711:. By the time of the Oruanui eruption the lower reaches of the Waikato River were a mature river system. It is unknown if the evidence for some historic drainage well before the Oruanui eruption, into the Hamilton Basin by the Waikato River relates to a period when Lake Huka existed. Whatever the destruction of Lake Huka was associated ultimately by the breakdown of a volcanic dam located over the central portion of the former Lake Huka and then a change in the Waikato River course so that it now flowed through the Waikato Basin, into the
50:
57:
327:, and was only accurately dated recently. The Huka Falls Formation is above the mainly volcanic Waiora Formation, some of which is hard to distinguish from the Huka Falls Formation at its margins, and beneath the Oruanui Formation (Wairakei Breccia). The formation is most well characterised in its middle section due to well drilling for geothermal development and here there are three distinct units:
251:. In length this is about 100 km (62 mi) and while the width of the Taupō-Reporoa basin deposits is about 20 km (12 mi), deposits identified onshore of Lake Taupō suggest a maximum width may have been about 30 km (19 mi) to the south. However, as Waiora Formation assigned deposits might to contribute to this wider width, the definite lake may not have been this wide.
851:
estimates published before 2020, to be consistent with the 2020 work and such corrected ages will be marked by this note. It has been assumed in this re-basing that the Waiora
Formation pre-dates Lake Huka. No doubt other lakes existed in the area before Lake Huka, and may have been incorporated when it formed.
366:
During the lake's existence its size, while never small, varied. Because of the length of its existence, relevant processes to such change, being structurally controlled subsidence, subsidence following explosive eruptions or by volcanic eruptions blocking water outflows and silting may have applied.
320:, as used to determine most eruption timings relevant to Lake Huka's evolution, has this, the largest eruption on earth in the past 70,000 years timed at 25,360 ± 160 BP. The Oruanui eruption can not be timed directly by zircon dating and has now been corrected by other means to 25,675 ± 90 years BP.
850:
Recent ages used in the table have been obtained except for the
Oruanui eruption by zircon dating. Age estimations from different original sources used in the table may need correction. For example the lake may have existed for 100,000 years less than previously estimated. This article has corrected
819:
to 25.675 ± 0.09 ka cal BP. The previous ice core date of 25.318 ± .25 ka BP using the WD2014 timescale was corrected to 25.718 ka. The review article used here as source says around 25,500 years ago which is not a precise statement like the later 2022 corrections. As the 2022 re-calibration of the
309:. The high stand was about 400 m (1,300 ft) above present mean sea level, but given the rate of rift extension (subsidence) and historic much lower sea levels this relative level is almost meaningless to try to define further. Evidence for more than one high stand/lake terrace does exist.
877:
Tauhara
Formation lavas and pyroclastic deposits but there is overlap in time between these and the upper Huka Falls Formation. The oldest part of the Taupo Group that overlaps in time with the lower Huka Falls Formation is the K-Trig Formation. Finally the two Te Mihi and Racetrack rhyolite lavas
670:
The
Oruanui eruption occurred in a ten-stage process with the main vents located under the southern Lake Huka system. There is a fair possibility on geological grounds that the southern section of Lake Huka, had recently separated from the northern section to create what could be called the first
290:
massiff had started forming about 349,000 years ago, with its Tupuna and
Haumata formations predating the lake, so that its high ground likely delimited the lake to the south. Volcanic deposits washed down from the Tongariro River drainage were to silt up its southern end as is the case with Lake
562:
Evidence of most of these was destroyed in the
Oruanui eruption. The south east andesitic-basalt of the Karangahape Cliffs on the west side of Lake Taupō and observation that the Oruanui ignimbrite to the east of the lake comprises up to 50% andesitic lithology suggests that an andesitic cone of
727:
with a shoreline terrace at about 360 m (1,180 ft) and lake deposits at up to 400 m (1,300 ft) above today's sea level but this was either drained before the main break-out flood from Lake Taupō, or was destroyed during the break-out flood. Much later, after the 232 CE
477:
New central western shoreline. K-trig commenced this which did not finish until about 45 ka as defined by the
Punatekahi cone and its Tihoi Tephra. These deposits have Huka Falls Formation under them and in places over them consistent with higher lake stands and erosion of the volcanics.
304:
by 222,000 years ago defined the western shore. The lake's high stand remained fairly constant throughout its lifetime and was dictated by the emplacement of the last Waiora
Formation eruptives in the north-west of the lake allowing its creation. This took place at 220,000 ± 31,000
2020:
Dong, Xiyu; Kathayat, Gayatri; Rasmussen, Sune O.; Svensson, Anders; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Li, Hanying; Sinha, Ashish; Xu, Yao; Zhang, Haiwei; Shi, Zhengguo; Cai, Yanjun; Pérez-Mejías, Carlos; Baker, Jonathan; Zhao, Jingyao; Spötl, Christoph (2022-10-04).
