1607:
1081:
585:
340:
46:
250:
33:
303:
381:
359:
376:
321:
285:
265:
434:. Despite being edible, it is not recommended by some because of its poor taste, though can be used as seasoning when dried. The fruiting body is a creamy-white mushroom which is funnel-shaped when mature, with exceptionally crowded
797:, where cooks boil it repeatedly (disposing of the water each time), and then store it in salt water and refrigerate it, then pickle it or serve it in salads. When eaten fresh and raw, the mushroom has been known to cause an
508:
in 1987 changed the rules regarding the starting date and primary work for names of fungi. Previously, the starting date had been set as
January 1, 1821, the date of the works of the 'father of mycology', Swedish naturalist
776:
is often considered edible. It is not recommended by some owing simply to its unpleasant taste. It is difficult to digest when eaten raw, but is used as a seasoning when dried; it is also sometimes eaten fresh after
817:. Once colonized by the parasite, an orange-red crust forms over the surface of the mushroom, and the taste becomes delicious as the parasite infiltrates its host's tissues. It is also a common source of food among
613:
is white in colour, smooth, 3–7 cm (1–3 in) long by 2–3 cm (1–1 in) thick and is cylindrical, sometimes tapering towards the base. There is a thick layer of firm white flesh, and the
572:
It is commonly known as the peppery milk cap, pepper milkcap, peppery
Lactarius, peppery milk mushroom, white peppery milk-cap, or other similar names. Similarly, in German it is known as the
805:
has been reported to be poisonous, but it has been speculated that the "poisonings" were caused by the extremely strong, peppery taste, rather than by the presence of actual poisons.
1865:
Camazine S; Lupo AT Jr. (1984). "Labile Toxic
Compounds of the Lactarii: The Role of the Laticiferous Hyphae as a Storage Depot for Precursors of Pungent Dialdehydes".
688:
565:, is a distinct species in Europe. Furthermore, the existence of at least ten lineages worldwide, with no overlap among continents, was shown for the group around
557:
789:
it, or baking it in a pie or pastry. The milk has a very hot and acrid taste, which is removed if boiled. The mushroom used to be highly regarded in
2150:
742:), and can be found throughout summer and autumn and into early winter. It is relatively common, though not as common as the similar species
605:
that varies from 6–16 cm (2.5–6.5 in) across and is convex with a widely funnel-shaped center. The cap is creamy-white in colour,
2049:
505:
249:
621:
are particularly crowded and narrow, sharing the white colouration of the stem but becoming creamy with age. As with other species of
811:
forms part of an unusual and highly regarded dish in North
America, being one of several species parasitized by the lobster mushroom
2124:
1967:
1285:
1934:
1901:
1833:
1800:
1357:
1977:
1944:
1911:
1843:
1810:
1777:
1767:
1750:
1721:
1668:
1527:
1517:
1367:
1331:
1321:
1295:
2268:
793:, where it would be picked in dry seasons when other edible species were less available. The mushroom is also popular in
513:, but now names can be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus' seminal work.
911:
1693:
1640:
1500:
1475:
1437:
1403:
1268:
1199:(Russulales, Basidiomycota) and allied species in Western Europe and a preliminary overview of the group worldwide".
992:
967:
161:
2248:
682:
is also similar, but is differentiated by its less crowded gills, firmer cap margin and less acrid milk. Close to
2263:
2189:
2040:
1581:
888:
45:
2116:
217:
1606:
1080:
985:
The Mycota: A Comprehensive
Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research
2258:
2253:
2181:
501:
2273:
393:
2155:
2002:
1632:
813:
485:
2220:
678:
140:
1582:"Preliminary checklist of macromycetes of the East and Middle Black Sea regions from Turkey"
2085:
662:
650:
590:
551:
and contains mainly tropical milk-caps, but also some species of the north temperate zone.
