876:
1021:
701:
1003:
984:
457:
949:
965:
761:
937:
1064:
923:
1040:
909:
122:
402:
895:
104:
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314:
environments. They sometimes reached heights of 50 metres (160 feet), and the trunks were often over 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter. They are often known as "scale trees", due to their bark having been covered in diamond shaped leaf-bases, from which leaves grew during earlier stages of
423:
species were comparable in size to modern trees. The plants had tapering trunks as wide as 2 m (6.6 ft) at their base that rose to about 40 m (130 ft) and even 50 m (160 ft), arising from an underground system of horizontally spreading branches that were covered with
735:
is used when the leaf cushions and the majority of cortical tissues has decayed, with a shallow "fluted" surface remaining. However, it has been suggested that these are more likely growth forms than preserved bark types, as entire fossilized trunks have been discovered with dissimilar forms; if
582:
leaves formed a cylindrical shell around branches. The leaves were only present on thin and young branches, indicating that, though the lycopsid were evergreen, they did not retain their needles for as long as modern conifers. The leaf-cushions were fusiform and elongated, growing at most to a
788:. The rate of growth of arborescent lycophytes is disputed, some authors contended that they had a rapid life cycle, growing to their maximum size and dying in only 10 to 15 years, while other authors argue that these growth rates were overestimated. Rather than reproduce with seeds,
621:. Below the leaf scar the leaf-cushion tapered to a basal position. In this tapering area, circular impressions with fine pits were present. These impressions were continuous with the parichnos scars near the top of the tapering portion. This is because the impressions are formed by
875:
1020:
1002:
643:
lycopsid grew the leaf-cushion only grew to a certain extent, past which the leaf-cushion stretched. This stretching widened the groove that separated the leaf-cushions, creating a broad, flat channel.
601:
layer cut a leaf from its base. Each leaf scar was composed of a central circular or triangular scar and two lateral scars that were smaller and oval-shaped. This central scar marks where the main
776:
grew as single, unbranched trunk, with leaves growing out of the scale leaf bases (cushions). Towards the end of the lycopod growth, the leaves on the lower part of the trunk were shed, and in
495:
lycopsid produced only secondary xylem. As the lycopods aged, the wood produced by the unifacial cambium decreased towards the top of the plant such that terminal twigs resembled young
635:. In some leaf-cushions a second depression was present above the ligular pit. Though its purpose is unclear, it has been suggested that the depression may mark the position of a
1063:
1619:"End Permian to Middle Triassic plant species richness and abundance patterns in South China: Coevolution of plants and the environment through the Permian–Triassic transition"
983:
860:(in its broad sense) only becoming extinct around the end of the Permian, around 252 million years ago, as a result of the extreme environmental disturbance caused by the
625:
tissue that developed in closely with the parichnos. Above the leaf scar was a deep triangular impression known as the "ligular pit" for its similarities to the
796:
situated on fertile stems that grew on or near the main trunk. The fertile stems grew together in cone-like structures that clustered at the tips of branches.
1878:
1873:
1697:"Plant fossils of the British Coal Measures" by Christopher J.Cleal and Barry A.Thomas, publ. The Palaeontological Association, London, 1994, 222 pages,
499:
stems. Compared to modern trees, the stems and branches of the lycopsids contained little wood with the majority of mature stems consisting of a massive
948:
736:
decay is assumed to be constant throughout the trunk, then different forms indicate growth rather than levels of decay. It is likely that the trunk of
676:. These rhizomorphic axes were shoot-like, and dichotomous branching of the rootlets structured the stigmarian systems. Rootlet scars can be seen from
195:
1435:
1267:
964:
1789:
1707:
J. M. Anderson and H. M. Anderson. 1985. Palaeoflora of
Southern Africa. Prodromus of South African Megafloras Devonian to Lower Cretaceous 1-423
1039:
1617:
Xu, Zhen; Hilton, Jason; Yu, Jianxin; Wignall, Paul B.; Yin, Hongfu; Xue, Qing; Ran, Weiju; Li, Hui; Shen, Jun; Meng, Fansong (September 2022).
