371: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1272: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1239: 1235: 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J. 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