535:
504:
had been considered the author of the first description; however, a recent revision of the
8:
2243:
1555:
752:
409:
750:
is found solitarily or in scattered groups. It is sometimes found growing together with
1882:
1625:
1216:
618:
525:
510:
435:
271:
170:
40:
450:, it forms a symbiotic relationship with various species of deciduous tree, including
2215:
2072:
2054:
1973:
1940:
1907:
1839:
1806:
1773:
1746:
1717:
1689:
1664:
1636:
1523:
1496:
1471:
1433:
1399:
1363:
1327:
1291:
1264:
1161:
988:
963:
666:
is larger with a thick stipe, woolly cap and less crowded gills, but is not as tall.
602:
476:
290:
1765:
1220:
584:
2077:
1874:
1208:
1195:
De Crop E, Nuytinck J, Van de Putte K, Lecomte M, Eberhardt U, Verbeken A (2014). "
1140:
1107:
1067:
1009:
727:, where it is found under introduced and native trees. It is found on the floor in
610:
569:, suggesting that populations in North America might actually be distinct species.
326:
2202:
841:
497:
422:
387:
2194:
2111:
2025:
869:
668:
87:
1212:
2237:
940:
857:
716:
552:
471:
425:
157:
77:
634:
32:
861:
818:
673:
606:
520:
594:
is differentiated by its shorter, thicker stipe and its large, woolly cap.
2207:
2176:
2137:
2064:
2034:
1742:
724:
692:, which is differentiated by its milk that dries with a greenish colour.
630:
447:
366:
346:
227:
107:
864:, though it had no effect. In more recent times, it has been found that
703:
in the wide sense, i.e. including probably several species, is found in
2129:
1886:
1145:
1128:
1112:
1095:
1072:
1051:
844:
to aid the growth of seedlings of various species of plants, including
837:
798:
778:
655:
430:
117:
97:
2142:
442:
when cut. Widely distributed across Europe and eastern North
America,
2168:
2098:
728:
720:
708:
615:
459:
57:
1996:
1878:
1739:
North
American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi
2163:
2103:
2019:
786:
765:
731:
638:
609:
and not glossy; its surface may become cracked in dry locales. The
308:
276:
255:
1359:
Field Guide to Wild
Mushrooms of Pennsylvania and the Mid-Atlantic
1194:
1766:
Molokhovets E; Stetson Toomre, J.; Stetson Toomre, Joyce (1992).
794:
764:
The species contains toxins, but despite being described by some
642:
2090:
1008:
Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Eberhardt U, Verbeken A, Kauff F (2008).
1007:
801:
on the lips and tongue, which subsides after an hour. The close
1899:
790:
782:
769:
712:
704:
645:
67:
1049:
873:
849:
845:
830:
735:
626:
489:
455:
451:
439:
189:
876:
1969:
Cancer and the Search for
Selective Biochemical Inhibitors
654:. The spores measure from 6.5–9.5 by 5–8
853:
781:, though its taste is still unappetising. Some recommend
629:), which is white, and dries olive-green. It has a white
1519:
Mushrooms of West
Virginia and the Central Appalachians
458:, and fruiting bodies are found on the forest floor in
947:(in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 1173.
533:
actually represented more than one genus, the species
1864:
1261:
Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Great Britain and Europe
1050:
Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Verbeken A, Walleyn R (2010).
1096:"Report of the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi: 16"
1470:. London: Mitchell Beazley Publishing. p. 77.
1624:
962:(5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883.
474:who officially described it in Volume Two of his
470:The species was one of the many species named by
2235:
1736:
1398:. Garden City Press, Hertfordshire. p. 87.
1389:
1387:
1385:
1283:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1159:
1759:
1714:The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe
1315:
1313:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1056:nom. cons. (Basidiomycota) with conserved type"
446:has been accidentally introduced to Australia.
1873:(2). Mycological Society of America: 355–358.
1737:Miller Jr., Orson K.; Miller, Hope H. (2006).
1351:
1349:
1798:
1707:
1705:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1382:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1900:Mohan Jain S; Gupta PK; Newton, RJ. (1999).
