374:
would collaborate with the
Russians." The Armenians which before were deployed in the Battle of Sarikamish were disarmed and included into the labor battalions. Traditionally, the Ottoman Army only drafted non-Muslim males between 20-45 years old into the regular army. Younger (15–20) and older (45–60) non-Muslim soldiers had always been used as logistical support through the labour battalions. Conditions for the Armenian labourers were harsh. They had little food, and guards beat them frequently. Many suffered from disease. Before February, some of the Armenian recruits were utilized as labourers (
31:
386:
Anatolian Greeks, like the
Armenians, were forced into labour battalions. Christians were first drafted in 31 March Incident. The government was ambivalent about drafting Christians: on one hand, they needed a large army with conflicts and war brewing on all fronts; on the other hand, many Ottomans
373:
which stated that as a result of
Armenian attacks on soldiers and the stockpiling of bombs in Armenian houses, "Armenians shall strictly not be employed in mobile armies, in mobile and stationary gendarmeries, or in any armed services." Enver Pasha explained this decision as "out of fear that they
335:
During World War I, the
Ottoman Empire relied on the labor battalions for the logistical organization of the army. The Empire had a scarce railway infrastructure at the time. According to Hilmar Kaiser, men assigned to the battalions varied between 25,000 to 50,000, depending on whether it was war
673:
The Pontic Greeks suffered similar gendered genocide (gendercidal) policy outcomes. The brutal amele taburları were organized and
Pontian men were sent there to be slave labourers for the Ottoman Army. In this sense, the YT (Young Turks) and later Kemalist regimes solved two problems at once: they
394:
By 1915, most Greek men of army age had been conscripted into labour battalions. They maintained tunnels, built roads, and worked on farms. They had little food and wore tattered clothes. A foreign consul said this of Greek labourers in Konya:
1022:
From
Ayvalik town, there were three thousand prisoners heading to the interior. At the end of 1923, once the armistice was signed, and with the consequent population exchange, only twenty-three of those three thousand prisoners came back
1144:
Zürcher, Erik-Jan: Ottoman labour battalions in World War I, in: Kieser, Hans-Lukas / Schaller, Dominik J. (eds.): Der Völkermord an den
Armeniern und die Shoah = The Armenian genocide and the Shoah, Zurich 2002: Chronos, pp.
336:
or peace. The laborers were assigned to perform construction works on the roads and railways and to transport the supplies the army needed in the battle front. Most of the recruits were
Christians, amongst which the
637:
Early 1921 saw continued pressure for mass conscription of able-bodied Greeks. They were destined for labor battalions, which, 'in reality,' a missionary wrote, meant they would 'starve or freeze to death.'
674:
were able to move military materiel and were able to do so by killing
Pontian men by indirect means (working them to death) which eliminated a significant portion of the population able to resist genocide.
585:
Many of the Greek deportations involved chiefly women and children as, by early 1915, most army-age Greek men had been mobilized in
Ottoman labor battalions or had fled their homes to avoid conscription.
420:
In 1921, Turkish authorities made false birth certificates declaring Greek orphans to be older than they actually were. In this way, teenage boys were also conscripted into labour battalions. Even
413:, near Gaziantep, died. One English intelligence officer said that "the life of a Greek in a labour gang is generally about two months." Other foreigners reported that dead Greeks were thrown into
1861:
451:, recalled that her father and grandfather had been taken to the labour battalions when she was a young girl. Her father escaped and returned to the family, but her grandfather never came home.
405:] stretched upon their beds or on the ground, living skeletons, longing for death...The cemetery is already filled with the tombs of men serving in the labour battalions.