539:
depended on their outer bark rather than their vascular tissues, as compared to modern trees that rely mostly on their central mass of wood.
820:
regions. The lycopsid inhabited an extensive area compared to tropical flora of the same time period, with lycopods growing as far north as
1858:
506:. The nearly-uniform growth of this cortical tissue indicates no difference in growth during changing seasons, and the absence of dormant
848:
became extinct at the end of the
Carboniferous, as part of a broader pattern of ecological change, including the increasing dominance of
1868:
1863:
1763:
700:
1968:
1883:
1193:
1973:
1203:
613:
of the stem into the leaf. This forked strand is sometimes referred to as the "parichnos". Surrounding this strand were
558:
The leaves of the lycopsid were needle-like and were densely spiraled about young shoots, each possessing only a single
1913:
1908:
1888:
808:
and dormant buds indicates no seasonal growth patterns, and modern plants with similar characteristics tend to grow in
708:
429:
1958:
1893:
1702:
1688:
1669:
1502:
1290:
861:
781:
425:
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cells and occasionally thick-walled elements. Surrounding both conducting tissues was a broad sheath of transfusion
1903:
1365:
Strullu-Derrien, Christine; Strullu, Désiré-Georges (November 2007). "Mycorrhization of fossil and living plants".
922:
1953:
1943:
1923:
1843:
1523:"A new Bergeria (Flemingitaceae) from the Mississippian of Xinjiang, NW China and its evolutionary implications"
535:
formed peg-like projections that stretched and tore as the bark stretched. To resist the bending force of wind,
1098:
1938:
1918:
1853:
936:
374:
852:
in lowland wetland forests, and increasingly arid-adapted vegetation across western Pangea. However, in the
908:
456:
121:
605:
of the leaf connected to the vascular system of the stem. This xylem bundle was composed only of primary
424:
many rootlets. Though the height of the lycopsids make the plants similar to modern trees, the constant
1848:
1400:
Thomas, B.A. and Watson, Joan (1976). "A rediscovered 114-foot
Lepidodendron from Bolton, Lancashire".
1169:
894:
856:
region comprising what is now China, wet tropical environmental conditions continued to prevail, with
1963:
1933:
1012:
1948:
609:. The two outer scars mark the forked branches of a strand of vascular tissue that passed from the
1898:
1754:
1618:
1820:
1928:
1716:
1572:"An introduction to ice ages, climate dynamics and biotic events: the Late Pennsylvanian world"
363:
315:
growth. However, they are correctly defined as arborescent lycophytes. They thrived during the
306:. It is well preserved and common in the fossil record. Like other Lepidodendrales, species of
1794:
1815:
1807:
1571:
1570:
Lucas, Spencer G.; DiMichele, William A.; Opluštil, Stanislav; Wang, Xiangdong (2023-06-14).
1429:
483:
cambium of modern trees. Though the bifacial cambium of modern trees produces both secondary
1630:
1583:
1534:
1409:
1374:
1319:
760:
8:
1050:
336:
1634:
1587:
1538:
1413:
1378:
1323:
464:. The "diamond shape" or scale impressions are common indicators of the leaf scars from
1342:
1307:
1261:
266:
116:
1802:
1698:
1684:
1665:
1599:
1552:
1498:
1475:
1347:
1286:
1249:
1199:
473:
320:
1642:
1308:"Networks of highly branched stigmarian rootlets developed on the first giant trees"
562:. The leaves were similar to those of a fir in some species and similar to those of
1638:
1591:
1542:
1465:
1417:
1382:
1337:
1327:
885:
564:
480:
476:
432:
that contrasts with that of modern trees. At the ends of branches were oval-shaped
1231:
1171:
Geografiia rastenii s osnovani botaniki (Geography of plants and basics of botany)
1251:
1116:
610:
602:
500:
303:
182:
1386:
785:
606:
360:
347:
is both used for the whole plant as well as specifically the stems and leaves.