1858:
1618:
1616:
1522:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 88.
1393:
1310:
1277:
1227:
539:was conserved as type for that genus. Thus,
506:International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
1959:
1939:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 140.
1825:
1792:
1661:Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World
1654:
1652:
1484:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1346:
1319:
1258:
1153:
939:
933:
872:agent, and the latex has been used against
723:. It has been accidentally introduced into
695:
672:is similar in colour and shape, though has
465:
1965:
1838:. University of Texas Press. p. 121.
1831:
1730:
1702:
1677:
1490:
1446:
1355:
1183:
1093:
1087:
982:
957:
951:
904:
31:
1926:
1893:
1711:
1683:
1613:
1573:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1509:
1465:
1144:
1126:
1120:
1111:
1071:
561:, sometimes considered only a variety of
1932:
1772:. Indiana University Press. p. 95.
1649:
1622:
1579:
1515:
1412:
1043:
1001:
976:
856:. In the 19th century, it was used as a
583:
1658:
1427:
1396:Wild Mushrooms: An Illustrated Handbook
922:. International Mycological Association
2236:
1542:
438:. It bleeds a whitish peppery-tasting
2001:
2000:
1903:Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants
1129:"Report of the General Committee: 11"
676:blue-green tinged gills and no milk.
1326:. Kessinger Publishing. p. 92.
1430:The Young Specialist looks at Fungi
785:it in butter with bacon and onion,
496:meaning "peppery". For many years,
13:
1553:
529:. However, after the finding that
14:
2285:
1686:A Field Guide to Australian Fungi
1284:Peterson RT, McKnight KH (1998).
1263:. London: Pan Books. p. 77.
1716:. Frances Lincoln. p. 305.
1605:
1362:. Penn State Press. p. 79.
1079:
379:
374:
357:
338:
319:
301:
283:
263:
248:
44:
1936:The Romance of the Fungus World
1160:Verbeken A, Nuytinck J (2013).
1010:"Walking the thin line between
1802:Handbook of Mushroom Poisoning
1799:Spoerke DG, Rumack BH (1994).
1290:. Mariner Books. p. 333.
648:which are ornamented, as with
579:
1:
1663:. Timber Press. p. 156.
898:
824:
1631:. Ten Speed Press. pp.
759:
7:
2269:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
945:Species Plantarum: Tomus II
882:
829:Because of the presence of
543:is now the type species of
256:Mycological characteristics
10:
2290:
1972:. CRC Press. p. 178.
1805:. CRC Press. p. 356.
1287:A Field Guide to Mushrooms
983:Esser K, Lemke PA (1994).
960:Cassell's Latin Dictionary
715:, and eastern and central
625:, there is abundant milk (
2009:
1906:. Springer. p. 434.
1213:10.1007/s11557-013-0931-5
987:. Springer. p. 181.
840:, it can be applied as a
417:), commonly known as the
373:
356:
336:
318:
300:
282:
262:
243:
176:
169:
146:
139:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1468:Mushrooms and Toadstools
1173:Scripta Botanica Belgica
1162:"Not every milkcap is a
696:Distribution and habitat
502:Giovanni Antonio Scopoli
466:Systematics and taxonomy
2249:Fungi described in 1753
1769:Classic Russian Cooking
1493:Mushrooms (flexi bound)
711:region in northeastern
658:, and have tiny warts.
547:, which was split from
2264:Fungi of North America
1495:. Dorling Kindersley.
1052:"Proposal to conserve
814:Hypomyces lactifluorum
595:
1627:Mushrooms Demystified
1432:. Burke. p. 74.
1394:Zeitlmayr L. (1976).
734:, particularly under
587:
576:("pepper milk cap").
555:research showed that
1562:. MushroomExpert.com
1320:Marshall NL (2003).
1259:Phillips R. (1981).