1356:
1826:
1386:
1376:
1361:
1871:
1612:
1290:
1714:
1704:
1851:
1111:
1836:
1503:
1455:
533:
Foreign Office Memorandum by Mr. G.W. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice, March 20, 1922, Paragraph 35
482:
1086:
1305:
197:
759:
1587:
1508:
1190:
1741:
1688:
543:
117:
241:
387:
believed that Christians were sympathetic to the Christian nations that the Ottoman Empire was fighting (for example, during the
1876:
1841:
651:"Towards a Theory of Displacement Atrocities: The Cherokee Trail of Tears, The Herero Genocide, and The Pontic Greek Genocide"
1881:
1561:
769:
698:
165:
161:
1335:
217:
1795:
1758:
1748:
1577:
1421:
1600:
743:
353:
77:
1866:
1846:
1736:
1582:
1315:
1015:
985:
960:
935:
910:
885:
860:
832:
794:
630:
578:
494:
189:
424:, who had a notably pro-Turkish bias, reported that the Greek men in labour battalions were "treated like animals."
1831:
1620:
409:
Men in the labour battalions died quickly. For example, approximately 80% of the Greek labourers forced to work at
213:
650:
1524:
1285:
1213:
1183:
505:
presents an overall picture for the conditions in these battalions, which were composed entirely of non-Muslims.
137:
1805:
1391:
1721:
1709:
1635:
1371:
1264:
1652:
1295:
1259:
597:
234:
57:
1800:
1675:
1438:
1416:
1366:
324:
1351:
1176:
475:). According to his account, of the 3000 "conscripted" into Venezis' labour brigade, only 23 survived.
1491:
517:
describes the harsh conditions of the labour battalions through the experiences of the protagonist.
501:, a war in which Turkey did not take part. Neyzi's paper on the basis of Paker's diary published by
1726:
1471:
1396:
275:
1005:
177:
1856:
1682:
1668:
1254:
227:
358:
Armenians did not serve in the armed forces in the Ottoman Empire until Young Turk Revolution.
1778:
1476:
1300:
1249:
1233:
502:
311:. The term is associated with the disarmament and murder of Ottoman Armenian soldiers during
294:
89:
53:
547:
441:, daughter of genocide survivor Sano Halo, wrote about her mother's experiences in the book
1595:
1269:
421:
362:
121:
8:
1426:
1223:
341:
97:
85:
1642:
1228:
1067:
1059:
1040:"Strong as Steel, Fragile as a Rose: A Turkish Jewish Witness to the Twentieth Century"
755:
498:
24:
1554:
157:
93:
1630:
1323:
1218:
1199:
1123:
1071:
1011:
981:
956:
931:
906:
881:
856:
828:
790:
765:
739:
694:
626:
574:
513:
266:
205:
105:
1731:
1664:
1496:
1431:
1328:
1051:
662:
443:
258:
193:
20:
761:"They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide
30:
1753:
1486:
1463:
667:
1783:
1238:
320:
316:
308:
285:
201:
169:
65:
41:
1087:""Ματωμένα χώματα" της Διδώς Σωτηρίου: Ένα μυθιστόρημα που αγαπήθηκε όσο λίγα"
1055:
1820:
1549:
1127:
1001:
926:
Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (April 24, 2019). "Turks and Greeks, 1919-1924".
876:
Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (April 24, 2019). "Turks and Greeks, 1919-1924".
851:
Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (April 24, 2019). "Turks and Greeks, 1919-1924".
725:
Kaiser, Hilmar (2002). Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (eds.). p.193
713:
Kaiser, Hilmar (2002). Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (eds.). p.191
508:
460:
448:
428:
410:
304:
101:
61:
1625:
1539:
1529:
465:
433:
153:
145:
141:
928:
The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities
878:
The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities
853:
The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities
825:
The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities
787:
The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities
1544:
1534:
1243:
1035:
478:
388:
366:
312:
173:
149:
133:
81:
689:
Kaiser, Hilmar (2002). Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (eds.).
1444:
1063:
823:
Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (April 24, 2019). "A More Turkish Empire".
785:
Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (April 24, 2019). "A More Turkish Empire".