1471:
Rosenberg, MD; Wilson, CJ; Bignall, G; Ireland, TR; Sepulveda, F; Charlier, BL (15 January 2020). "Structure and evolution of the
Wairakei–Tauhara geothermal system (Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand) revisited with a new zircon geochronology".
860:
The geological terms used are those of
Rosenberg et al. 2020. Because a number of terms have been used to classify the local rock secession the following may help in understanding this article in the context of other articles on Knowledge. The
295:
has been dated to 229 ± 1 ka so may not have been active from the time of lakes formation but may have therefore defined a south-western initial shore. In the center and to the west the rhyolitic volcanic deposits associated with the
671:
Lake Taupō, due to either or both of pre-eruption upwarping shortly before the eruption itself, or in a process that likely commenced about a thousand years earlier, due to eruptive activity of the Poihipi volcano adjoining
275:
of 349,000 years ago, for example has deposits up to 50m thick typically at least 650 m (2,130 ft) below the present ground level. At its northern end in the Taupō-Reporoa Basin the eruptions that had formed the
1711:
Peti, L; Hopkins, JL; Augustinus, PC (3 July 2021). "Revised tephrochronology for key tephras in the 130-ka Ōrākei Basin maar core, Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand: implications for the timing of climatic changes".
36:(darker blue shading). The dark blue line delimits the well defined area of the Huka Lake Formation so shaded areas outside this indicates only limited samples. Mouse over is enabled if the map is clicked to enlarge it.
768:, is endemic to New Zealand's North Island it would serve if identified in tephra to confirm the eruptive source region. Diatoms have been identified in tephra from the eruption 850 km (530 mi) away on the
810:
The age of the Oruanui eruption has been determined by several independent methods and may be subject to further correction. The reference age for the zircon dating used elsewhere in this article of 25.36
1882:"Shallow subaqueous to emergent intra-caldera silicic volcanism of the Motuoapa Peninsula, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand–New constraints from geologic mapping, sedimentology and zircon geochronology"
1661:
643:
Narrowed at least, if not blocked the shoreline in central region cutting Lake Huka in half about 27,000 years ago. These events included the phreatoplinian Poihipi eruption from Rubbish Tip Dome.
865:(Rosenberg et al. 2020) contains the Oruanui Formation as its most recent deposited member but this is slightly different to how the term Oruanui Formation was defined when it replaced the term
775:
The earlier Taupō Volcano Okaia eruption, that erupted through Lake Huka, also dispersed diatom specimens from lake sediments, with a very similar ecological population to the Oruanui eruption.
323:
The Huka Falls Formation was described first in 1965, and is mainly subsurface. It is found between 400–100 m (1,310–330 ft) above present mean sea level in this middle portion of the
1509:
Dunbar, Nelia W.; Iverson, Nels A.; Van Eaton, Alexa R.; Sigl, Michael; Alloway, Brent V.; Kurbatov, Andrei V.; Mastin, Larry G.; McConnell, Joseph R.; Wilson, Colin J. N. (25 September 2017).
1674:
Cattell, HJ; Cole, JW; Oze, C; Allen, SR (2014). "Eruptive origins of a lacustrine pyroclastic succession: insights from the middle Huka Falls Formation, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand".
723:
Lake Taupō was formed and filled over a period of about a hundred years after the Oruanui eruption. In the former northern region of Lake Huka there is evidence for a temporary lake in the
2084:"Reinterpretation of the post-26 ka Taupō Rhyolitic Magmatic System (New Zealand) as Deep and Vertically Extensive Based on Isotope Thermometry and Measured and Modeled Zircon Destinies"
1929:
215:, occupies the area of the southern part of the former lake. Diatoms from sediments erupted from the former lake floor have been identified 850 km (530 mi) away on the
764:
ecosystem became less likely due to reorganisation of the watershed in the aftermath of the eruption, and climate warming following the Last Glacial Maximum. Further as
1863:
Sedimentology and history of Lake Reporoa: an ephemeral supra-ignimbrite lake, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand in Volcaniclastic sedimentation in lacustrine settings
1832:
Van Eaton, Alexa R.; Harper, Margaret A.; Wilson, Colin J.N. (2013). "High-flying diatoms: Widespread dispersal of microorganisms in an explosive volcanic eruption".
1751:"Compositional and textural characteristics of the strombolian and surtseyan K-Trig basalts, Taupo Volcanic Centre, New Zealand: Implications for eruption dynamics"
1663:
Volcanic evolution of the Huka Group at Wairakei-Tauhara Geothermal Field, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Doctor of Philosophy in Geological Sciences thesis
687:
Outflow of Lake Huka was always via the Waikato River, but had major downstream implications to the evolving geology of the Hamilton Basin as now found in the
2131:
1977:
Muscheler, Raimund; Adolphi, Florian; Heaton, Timothy J; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Svensson, Anders; van der Plicht, Johannes; Reimer, Paula J (2020).