1201:Mycological Progress
1197:Lactifluus piperatus
914:Lactifluus piperatus
835:Lactifluus piperatus
809:Lactifluus piperatus
774:Lactifluus piperatus
768:as inedible or even
701:Lactifluus piperatus
599:Lactifluus piperatus
536:Lactarius torminosus
517:Lactifluus piperatus
444:Lactifluus piperatus
428:fungus of the genus
405:Lactifluus piperatus
245:Lactifluus piperatus
223:Lactifluus piperatus
150:Lactifluus piperatus
25:Lactifluus piperatus
2041:Lactarius piperatus
2011:Lactarius piperatus
1966:Hoffman EJ (1999).
1832:Metzler S. (1992).
1558:Lactarius piperatus
1491:Laessoe T. (1998).
1356:Russell B. (2006).
1094:Norvell LL (2011).
958:Simpson DP (1979).
753:Russula cyanoxantha
414:Lactarius piperatus
214:Lactarius piperatus
196:Agaricus lactifluus
1712:Jordan M. (2004).
1688:. Blooming Books.
1684:Fuhrer B. (2005).
1466:Pegler DN (1983).
1146:10.1002/tax.604026
1127:Barrie F. (2011).
1113:10.1002/tax.601023
1073:10.1002/tax.591031
916:(L.) Roussel 1806"
868:can be used as an
596:
511:Elias Magnus Fries
488:deriving from the
482:Agaricus piperatus
179:Agaricus piperatus
2231:
2230:
2216:Open Tree of Life
2003:Taxon identifiers
1979:978-0-8493-9118-7
1946:978-0-486-23105-1
1933:Rolfe FW (1974).
1913:978-0-7923-3070-7
1845:978-0-292-75125-5
1812:978-0-8493-0194-0
1779:978-0-253-21210-8
1752:978-0-7627-3109-1
1723:978-0-7112-2378-3
1670:978-0-88192-586-9
1623:Arora D. (1986).
1580:Sesli E. (2007).
1529:978-0-8131-9039-6
1516:Roody WC (2003).
1369:978-0-271-02891-0
1333:978-0-7661-3776-9
1297:978-0-395-91090-0
1018:: the dilemma of
799:irritant reaction
519:was the original
477:Species Plantarum
401:
400:
238:Species of fungus
236:
235:
231:
211:
207:Lactaria piperata
204:
193:
183:
132:L. piperatus
16:Species of fungus
2281:
2224:
2223:
2211:
2210:
2198:
2197:
2195:NHMSYS0001486069
2185:
2184:
2172:
2171:
2159:
2158:
2146:
2145:
2133:
2132:
2120:
2119:
2107:
2106:
2094:
2093:
2081:
2080:
2068:
2067:
2058:
2057:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2030:
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1998:
1997:
1990:
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1963:
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1822:
1820:
1819:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1741:. Guilford, CN:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1709:
1700:
1699:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1659:Hall IR (2003).
1656:
1647:
1646:
1630:
1620:
1611:
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1601:
1600:
1586:
1577:
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1536:
1513:
1507:
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1482:
1481:
1463:
1444:
1443:
1428:Haas H. (1969).
1425:
1410:
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1274:
1256:
1225:
1224:
1192:
1181:
1180:
1170:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1139:(4): 1211–1214.