299:
169:
146:
1547:
1522:
1837:
1739:
1603:
1556:
1195:Палеонтологический музей имени Ю.А. Орлова (The Orlov Museum of Paleontology)
1092:
1085:
825:
519:
401:
316:
61:
1332:
1595:
1479:
1351:
1109:
1103:
1031:
993:
805:
518:
species. The outermost cortex of oldest stems developed into the bark-like
1421:
1776:
1748:
829:
821:
817:
511:
340:
328:
311:
103:
36:
1768:
1144:
1123:
849:
841:
689:
658:
636:
622:
614:
598:
574:
81:
46:
1781:
1470:
1453:
1137:
853:
793:
664:
594:
579:
559:
547:
532:
433:
409:
159:
86:
1710:
1454:"Arborescent lycophyte growth in the late Carboniferous coal swamps"
656:
and similar lycopsid species known from the fossil record including
1733:
1497:(illustrated ed.). University of Michigan Press. p. 429.
1130:
809:
669:
618:
522:
503:
76:
71:
56:
51:
41:
1285:(illustrated ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 321.
719:
genera have been described to name the various levels of decay in
327:
around 252 million years ago. Sometimes erroneously called "giant
1492:
974:
631:
332:
324:
292:
221:
91:
66:
16:
Extinct genus of vascular plants of the
Carboniferous to Triassic
1521:
Feng, Ru; D’Rozario, Ashalata; Zhang, Jian-Wei (December 2019).
393:
716:
626:
484:
441:
1250:
1399:
681:
527:
488:
295:
133:
792:
lycopsids reproduced with spores. The spores were stored in
1236:. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–192.
1054:
731:
is used when cushions have been removed by deep decay, and
525:. The bark of the lycopsid was somewhat similar to that of
1569:
593: in). The middle of leaf-cushions were smooth, where
583:
length of 8 cm (3 in) and a width of 2 cm (
507:
445:
331:", the genus was actually more closely related to modern
1073:, showing dichotomous branching at the top of the trunk
1364:
1305:
1229:
1011:
stem impression displayed at a collection held in the
1306:
Hetherington, A.J.; Berry, C.M.; Dolan, Liam (2016).
1452:
Thomas, Barry A.; Cleal, Christopher J. (May 2018).
668:. The rootlets were dichotomously branched from the
367:
1659:
1520:
727:describes stems that have lost their epidermises,
680:fossils where the root hairs used to be attached.
1616:
1233:Fossil plants: for students of botany and geology
1835:
1576:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
1280:
1256:. Chronica Botanica Company. pp. 176–177.
440:that had a similar shape to modern cones of a
1253:An introduction to historical plant geography
1191:
1167:
1434:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1266:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
572:species are indistinguishable from those of
1879:Paleozoic life of the Northwest Territories
1874:Paleozoic life of Newfoundland and Labrador
1451:
1299:
1245:
1243:
1174:. Gos. nauchno-pedagog. izd-vo. p. 167
740:lycopsids were subject to the growth forms
684:are occasionally present in the tissues of
568:in others, though in general the leaves of
1493:John Adam Dorr, Donald F. Eschman (1970).
1225:
1223:
1221:
768:, showing the unbranched trunk with leaves
755:
383:
310:grew as large-tree-like plants in wetland
102:
1546:
1469:
1341:
1331:
1163:
1161:
647:
1240:
759:
752:progressing up the trunk, respectively.
699:
546:
455:
400:
392:
111:Trunk fragment, showing leaf base scars
1218:
1030:diagrams from the Geological Survey of
1836:
1678:
1185:
1158:
688:lycopsids, indicating the presence of
323:), and persisted until the end of the
1715:
1714:
1664:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books.
1516:
1514:
1447:
1445:
816:species were distributed throughout
302:vascular plants belonging the order
1859:Carboniferous life of North America
1660:Davis, Paul; Kenrick, Paul (2004).