598:"Notes on the Genocides of Christian Populations of the Ottoman Empire"
414:
1039:
1481:
1381:
438:
337:
1168:
431:, who survived the labour battalions, wrote about his experience in
1162:
More often, the transliterated Turkish term αμελέ ταμπουρού is used
427:
Two memoirs depict the experiences of Greeks in labour battalions.
399:
I have seen these wretched men in the hospitals of Konia [
493:
who was drafted to the Labour Battalions twice, first during the
361:
On 25 February 1915, following the defeat of the Ottomans in the
1862:
Persecution of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century
490:
486:
1112:"FAREWELL TO ANATOLIA: BEING A SOLDIER IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR"
1788:
209:
401:
23:. For Turkish labour battalions during World War II, see
1109:
544:"USA Congress, Concurrent Resolution, September 9, 1997"
1291:
Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915
417:, with as many as six bodies piled in a single grave.
365:, the Ottoman General Staff released the War Minister
279:
1827:
Military units and formations of the Ottoman Empire
340:were the largest contingent besides the Greeks and
298:
1010:(in Spanish). Universidad de Sevilla. p. 12.
1110:?ehnaz ???MANO?LU ??M?EK (2015-08-18).
347:
1818:
925:
875:
850:
822:
813:. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915, pp. 181–2.
784:
620:
568:
16:Form of unfree labour in the late Ottoman Empire
1872:Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire
648:
789:. Harvard University Press. pp. 158–159.
381:
122:American Committee for Relief in the Near East
1184:
235:
1116:The Journal of International Social Research
951:Halo, Thea (2000). "The Taking of Father".
811:Armenian Atrocities: The Murder of a Nation
470:
19:For more information on similar units, see
1191:
1177:
1084:
463:later described the situation in his work
323:in the Ottoman Empire and also during the
242:
228:
930:. Harvard University Press. p. 448.
880:. Harvard University Press. p. 404.
855:. Harvard University Press. p. 387.
827:. Harvard University Press. p. 157.
666:
625:. Harvard University Press. p. 404.
573:. Harvard University Press. p. 387.
118:Relief Committee for Greeks of Asia Minor
1852:World War I crimes by the Ottoman Empire
1344:
29:
1837:Armenian genocide extermination centers
1004:(2006). González Rincón, Manuel (ed.).
1000:
846:
844:
489:community of early 20th century Angora/
1819:
976:Halo, Thea (2000). "The Drowned Man".
900:
688:
481:has published a study of the diary of
378:); they would ultimately be executed.
1198:
1172:
1034:
721:
719:
466:The Number 31328: The Book of Slavery
1085:Παπασπύρου, Σταυρούλα (2022-01-10).
975:
950:
841:
754:
684:
682:
621:Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019).
569:Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019).
1796:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1578:May 1915 Triple Entente declaration
1078:
13:
1601:National Armenian Relief Committee
1138:
716:
354:Conscription in the Ottoman Empire
14:
1893:
1737:Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day
1007:Number 31328: The Book of Slavery
679:
434:Number 31328: The Book of Slavery
1525:Committee of Union and Progress
1214:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
1103:
1028:
994:
969:
944:
919:
894:
869:
816:
803:
778:
748:
728:
691:Armenian genocide and the Shoah
655:Genocide Studies and Prevention
138:Committee of Union and Progress
1229:Hamidian massacres (1894–1897)
1156:
764:. Princeton University Press.
707:
642:
614:
590:
562:
536:
527:
348:Armenians in labour battalions
1:
1877:Slavery in the Ottoman Empire
1842:Ottoman Empire in World War I
1636:Assassination of Talaat Pasha
1265:Ottoman Empire in World War I
693:. Chronos. pp. 190–191.
520:
495:Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)
454:
190:Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)
1882:Violence against men in Asia
1234:Young Turk Revolution (1908)
214:Istanbul trials of 1919–1920
34:Men of the labour battalions
7:
1806:Hitler's Armenian reference
1801:Assassination of Hrant Dink
1676:The Forty Days of Musa Dagh
980:. Picador. pp. 96–97.