1124:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1077:
1075:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1033:Fungal Diversity
1030:
1005:
999:
998:
980:
974:
973:
955:
949:
948:
937:
931:
930:
928:
927:
908:
574:Pfeffermilchling
486:specific epithet
383:
382:
378:
377:
361:
360:
342:
341:
323:
322:
305:
304:
287:
286:
267:
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209:
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188:
181:
152:
49:
48:
35:
21:
20:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2259:Fungi of Europe
2254:Medicinal fungi
2234:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2219:
2214:
2206:
2203:Observation.org
2201:
2193:
2188:
2180:
2175:
2167:
2162:
2154:
2149:
2141:
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2128:
2123:
2115:
2110:
2102:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2076:
2071:
2063:
2061:
2053:
2048:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2005:
1993:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1964:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1931:
1927:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1898:
1894:
1879:10.2307/3793113
1863:
1859:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1835:Texas Mushrooms
1830:
1826:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1797:
1793:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1764:
1760:
1753:
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1724:
1710:
1703:
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1682:
1678:
1671:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1621:
1614:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1584:
1578:
1574:
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1563:
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1543:
1534:
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1530:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1489:
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1478:
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1447:
1440:
1426:
1413:
1406:
1392:
1383:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1354:
1347:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1318:
1311:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1257:
1228:
1193:
1184:
1168:
1158:
1154:
1125:
1121:
1092:
1088:
1078:
1048:
1044:
1028:
1006:
1002:
995:
981:
977:
970:
956:
952:
938:
934:
925:
923:
910:
909:
905:
901:
885:
842:rooting hormone
827:
762:
698:
582:
468:
395:not recommended
380:
375:
358:
343:
339:
320:
302:
284:
264:
258:
253:
239:
221:
212:
205:
194:
184:
165:
154:
148:
135:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2287:
2277:
2276:
2274:Fungus species
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2212:
2199:
2186:
2173:
2160:
2147:
2134:
2121:
2108:
2095:
2082:
2069:
2059:
2046:
2031:
2015:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1992:
1991:
1978:
1958:
1945:
1925:
1912:
1892:
1857:
1844:
1824:
1811:
1791:
1778:
1758:
1751:
1745:. p. 97.
1729:
1722:
1701:
1694:
1676:
1669:
1648:
1641:
1612:
1572:
1541:
1528:
1508:
1501:
1483:
1476:
1445:
1438:
1411:
1404:
1381:
1368:
1345:
1332:
1309:
1296:
1276:
1269:
1226:
1207:(3): 493–511.
1182:
1152:
1119:
1086:
1042:
1024:Ochricompactae
1000:
993:
975:
968:
950:
932:
902:
900:
897:
896:
895:
884:
881:
826:
823:
803:L. glaucescens
761:
758:
697:
694:
689:L. glaucescens
669:Russula delica
581:
578:
558:L. glaucescens
467:
464:
399:
398:
384:
371:
370:
362:
354:
353:
344:
337:
334:
333:
324:
316:
315:
306:
298:
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288:
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268:
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186:Agaricus acris
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155:
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129:
127:
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95:
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88:Agaricomycetes
85:
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51:
50:
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1695:1-876473-51-7
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1401:
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819:red squirrels
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718:
717:North America
714:
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693:
691:
690:
685:
681:
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679:L. deceptivus
675:
671:
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523:of the genus
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426:basidiomycete
424:
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386:Edibility is
385:
372:
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141:Binomial name
138:
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78:Basidiomycota
76:
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59:
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1968:
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1768:
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1557:
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1518:
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1322:
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1286:
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1003:
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959:
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919:
913:
906:
890:
866:L. piperatus
865:
862:tuberculosis
834:
828:
812:
808:
807:
802:
773:
763:
751:
748:L. piperatus
747:
744:L. vellereus
743:
739:
700:
699:
687:
684:L. piperatus
683:
677:
667:
663:L. vellereus
661:
660:
651:L. vellereus
649:
622:
598:
597:
591:L. vellereus
589:
588:The similar
573:
571:
567:L. piperatus
566:
563:L. piperatus
562:
556:
553:Phylogenetic
548:
544:
541:L. piperatus
540:
534:
530:
524:
521:type species
516:
515:
493:
481:
475:
469:
443:
429:
421:, is a semi-
418:
413:
412:
404:
403:
402:
394:
388:
365:
350:
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312:
294:
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244:
222:
213:
206:
199:
195:
185:
178:
177:
149:
147:
131:
130:
118:
24:
18:
2177:NatureServe
2138:iNaturalist
2035:Wikispecies
1743:FalconGuide
1106:: 223–226.
1066:: 447–453.
941:Linnaeus C.