1786:"Eruptive and environmental processes recorded by diatoms in volcanically dispersed lake sediments from the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand"
1587:
Bignall, G; Milicich, SD; Ramirez, LE; Rosenberg, MD; Kilgour, GN; Rae, A. "Geology of the wairakei-Tauhara geothermal system, New Zealand".
1952:"The 26·5 ka Oruanui Eruption, Taupo Volcano, New Zealand: Development, Characteristics and Evacuation of a Large Rhyolitic Magma Body"
548:
Volcanic sediments from multiple eruptions were washed down into the southern lake and the southern shore line retreated to the north.
280:
Reporoa Caldera some 280,000 years ago, were to define the lakes boundaries throughout its existence. At the southern end the current
1635:"The 26.7 ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: A review of the roles of volcanism and climate in the post-eruptive sedimentary response"
92:
699:. The predominant pattern was an ancestral Waikato River that drained the Taupo Rift through the Ōngāroto Gorge and reached the
629:
This eruption's tephra deposits contained a diatom population distribution consistent with that of the later Oruanui eruption.
796:
For discussion of K-Ar verus Ar-Ar age and the former's potential for inaccuracy in low potassium oxide andesite see Pure 2020
432:
The combined massive where Tihia is a parasite cone would have contributed to making the southern end of the lake shallower.
1224:
2194:
271:
greywacke basement. This basement is known to be in places more than 3 km (1.9 mi) deep presently. The massive
1256:
1254:
1132:
1130:
1612:
869:(Chi & Brown 1991) due to later discoveries. The Taupo Group contains as we go older, the recent Taupo subaerial
1251:
1127:
2179:
2189:
207:
about 25,500 years ago, which was the largest eruption on earth in the past 70,000 years. Presently the smaller
2184:
1870:
760:
is found which is much rarer in the current volcanic lakes of the region, and this is believed to be because a
1001:
999:
997:
820:
timing of the Oruanui eruption may not be relevant to zircon dating, zircon dates are not corrected for this.
317:
1432:
Barker, SJ; Wilson, CJN; Illsley-Kemp, F; Leonard, GS; Mestel, ERH; Mauriohooho, K; Charlier, BLA (2020).
994:
247:, to beyond the southern end of Lake Taupō with the furtherest south deposits in the drainage area of the
32:
Approximate maximum Lake Huka sizes between 220,000 years ago (light blue shading) and just before the
1102:
1100:
815:
has been corrected by subsequent work. Other previous ages such as 26.5 ka, have also been updated by
312:
The lake was completely destroyed by the Oruanui eruption of the Taupō Volcano which was the largest
1597:
1385:
1097:
313:
196:
195:
whose waters, on its sudden explosive destruction, were a component in the creation of the largest
1560:
Downs, D.T.; Rowland, J.V.; Wilson, C.J.N.; Rosenberg, M.D.; Leonard, G.S.; Calvert, A.T. (2014).
816:
349:
The eruptions were under a Lake Huka water column that was 150–250 m (490–820 ft) deep
49:
423:
292:
1880:
Kósik, S; Németh, K; Danišík, M; Procter, JN; Schmitt, AK; Friedrichs, B; Stewart, RB (2021).
1562:"Evolution of the intra-arc Taupo-Reporoa basin within the Taupo Volcanic Zone of New Zealand"
324:
228:
136:
2135:
2034:
1990:
1893:
1841:
1797:
1762:
1721:
1683:
1522:
1511:"New Zealand supereruption provides time marker for the Last Glacial Maximum in Antarctica"
1481:
940:
938:
936:
934:
932:
930:
724:
715:. This change was not immediate and only occurred permanently sometime after the eruption.
8:
1598:"Alteration Mineralogy of Sediments in the Huka Falls Formation of the Te Mihi, Wairakei"
232:
2139:
2132:"Microsoft Word Supplementary document including pictures diatoms for Harper et al 2015"
2038:
1994:
1897:
1845:
1801:
1766:
1725:
1687:
1526:
1485:
927:
744:
Intact samples of erupted lake sediment from the Oruanui eruption in the form of lithic
2151:
2065:
2022:
1909:
1813:
1737:
1699:
1630:
1543:
1510:
1497:
1453:
1373:
2155:
2116:
2070:
2052:
2008:
1913:
1905:
1881:
1866:
1817:
1785:
1741:
1703:
1608:
1548:
1501:
1493:
1457:
1433:
297:
272:
1288:
1286:
679:
and that had erupted at Trig 9471 and the Rubbish Tip Domes about 27,000 years ago.