903:Paradise Lost: Smyrna, 1922
668:10.5038/1911-9933.10.1.1297
382:Greeks in labour battalions
330:
325:Turkish War of Independence
299:
280:
10:
1898:
351:
18:
1771:
1705:Witnesses and testimonies
1697:
1651:
1611:
1570:
1517:
1454:
1409:
1278:
1206:
1056:10.2979/JSS.2005.12.1.167
471:
289:
270:
255:Ottoman labour battalions
223:
188:
183:
132:
127:
116:
111:
76:
71:
52:
47:
40:
1867:Discrimination in Turkey
1847:Unfree labour by country
1427:Post-genocide population
1149:
905:. Sceptre. p. 350.
649:Andrew R. Basso (2016).
623:The Thirty-Year Genocide
571:The Thirty-Year Genocide
281:Ashkhatank’ayin gumartak
1832:Conscription by country
1592:Foreign aid and relief
1417:Pre-genocide population
1255:1914 Greek deportations
955:. Picador. p. 69.
1779:Late Ottoman genocides
1571:International response
901:Milton, Giles (2008).
511:in her anti-war novel
407:
271:Աշխատանքային գումարտակ
262:
112:Foreign aid and relief
35:
1301:20 Hunchakian gallows
1250:1914 Armenian reforms
1239:Adana massacre (1909)
1044:Jewish Social Studies
738:. Palgrave McMillan.
503:Jewish Social Studies
397:
178:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
90:Evacuation of Ayvalik
54:Young Turk Revolution
33:
1596:Near East Foundation
1562:Special Organization
1320:Concentration camps
1270:Battle of Sarikamish
734:Kaman Gürün (1986),
602:www.genocidetext.net
422:Mark Lambert Bristol
363:Battle of Sarikamish
166:Special Organization
1653:Cultural depictions
1504:Rescue of Armenians
1422:Genocide casualties
1260:Congress at Erzerum
1224:Turkish nationalism
756:Suny, Ronald Grigor
499:during World War II
459:The Greek novelist
198:Population Exchange
128:Responsible parties
98:Samsun deportations
86:Massacre of Phocaea
1643:Treaty of Lausanne
1509:Turkish opposition
485:, a member of the
437:. American author
36:
25:The Twenty Classes
1814:
1813:
1742:100th anniversary
1631:Operation Nemesis
1405:
1404:
1219:Armenian question
1200:Armenian genocide
809:Toynbee, Arnold.
771:978-1-4008-6558-1
736:The Armenian File
700:978-3-0340-0561-6
514:Farewell Anatolia
342:Syriac Christians
252:
251:
206:Armenian genocide
162:Teskilati Mahsusa
106:Burning of Smyrna
78:Labour Battalions
1889:
1759:notable visitors
1732:Hidden Armenians
1661:Ravished Armenia
1583:Imperial Germany
1492:Shabin-Karahisar
1464:Armenian militia
1432:Hidden Armenians
1342:
1341:
1193:
1186:
1179:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1132:
1131:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1098:
1097:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1032:
1026:
1025:
998:
992:
991:
978:Not Even My Name
973:
967:
966:
953:Not Even My Name
948:
942:
941:
923:
917:
916:
898:
892:
891:
873:
867:
866:
848:
839:
838:
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723:
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587:
566:
560:
559:
557:
555:
550:on June 23, 2014
546:. Archived from
540:
534:
531:
474:
473:
472:Το Νούμερο 31328
444:Not Even My Name
303:) was a form of
302:
300:Tagmata Ergasias
297:
291:
290:Τάγματα Εργασίας
283:
278:
272:
244:
237:
230:
194:Greeks in Turkey
38:
37:
21:labour battalion
1897:
1896:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1767:
1754:Tsitsernakaberd
1693:
1647:
1607:
1566:
1555:Bahaeddin Şakir
1513:
1450:
1401:
1340:
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1157:
1152:
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1139:Further reading
1136:
1135:
1122:(39): 208–221.