838:metabolites
766:mycologists
725:Australasia
631:spore print
580:Description
500:naturalist
480:in 1753 as
448:Mycorrhizal
367:mycorrhizal
364:Ecology is
347:Spore print
108:Russulaceae
2244:Lactifluus
2238:Categories
1985:2008-08-16
1952:2008-08-16
1919:2008-08-16
1851:2008-08-16
1818:2008-08-16
1785:2008-08-16
1599:2014-09-19
1566:2009-01-11
1535:2008-08-18
1375:2008-08-16
1339:2008-08-16
1303:2008-08-16
1179:: 162–168.
926:2014-10-18
899:References
891:Lactifluus
825:Other uses
779:parboiling
545:Lactifluus
492:adjective
462:woodland.
431:Lactifluus
419:blancaccio
210:(L.) Pers.
203:(L.) Pers.
119:Lactifluus
98:Russulales
74:Division:
2182:2.1062587
1867:Mycologia
1589:Mycotaxon
1164:Lactarius
1054:Lactarius
1022:subsect.
1016:Lactarius
870:antiviral
858:folk cure
770:poisonous
760:Edibility
729:deciduous
721:Minnesota
709:Black Sea
623:Lactarius
616:decurrent
549:Lactarius
531:Lactarius
526:Lactarius
494:piperatus
460:deciduous
313:decurrent
200:piperatus
182:L. (1753)
126:Species:
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
2164:MycoBank
2156:10384147
2112:Fungorum
2062:BioLib:
2055:60030090
2050:AusFungi
2026:Q1323824
2020:Wikidata
1221:18795528
1039:: 15–40.
943:(1753).
920:MycoBank
889:List of
883:See also
787:pickling
732:woodland
719:east of
639:elliptic
635:elongate
607:glabrous
498:Tyrolian
472:Linnaeus
309:Hymenium
277:hymenium
228:O.Kuntze
171:Synonyms
104:Family:
54:Domain:
2221:1065735
2130:5248810
2091:1029841
1887:3793113
1595:: 71–74
1554:Kuo M.
1020:Russula
1012:Russula
893:species
795:Finland
643:amyloid
410:synonym
162:Roussel
114:Genus:
94:Order:
84:Class:
2169:174964
2143:125703
2117:174964
2104:LACTPI
1976:
1943:
1910:
1885:
1842:
1809:
1776:
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991:
966:
831:auxins
791:Russia
783:frying
713:Turkey
707:, the
705:Europe
674:adnate
646:spores
601:has a
484:, the
454:, and
423:edible
389:edible
295:convex
230:(1891)
220:(1797)
192:(1785)
164:(1806)
2208:14458
2151:IRMNG
2078:3RS53
2065:60011
1883:JSTOR
1585:(PDF)
1217:S2CID
1169:(PDF)
1133:Taxon
1100:Taxon
1060:Taxon
1029:(PDF)
877:warts
874:viral
850:beech
846:hazel
740:Fagus
736:beech
633:with
627:latex
619:gills
611:stipe
490:Latin
456:hazel
452:beech
436:gills
351:white
327:Stipe
272:Gills
226:(L.)
218:Pers.
216:(L.)
198:var.
190:Bull.
68:Fungi
2125:GBIF
2099:EPPO
1974:ISBN
1941:ISBN
1908:ISBN
1840:ISBN
1807:ISBN
1774:ISBN
1747:ISBN
1718:ISBN
1690:ISBN
1665:ISBN
1637:ISBN
1524:ISBN
1497:ISBN
1472:ISBN
1434:ISBN
1400:ISBN
1364:ISBN
1328:ISBN
1292:ISBN
1265:ISBN
1014:and
989:ISBN
964:ISBN
860:for
852:and
440:milk
392:but
331:bare
2190:NBN
2086:EoL
2073:CoL
1875:doi
1209:doi
1141:doi
1108:doi
1068:doi
854:oak
833:in
686:is
641:or
603:cap
349:is
329:is
311:is
293:is
291:Cap
275:on
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