2143:
2095:
2060:
2042:
1998:
1963:
1901:
1849:
1805:
1770:
1729:
1691:
1646:
1573:
1538:
1530:
1489:
1445:
651:
200:
33:
1775:
1750:
1733:
1651:
1634:
1449:
957:
955:
953:
301:
204:
1695:
1397:
1283:
769:
729:
287:
248:
244:
216:
2100:
2083:
1200:
334:
in the Waireki area at a depth of 250–263 m (820–863 ft) below ground.
2047:
1979:"Testing and Improving the IntCal20 Calibration Curve with Independent Records"
1968:
1951:
1534:
1176:
1087:
1085:
950:
708:
696:
688:
492:
Made central portion lake shallower by about 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in).
306:
148:
2147:
1809:
2173:
2056:
2012:
1409:
700:
672:
589:
413:
284:
107:
94:
1082:
264:
240:
208:
2074:
1552:
1072:
1070:
745:
733:
704:
692:
78:
1149:
1147:
1145:
892:
316:
characterised to date, and occurred about 25,500 years ago. The reference
124:
1188:
1117:
1115:
1011:
212:
192:
2003:
1978:
1241:
1239:
1067:
1578:
1561:
1212:
1142:
749:
712:
520:
Made central portion lake shallower by about 155 m (509 ft).
463:
May have contributed to redefining central western part of lake shore.
236:
2117:"Pictures of Diatoms - Supplementary document to Van Eaton et al 2013"
1784:
Harper, MA; Pledger, SA; Smith, EG; Van Eaton, AR; Wilson, CJ (2015).
1112:
506:
Made central portion lake shallower by about 35 m (115 ft).
137:
129:
1931:
The volcanic and magmatic evolution of Tongariro volcano, New Zealand
1853:
1236:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1057:
1055:
982:
917:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
873:
lavas from the Aratiata, Trig 9471 and Rubbish tip domes, then the
870:
676:
606:
571:
281:
277:
268:
1976:
1159:
1106:
1052:
2023:"Coupled atmosphere-ice-ocean dynamics during Heinrich Stadial 2"
1861:
Manville, V (2001-04-18). James D. L. White; N. R. Riggs (eds.).
904:
449:
Would have contributed to defining the southern end of the lake.
440:
1303:
1301:
1273:
1271:
1269:
563:
cubic kilometre-scale was destroyed during the Oruanui eruption
1431:
1325:
1292:
1230:
1091:
898:
874:
753:
343:
260:
580:
Two rhyolitic erruptions that changed south-western shoreline
357:
Lower with mudstones interbedded with volcaniclastic material
331:
Upper with mudstones interbedded with volcaniclastic material
243:. The formation defines Lake Huka, and extends south from the
2019:
1470:
1349:
1337:
1298:
1266:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1136:
1005:
961:
944:
878:
are subclassified as part of the lower Huka Falls Formation.
1937:(Thesis). Te Herenga Waka-Victoria University of Wellington
1783:
1586:
1559:
1434:"Taupō: an overview of New Zealand's youngest supervolcano"
1415:
1391:
1379:
1260:
1017:
346:-rich from a relatively deep-water pyroclastic eruption(s)
1508:
1121:
972:
970:
1949:
1879:
1245:
1218:
367:
Events that impacted on the lake are shown in the table.
1950:
Wilson, CJ; Blake, S; Charlier, BL; Sutton, AN (2006).
1361:
967:
352:
Eruptions dated to between 168,000 and 92,000 years ago
1748:
1313:
1076:
598:
Created smaller new shore line eastern central region
227:
The lake is named after the Huka Falls Formation, the
1831:
1749:
Brown, SJ; Smith, RT; Cole, JW; Houghton, BF (1994).
1710:
1403:
1153:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1023:
1233:, Section: Post-Whakamaru, pre-Rotoiti (∼350–55 ka).
1673:
1170:
1061:
988:
615:Possibly only local impact south-western shoreline
1035:
337:between 25,360 ± 160 and 92,000 ± 11,000 years old
2171:
1263:, section:Discussion The 28.6 ka Okaia eruption.
85:
16:Historic lake in the North Island of New Zealand
736:were created transiently in the Reporoa Basin.
637:Trig 9471 and the Rubbish Tip Domes Emplacement
1886:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1628:
1474:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1355:
1343:
1331:
1307:
1277:
846:
1755:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
1714:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
1676:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
1639:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
1438:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
1139:, Correlations to Antarctic ice-core records.
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
1607:. University of Auckland. pp. 185–91.
1589:Proceedings Worlds Geothermal Congress 2010
360:Is younger than 220,000 ± 31,000 years ago.