772:During the early stages of growth,
335:than to modern club mosses. In the
13:
1653:
1511:
1442:
1408:(1). Wiley Online Library: 15–20.
1283:The Evolutionary Biology of Plants
1274:
709:Estonian Museum of Natural History
14:
1985:
862:Permian-Triassic extinction event
1069:1911 reconstruction of a mature
1062:
1038:
1019:
1001:
982:
963:
947:
935:
921:
907:
893:
874:
662:are assigned to the form taxon,
472:The stem of the lycopsids had a
120:
34:
32:Early Carboniferous–Late Permian
1869:Paleozoic life of New Brunswick
1864:Fossils of Georgia (U.S. state)
1643:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104136
1610:
1563:
1486:
1230:Seward, Albert Charles (1898).
1198:. Moscow: PIN RAN. p. 56.
799:
1393:
1358:
1099:Evolutionary history of plants
780:, the upper part of the trunk
652:The underground structures of
510:further indicates the lack of
479:cambium, contrasting with the
1:
1969:Fossil taxa described in 1820
1884:Paleozoic life of Nova Scotia
1151:
835:
764:Reconstruction of a juvenile
1974:Prehistoric lycophyte genera
350:
258:Anderson & Anderson 1986
7:
1078:
929:Lepidodendron lycopodioides
491:, the unifacial cambium of
388:
368:
10:
1990:
1683:. Portland: Timber Press.
1681:A Natural History of Ferns
1527:Journal of Palaeogeography
1387:10.1016/j.crpv.2007.09.006
867:
278:B.A.Thomas & C.J.Cleal
1914:Permian life of Australia
1909:Paleozoic life of Oceania
1889:Paleozoic life of Nunavut
1723:
1679:Morran, Robin C. (2004).
1548:10.1186/s42501-018-0020-4
1013:National Museum of Brazil
542:
272:
265:
227:
220:
117:Scientific classification
115:
110:
101:
23:
1959:Paleozoic life of Europe
1894:Paleozoic life of Quebec
695:
1904:Fossils of South Africa
1333:10.1073/pnas.1514427113
1281:Karl J. Niklas (1997).
915:Lepidodendron aculeatum
756:Growth and reproduction
723:bark fossils. The name
451:
384:Description and biology
319:Period (358.9 to 298.9
1954:Fossils of South Korea
1944:Fossils of North Korea
1924:Paleozoic life of Asia
1844:Prehistoric lycophytes
1596:10.1144/SP535-2022-334
1367:Comptes Rendus Palevol
1192:A. V. Lopatin (2012).
1168:V. V. Alekhin (1961).
769:
712:
648:Underground Structures
555:
469:
460:Leaf scars shown on a
428:of branches created a
417:
398:
1816:Paleobiology Database
1623:Earth-Science Reviews
1422:10.1002/gj.3350110102
977:, Nova Scotia, Canada
901:Lepidodendron elegans
888:, Lower Pennsylvanian
812:conditions. However,
763:
703:
639:. As the branch of a
597:were created when an
550:
459:
404:
396:
1939:Fossils of Indonesia
1919:Fossils of Australia
1854:Pennsylvanian plants
824:and as far south as
1635:2022ESRv..23204136X
1588:2023GSLSP.535..334L
1539:2019JPalG...8....4F
1495:Geology of Michigan
1414:1976GeolJ..11...15T
1379:2007CRPal...6..483S
1324:2016PNAS..113.6695H
1051:Upper Carboniferous
996:, Glasgow, Scotland
992:fossil stumps from
958:with leafy branches
337:form classification
1402:Geological Journal
770:
713:
556:
470:
418:
399:
1849:Prehistoric trees
1831:
1830:
1803:Open Tree of Life
1717:Taxon identifiers
1471:10.1111/nph.14903
1318:(24): 6695–6700.
1205:978-5-903825-14-1
1045:External mold of
1009:Lepidodendron sp.
882:Lepidodendron sp.
705:Lepidodendron sp.