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551:
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537:
532:
528:
523:
497:and then again
457:
447:. Sano Halo, a
384:
356:
350:
333:
293:
274:
263:Amele Taburları
248:
218:Malta Tribunals
158:Bahaeddin Şakir
156:
140:
94:İzmit massacres
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1895:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1857:Greek genocide
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1784:Greek genocide
1781:
1775:
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1621:Courts-martial
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1588:Press coverage
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1140:
1137:
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1102:
1077:
1050:(1): 167–189.
1027:
1016:
1002:Venezis, Elias
993:
986:
968:
961:
943:
936:
918:
911:
893:
886:
868:
861:
840:
833:
815:
802:
795:
777:
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747:
744:978-0312049409
727:
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613:
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525:
524:
522:
519:
456:
453:
383:
380:
371:Directive 8682
349:
346:
332:
329:
321:Greek genocide
317:Ottoman Greeks
309:Ottoman Empire
250:
249:
247:
246:
239:
232:
224:
221:
220:
202:Greek refugees
186:
185:
181:
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170:Nureddin Pasha
130:
129:
125:
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114:
113:
109:
108:
74:
73:
69:
68:
66:Ottoman Empire
58:Ottoman Greeks
50:
49:
45:
44:
42:Greek genocide
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1626:Malta exiles
1518:Perpetrators
1468:By location
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1329:Ra's al-'Ayn
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1306:Confiscation
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1094:. Retrieved
1090:
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1036:Neyzi, Leyla
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307:in the late
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142:Three Pashas
72:The genocide
1722:Reparations
1710:Recognition
1683:The Promise
1613:Prosecution
1336:Terminology
1324:Deir ez-Zor
1246:(1912–1913)
1244:Balkan Wars
661:(1): 5–29.
483:Yaşar Paker
479:Leyla Neyzi
415:mass graves
389:Balkan Wars
367:Enver Pasha
319:during the
313:World War I
174:Topal Osman
134:Young Turks
82:Death march
1821:Categories
1456:Resistance
1445:Vorpahavak
1410:Demography
1367:Diyarbekir
1296:Tehcir Law
1207:Background
1096:2022-01-10
607:2020-04-13
554:October 7,
521:References
455:Depictions
352:See also:
295:romanized:
276:romanized:
48:Background
1749:Memorials
1698:Aftermath
1482:Musa Dagh
1439:Survivors
1392:Trebizond
1345:By region
1316:Mass rape
1128:1307-9581
1072:162281457
439:Thea Halo
338:Armenians
1279:Genocide
1145:187-196.
1038:(2005).
758:(2015).
411:İslâhiye
331:Overview
267:Armenian
184:See also
1772:Related
1545:Djevdet
1372:Erzurum
1091:lifo.gr
1064:4467726
259:Turkish
1727:Denial
1689:others
1550:Reshid
1540:Djemal
1530:Talaat
1472:Zeitun
1377:Harput
1362:Bitlis
1357:Aleppo
1286:Causes
1126:
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1023:alive.
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491:Ankara
487:Jewish
376:hamals
154:Djemal
1789:Sayfo
1535:Enver
1497:Azakh
1387:Sivas
1352:Adana
1150:Notes
1068:S2CID
1060:JSTOR
315:, of
286:Greek
210:Sayfo
150:Enver
146:Talat
1669:film
1665:book
1487:Urfa
1124:ISSN
1012:ISBN
982:ISBN
957:ISBN
932:ISBN
907:ISBN
882:ISBN
857:ISBN
829:ISBN
791:ISBN
766:ISBN
740:ISBN
695:ISBN
627:ISBN
575:ISBN
556:2006
391:).
1477:Van
1397:Van
1382:Muş
1052:doi
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