823:
812:
2099:
2064:
2046:
2002:
1967:
1774:
1650:
1605:13th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop 1991
1595:
1577:
1542:
976:
259:The lake formed in a north-east oriented
2081:
1860:
1367:
806:
804:
802:
792:
790:
788:
1659:
1319:
921:
2172:
406:Emplacement Waiora Formation eruptives
1008:, Section:3. Stratigraphic framework.
799:
785:
534:Made central portion lake shallower.
1927:
1046:
1029:
528:Middle Huka Falls Formation Eruption
199:characterised to date. This was the
1669:(Thesis). University of Canterbury.
1404:Van Eaton, Harper & Wilson 2013
1154:Peti, Hopkins & Augustinus 2021
13:
14:
2206:
2109:
56:
1906:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107180
1494:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106705
211:, currently the largest lake in
55:
48:
1394:, section:Abstract, Discussion.
854:
231:'s most widespread sedimentary
766:Cyclostephanos novaezeelandiae
718:
665:
371:Events impacting on Lake Huka
1:
1776:10.1080/00288306.1994.9514604
1734:10.1080/00288306.2020.1867200
1652:10.1080/00288306.2004.9515074
1450:10.1080/00288306.2020.1792515
885:
762:Cyclostephanos novaezelandiae
758:Cyclostephanos novaezelandiae
675:whose magma chamber is under
273:Whakamaru ignimbrite eruption
235:. This is centred around the
1696:10.1080/00288306.2014.908930
1596:Chi, MA; Browne, PR (1991).
222:
7:
2195:Former lakes of New Zealand
10:
2211:
2048:10.1038/s41467-022-33583-4
1865:. Wiley. pp. 109–40.
1535:10.1038/s41598-017-11758-0
1425:
1356:Manville & Wilson 2004
1344:Manville & Wilson 2004
1332:Manville & Wilson 2004
1308:Manville & Wilson 2004
1278:Manville & Wilson 2004
739:
682:
556:Illdefined Taupo Eruptions
254:
2148:10.1007/s10933-015-9851-5
2101:10.1093/petrology/egae055
1810:10.1007/s10933-015-9851-5
1790:Journal of Paleolimnology
542:Tongariro volcanic centre
298:Whakamaru caldera complex
178:
170:
166:
158:
147:
135:
123:
84:
74:
43:
28:
23:
1969:10.1093/petrology/egi066
1660:Cattell, Hamish (2015).
1109:, Volcanic Time Markers.
778:
514:Te Mihi 1, rhyolite lava
500:Te Mihi 2, rhyolite lava
486:Racetrack, rhyolite lava
314:phreatomagmatic eruption
197:phreatomagmatic eruption
182:20 km (12 mi)+
174:100 km (62 mi)
2082:Bindeman, I.N. (2024).
2180:Pre-Holocene volcanism
390:220 to 25.36
2185:Pleistocene volcanism
2027:Nature Communications
1207:Rosenberg et al. 2020
1195:Rosenberg et al. 2020
1183:Rosenberg et al. 2020
1107:Muscheler et al. 2020
1006:Rosenberg et al. 2020
977:Chi & Browne 1991
962:Rosenberg et al. 2020
945:Rosenberg et al. 2020
393:Lake Huka's existence
2088:Journal of Petrology
1956:Journal of Petrology
703:to the north at the
695:as now found in the
457:Whakaroa ridge domes
443:, andesitic deposits
426:, andesitic deposits
2190:Taupō Volcanic Zone
2140:2015JPall..54..263H
2039:2022NatCo..13.5867D
2004:10.1017/RDC.2020.54
1995:2020Radcb..62.1079M
1898:2021JVGR..41107180K
1846:2013Geo....41.1187V
1802:2015JPall..54..263H
1767:1994NZJGG..37..113B
1726:2021NZJGG..64..235P
1688:2014NZJGG..57..331C
1527:2017NatSR...712238D
1486:2020JVGR..39006705R
1406:, section:Abstract.
1382:, section:Abstract.
1171:Cattell et al. 2014
1062:Cattell et al. 2014
989:Cattell et al. 2014
947:, Tables 1 & 2.
817:IntCal20 correction
574:Peninsula, rhyolite
525:168 ± 24 to 92 ± 11
372:
325:Taupō Volcanic Zone
229:Taupō Volcanic Zone
104: /
1928:Pure, Leo (2020).
1579:10.1130/GES00965.1
1515:Scientific Reports
1416:Harper et al. 2015
1392:Harper et al. 2015
1380:Harper et al. 2015
1293:Barker et al. 2020
1261:Harper et al. 2015
1231:Barker et al. 2020
1219:Wilson et al. 2006
1156:, pp. 191–92.
1122:Dunbar et al. 2017
1092:Barker et al. 2020
1079:, pp. 113–15.
924:, P. 119 Fig. 6.4.