481:bifacial vascular
321:million years ago
284:
283:
276:Dimicheleodendron
255:L. whitehillianum
216:
1981:
1964:Fossils of Italy
1934:Fossils of China
1824:
1823:
1811:
1810:
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1373:(6–7): 483–494.
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942:Life restoration
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886:Pottsville Group
878:
784:branched into a
592:
591:
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565:Pinus roxburghii
371:
259:
251:
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196:Lepidodendraceae
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29:Temporal range:
21:
20:
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1949:Fossils of Oman
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1654:Further reading
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1117:Lepidodendrales
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954:Restoration of
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832:range of 120°.
802:
758:
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603:vascular bundle
589:
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359:comes from the
353:
339:system used in
304:Lepidodendrales
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215:Sternberg, 1820
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183:Lepidodendrales
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1464:(3): 885–890.
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884:bark from the
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707:bark from the
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692:associations.
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1122:
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1110:Glossopteris
1108:
1104:Fossil Grove
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1084:
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1032:Pennsylvania
1027:
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994:Fossil Grove
989:
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804:The lack of
803:
800:Distribution
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246:
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231:L. aculeatum
230:
209:
208:
153:
140:
24:
18:
1777:iNaturalist
1749:Wikispecies
1582:(1): 1–15.
850:seed plants
830:latitudinal
822:Spitsbergen
818:subtropical
690:mycorrhizal
672:similar to
512:seasonality
468:lycophytes.
397:Restoration
341:paleobotany
329:club mosses
312:coal forest
247:L. obovatum
1838:Categories
1629:: 104136.
1211:2020-10-05
1178:2020-10-05
1152:References
1145:Sigillaria
1124:Lycophytes
973:bark from
842:Euramerica
836:Extinction
746:Aspidiaria
729:Aspidiariu
715:Different
659:Sigillaria
637:sporangium
623:aerenchyma
615:parenchyma
599:abscission
595:leaf scars
575:Sigillaria
533:leaf scars
416:lycophytes
333:quillworts
300:lycopodian
239:L. batovii
160:Lycophytes
1604:0305-8719
1557:2524-4507
1262:cite book
1138:Stigmaria
1049:from the
854:Cathaysia
794:sporangia
678:Stigmaria
665:Stigmaria
619:tracheids
580:decurrent
474:unifacial
426:dichotomy
410:strobilus
355:The name
351:Etymology
130:Kingdom:
1734:Wikidata
1533:(1): 4.
1480:29282734
1352:27226309
1131:Lycopsid
1079:See also
1026:Various
810:tropical
750:Bergeria
725:Bergeria
670:rhizomes
551:Leaf of
523:periderm
504:meristem
501:cortical
477:vascular
434:strobili
389:Overview
380:, tree.
267:Synonyms
189:Family:
1808:5154628
1795:1071081
1769:4894389
1740:Q576530
1631:Bibcode
1584:Bibcode
1535:Bibcode
1410:Bibcode
1375:Bibcode
1343:4914198
1320:Bibcode
975:Joggins
868:Gallery
828:, in a
742:Knorria
733:Knorria
674:Isoetes
632:Isoetes
607:trachea
588:⁄
436:called
378:dendron
375:δένδρον
325:Permian
293:extinct
222:Species
202:Genus:
176:Order:
166:Class:
134:Plantae
1821:125629
1782:202859
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682:Hyphae
627:ligule
611:cortex
543:Leaves
485:phloem
442:spruce
408:, the
291:is an
1790:IRMNG
786:crown
696:Decay
528:Picea
489:xylem
430:habit
369:lepis
364:λεπίς
361:Greek
296:genus
154:Clade
141:Clade
1764:GBIF
1699:ISBN
1685:ISBN
1666:ISBN
1600:ISSN
1553:ISSN
1499:ISBN
1476:PMID
1436:link
1348:PMID
1312:PNAS
1287:ISBN
1268:link
1200:ISBN
1055:Ohio
560:vein
508:buds
487:and
452:Stem
37:PreꞒ
1639:doi
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