899:Barker et al. 2020
370:
233:lacustrine deposit
1840:(11): 1187–1190.
1591:. pp. 25–30.
1246:Kósik et al. 2021
1077:Brown et al. 1994
1032:, p. 99-106.
1018:Downs et al. 2014
991:, p. 331-32.
663:
662:
609:Peninsula, dacite
409:North-west/Outlet
186:
185:
2202:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2105:
2103:
2078:
2068:
2050:
2016:
2006:
1989:(4): 1079–1094.
1973:
1971:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1936:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1876:
1857:
1854:10.1130/G34829.1
1828:
1826:
1824:
1796:(263–77): 1–15.
1780:
1778:
1745:
1707:
1670:
1668:
1656:
1654:
1631:Wilson, C. J. N.
1625:
1623:
1621:
1602:
1592:
1583:
1581:
1556:
1546:
1505:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1444:(2–3): 320–346.
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1359:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1334:, p. 541-2.
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1296:
1290:
1281:
1275:
1264:
1258:
1249:
1243:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1174:
1168:
1157:
1151:
1140:
1137:Dong et al. 2022
1134:
1125:
1119:
1110:
1104:
1095:
1089:
1080:
1074:
1065:
1059:
1050:
1044:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1003:
992:
986:
980:
974:
965:
959:
948:
942:
925:
919:
902:
896:
879:
867:Wairakei Breccia
858:
852:
848:
821:
814:
808:
797:
794:
756:. In particular
652:Oruanui eruption
373:
369:
201:Oruanui eruption
139:
138:Primary outflows
119:
118:
116:
115:
114:
109:
105:
102:
101:
100:
97:
87:
59:
58:
52:
34:Oruanui eruption
21:
20:
2210:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2170:
2169:
2160:
2158:
2130:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2112:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1918:
1916:
1873:
1822:
1820:
1720:(2–3): 235–49.
1666:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1600:
1462:
1460:
1428:
1423:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1390:
1386:
1378:
1374:
1366:
1362:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1299:
1291:
1284:
1276:
1267:
1259:
1252:
1244:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1160:
1152:
1143:
1135:
1128:
1120:
1113:
1105:
1098:
1090:
1083:
1075:
1068:
1060:
1053:
1045:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1004:
995:
987:
983:
975:
968:
960:
951:
943:
928:
920:
905:
897:
893:
888:
883:
882:
859:
855:
849:
824:
809:
800:
795:
786:
781:
770:Chatham Islands
742:
730:Hatepe eruption
721:
685:
668:
659:Destroyed lake
595:Eastern central
474:Western Central
288:Mount Tongariro
257:
249:Tongariro River
245:Reporoa Caldera
225:
217:Chatham Islands
151: countries
112:
110:
108:38.62°S 176.1°E
106:
103:
98:
95:
93:
91:
90:
70:
69:
68:
67:
66:
65:
64:
60:
39:
38:
37:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2208:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2168:
2167:
2128:
2111:
2110:External links
2108:
2107:
2106:
2094:(6). egae055.
2079:
2017:
1974:
1947:
1925:
1877:
1871:
1858:
1829:
1781:
1746:
1708:
1682:(3): 331–343.
1671:
1657:
1645:(3): 525–546.
1629:Manville, V.;
1626:
1613:
1593:
1584:
1572:(1): 185–206.
1557:
1506:
1468:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1408:
1396:
1384:
1372:
1370:, p. 109.
1360:
1358:, p. 535.
1348:
1346:, p. 532.
1336:
1324:
1322:, p. 120.
1312:
1310:, p. 530.
1297:
1282:
1280:, p. 528.
1265:
1250:
1235:
1223:
1211:
1199:
1187:
1175:
1173:, p. 331.
1158:
1141:
1126:
1111:
1096:
1081:
1066:
1064:, p. 332.
1051:
1034:
1022:
1020:, p. 197.
1010:
993:
981:
979:, p. 185.
966:
949:
926:
903:
890:
889:
887:
884:
881:
880:
853:
822:
798:
783:
782:
780:
777:
741:
738:
732:two temporary
720:
717:
709:Hauraki Plains
697:Hauraki Plains
684:
681:
667:
664:
661:
660:
657:
654:
649:
645:
644:
641:
638:
635:
631:
630:
627:
624:
621:
620:28.621 ± 1.428
617:
616:
613:
610:
604:
600:
599:
596:
593:
586:
582:
581:
578:
575:
569:
565:
564:
560:
557:
554:
550:
549:
546:
543:
540:
536:
535:
532:
529:
526:
522:
521:
518:
515:
512:
508:
507:
504:
501:
498:
494:
493:
490:
487:
484:
480:
479:
475:
472:
471:K-trig basalts
469:
465:
464:
461:
458:
455:
451:
450:
447:
444:
438:
434:
433:
430:
427:
421:
417:
416:
410:
407:
404:
400:
399:
397:
394:
391:
387:
386:
383:
380:
377:
364:
363:
362:
361:
355:
354:
353:
350:
340:
339:
338:
335:
256:
253:
224:
221:
184:
183:
180:
176:
175:
172:
168:
167:
164:
163:
160:
156:
155:
152:
145:
144:
141:
133:
132:
127:
121:
120:
88:
82:
81:
76:
72:
71:
62:
61:
54:
53:
47:
46:
45:
44:
41:
40:
31:
30:
29:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2207:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2118:
2114:
2113:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1933:
1932:
1926:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1761:(1): 113–26.
1760:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1665:
1664:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1616:
1614:9780868690421
1610:
1606:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1429:
1417:
1412:
1405:
1400:
1393:
1388:
1381:
1376:
1369:
1368:Manville 2001
1364:
1357:
1352:
1345:
1340:
1333:
1328:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1302:
1294:
1289:
1287:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1262:
1257:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1240:
1232:
1227:
1221:, p. 37.
1220:
1215:
1208:
1203:
1196:
1191:
1184:
1179:
1172:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1138:
1133:
1131:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1078:
1073:
1071:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1049:, p. 13.
1048:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1031:
1026:
1019:
1014:
1007:
1002:
1000:
998:
990:
985:
978:
973:
971:
963:
958:
956:
954:
946:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
923:
918:
916:
914:
912:
910:
908:
900:
895:
891:
876:
872:
868:
864:
857:
847:
845:
843:
841:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
829:
827:
818:
807:
805:
803:
793:
791:
789:
784:
776:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
737:
735:
734:Lake Reporoas
731:
726:
725:Reporoa Basin
716:
714:
710:
706:
702:
701:Pacific Ocean
698:
694:
690:
689:Waikato Basin
680:
678:
674:
673:Mount Tauhara
658:
655:
653:
650:
647:
646:
642:
639:
636:
633:
632:
628:
625:
622:
619:
618:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
601:
597:
594:
591:
587:
584:
583:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
566:
561:
558:
555:
552:
551:
547:
544:
541:
538:
537:
533:
530:
527:
524:
523:
519:
516:
513:
510:
509:
505:
502:
499:
496:
495:
491:
488:
485:
482:
481:
476:
473:
470:
467:
466:
462:
459:
456:
453:
452:
448:
445:
442:
439:
436:
435:
431:
428:
425:
422:
419:
418:
415:
414:Waikato River
411:
408:
405:
402:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
388:
384:
381:
378:
375:
374:
368:
359:
358:
356:
351:
348:
347:
345:
341:
336:
333:
332:
330:
329:
328:
326:
321:
319:
318:zircon dating
315:
310:
308:
303:
302:Taupō Volcano
299:
294:
291:Taupō today.
289:
286:
285:stratovolcano
283:
279:
274:
270:
266:
262:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
205:Taupō Volcano
202:
198:
194:
190:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
159:First flooded
157:
153:
150:
146:
142:
140:
134:
131:
128:
126:
122:
117:
113:-38.62; 176.1
89:
83:
80:
77:
73:
51:
42:
35:
27:
22:
19:
2159:. Retrieved
2120:. Retrieved
2091:
2087:
2030:
2026:
1986:
1982:
1962:(1): 35–69.
1959:
1955:
1939:. Retrieved
1930:
1917:. Retrieved
1889:
1885:
1862:
1837:
1833:
1821:. Retrieved
1793:
1789:
1758:
1754:
1717:
1713:
1679:
1675:
1662:
1642:
1638:
1618:. Retrieved
1604:
1588:
1569:
1565:
1521:(1): 12238.
1518:
1514:
1477:
1473:
1461:. Retrieved
1441:
1437:
1411:
1399:
1387:
1375:
1363:
1351:
1339:
1327:
1320:Cattell 2015
1315:
1226:
1214:
1202:
1190:
1178:
1094:, p. 8.
1025:
1013:
984:
922:Cattell 2015
894:
866:
862:
856:
774:
765:
761:
757:
743:
722:
705:Hauraki Gulf
693:Hauraki Rift
686:
669:
648:25.36 ± 0.16
588:Emplacement
568:81.3 to 77.2
365:
322:
311:
258:
226:
188:
187:
79:North Island
18:
2033:(1): 5867.
1983:Radiocarbon
863:Taupo Group
719:Later lakes
666:Destruction
267:that has a
213:New Zealand
193:former lake
171:Max. length
154:New Zealand
111: /
86:Coordinates
2174:Categories
2161:3 December
2122:3 December
1941:6 December
1919:4 December
1892:(107180).
1872:1444304267
1823:3 December
1620:2 December
1480:(106705).
1463:2023-11-28
1209:, Table 1.
964:, Table 2.
886:References
750:ignimbrite
713:Tasman Sea
603:34.5 ± 3.1
454:150 to 60
437:180 to 123
412:Outlet is
265:Taupō Rift
241:Taupō Rift
237:Huka Falls
209:Lake Taupō
179:Max. width
2156:127263257
2057:2041-1723
2013:0033-8222
1914:233771486
1818:127263257
1742:234285959
1704:128400015
1566:Geosphere
1502:210277330
1458:225424075
1418:, Fig. 3.
1295:, Fig. 4.
1185:, Fig. 3.
1047:Pure 2020
1030:Pure 2020
468:140 to 45
376:Date (ka)
293:Kakaramea
282:andesitic
278:rhyolitic
239:, in the
223:Geography
189:Lake Huka
130:paleolake
125:Lake type
63:Lake Huka
24:Lake Huka
2075:36195764
1633:(2004).
1553:28947829
871:rhyolite
752:contain
707:via the
677:Wairakei
607:Motuoapa
572:Motuoapa
420:198 ± 23
403:220 ± 31
385:Comment
382:Location
300:and the
269:Mesozoic
99:176°06′E
75:Location
2136:Bibcode
2066:9532435
2035:Bibcode
1991:Bibcode
1894:Bibcode
1842:Bibcode
1834:Geology
1798:Bibcode
1763:Bibcode
1722:Bibcode
1684:Bibcode
1544:5613013
1523:Bibcode
1482:Bibcode
1426:Sources
754:diatoms
748:in the
740:Ecology
683:Outflow
640:Central
626:Central
590:Tauhara
585:58 ± 10
531:Central
517:Central
511:122 ± 9
503:Central
497:141 ± 8
489:Central
483:142 ± 7
460:Central
441:Pihanga
342:Middle
263:of the
255:Geology
203:of the
143:Waikato
96:38°37′S
2154:
2073:
2063:
2055:
2011:
1912:
1869:
1816:
1740:
1702:
1611:
1551:
1541:
1500:
1456:
875:dacite
746:clasts
691:, and
592:dacite
539:200-26
344:pumice
261:graben
162:220 ka
2152:S2CID
1935:(PDF)
1910:S2CID
1814:S2CID
1738:S2CID
1700:S2CID
1667:(PDF)
1601:(PDF)
1498:S2CID
1454:S2CID
779:Notes
656:South
623:Okaia
612:South
577:South
559:South
545:South
446:South
429:South
424:Tihia
379:Event
191:is a
149:Basin
2163:2023
2124:2023
2071:PMID
2053:ISSN
2009:ISSN
1943:2023
1921:2023
1867:ISBN
1825:2023
1622:2023
1609:ISBN
1549:PMID
553:~100
2144:doi
2096:doi
2061:PMC
2043:doi
1999:doi
1964:doi
1902:doi
1890:411
1850:doi
1806:doi
1771:doi
1730:doi
1692:doi
1647:doi
1574:doi
1539:PMC
1531:doi
1490:doi
1478:390
1446:doi
2176::
2150:.
2142:.
2134:.
2092:65
2090:.
2086:.
2069:.
2059:.
2051:.
2041:.
2031:13
2029:.
2025:.
2007:.
1997:.
1987:62
1985:.
1981:.
1960:47
1958:.
1954:.
1908:.
1900:.
1888:.
1884:.
1848:.
1838:41
1836:.
1812:.
1804:.
1794:54
1792:.
1788:.
1769:.
1759:37
1757:.
1753:.
1736:.
1728:.
1718:64
1716:.
1698:.
1690:.
1680:57
1678:.
1643:47
1641:.
1637:.
1603:.
1570:10
1568:.
1564:.
1547:.
1537:.
1529:.
1517:.
1513:.
1496:.
1488:.
1476:.
1452:.
1442:64
1440:.
1436:.
1300:^
1285:^
1268:^
1253:^
1238:^
1161:^
1144:^
1129:^
1114:^
1099:^
1084:^
1069:^
1054:^
1037:^
996:^
969:^
952:^
929:^
906:^
825:^
813:ka
801:^
787:^
772:.
634:27
307:BP
219:.
2165:.
2146::
2138::
2126:.
2104:.
2098::
2077:.
2045::
2037::
2015:.
2001::
1993::
1972:.
1966::
1945:.
1923:.
1904::
1896::
1875:.
1856:.
1852::
1844::
1827:.
1808::
1800::
1779:.
1773::
1765::
1744:.
1732::
1724::
1706:.
1694::
1686::
1655:.
1649::
1624:.
1582:.
1576::
1555:.
1533::
1525::
1519:7
1504:.
1492::
1484::
1466:.
1448::
1248:.
1197:.
1124:.
901:.
396:-
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
