895:
class 4 prefix is only found in Kwambi, not in Ndonga. Furthermore, Kwambi has a simplified system for negative concords, where the forms for the negative subjunctive are the same as those of the negative habitual (1p sing ‘kandi’, 1p pl ‘katu’ etc.). Another difference is that Kwambi makes a distinction between noun classes 8 and 9 in that many of the grammatical forms for class 9 have an /h/ where Ndonga uses /j/, which makes the Ndonga class 9 forms such as ‘
848:
for the numbers six, seven and eight, which was not sensitive to the noun class of the counted object and was based on a system of counting “little fingers”. The word for ‘six’, ‘kanekamwe’, corresponded to Ndonga ‘hamano’, ‘uunuwari’ for ‘seven’ corresponded to Ndonga ‘heyali’ and ‘uunuutatu’ for ‘eight’ corresponded to Ndonga ‘
882:
sense ‘write’, for which Kwambi uses ‘tshanga’. In the case of the word ‘epasha’ (Ndonga ‘epaha’), meaning ‘twin birth’, it seems that it is instead Kwambi that has an extended meaning for the word, using it to denote something abnormal at birth more generally, e.g. a case where the baby's feet come out first.
901:’ (present tense concord) and ‘oya’ (past tense concord) identical to those used by both dialects for class 8. Lastly, whereas Ndonga has a full set of forms for ‘only’, inflected according to noun class (‘alike’, ‘aguke’ etc.), Kwambi uses the uninflected word ‘ike’, as in ‘omadhina ike’ (=only the names).
890:
As with the vocabulary, Kwambi morphology is basically similar to Ndonga. Some of the differences that exist are predictable due to phonological differences. For example, grammatical forms associated with Bantu noun class 7 consistently have an affricate in Kwambi where Ndonga has a fricative, which
728:
Note that the symbol ɾ has been chosen for the liquid phoneme in the table even though this phoneme has a wide range of pronunciations even in the speech of individual speakers, just like in Ndonga, ranging from an alveolar tap to a lateral approximant , with something that can perhaps be described
843:
There are significant differences in the use of conjunctions, with the common Ndonga conjunction ‘ihe’ (=but, consequently) being absent from Kwambi, where ‘ndere’ can be used instead. Kwambi ‘ngeno’ (which can serve for example to introduce counteractive clauses), on the other hand, is absent from
821:
The word for ‘like this’ is ‘ngeyi’ in Ndonga but ‘ngii’, ‘ngiino’ or ‘ngiika’ in Kwambi. This also has an effect on the words for ‘now’, which seem to be derived from these. In other words, Kwambi ‘ngashingii’, ‘ngashingiika’ and ‘ngashingiino’ correspond to Ndonga ‘ngashingeyi’ (or ‘ngayingeyi’).
894:
Nevertheless, not all differences are due to differences in the phoneme inventories of the two dialects. Most notably, the use of the prefix ee- for noun class 10 (like in
Kwanyama) sets Kwambi apart from Ndonga, which uses oo-. The existence of a form emu- or eemu- co-existing with omi- as a noun
881:
Finally, there are cases where a word which exists in both dialects has an extended meaning in one of them. The word ‘yoga’, which in both dialects means ‘swim’, is used in Ndonga also in the sense ‘wash’, for which Kwambi uses ‘kosha’. In a similar vein, Ndonga uses ‘nyola’ (=engrave) also in the
847:
Regarding the numerals, Kwambi uses mostly ‘ine’ as a word for ‘four’ when counting words from noun class 4 and 10, contrasting with Ndonga ‘ne’, and ‘uwaari’ for ‘two’ when the head noun belongs to noun class 14, contrasting with Ndonga ‘uyali’. Traditional Kwambi also had a distinct set of words
807:
All verbs except ‘ha’ (=go) must be analysed as lacking an initial /h/ in Kwambi, which gives us word pairs such as Kwambi ‘ara’ vs. Ndonga ‘hala’ (=want) and Kwambi ‘anga’ vs. Ndonga ‘hanga’ (=brew beer). However, a phonological rule inserts an initial in front of verbs in certain contexts as
760:
The personal pronoun for 1st person plural is ‘se’ in Kwambi but ‘tse’ in Ndonga. A difference in 1st person singular pronouns, Kwambi ‘ngaye’ vs. Ndonga ‘ngame’, is noticeable when comparing spoken Kwambi with written Ndonga, but in spoken Ndonga ‘ngaye’ is commonly used, just like in Kwambi.
756:
Words for ‘good’ and ‘bad’ come in a variety of forms, but h-forms such as ‘aahanawa’, ‘uuhanawa’, ‘iihanawa’ etc. (=good) and ‘aahineyi’, ‘uuhineyi’ and ‘iihineyi’ (=bad) are only found in Kwambi, not in Ndonga (compare ‘aawanawa’, ‘uuwanawa’, ‘iiwanawa’ and ‘aawinayi’, ‘uuwinayi’, ‘iiwinayi’
779:
The sequence nasal+fricative in some Ndonga demonstratives (ndhika, ndhoka etc.) corresponds to a single fricative in Kwambi (dhika, dhoka etc.). Demonstratives with an initial sequence nasal+k in Ndonga are absent from Kwambi, where the forms ‘huka’, ‘hoka’ etc. are always used instead of
909:
A New
Testament was published in the Kwambi language in 1951, as Etestamtente Epe. The Gospels and the Apocalypse were translated by Father K. Kress and the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles were translated by Father Franz Seiler and published by Omission Heklesia Ekatolika.
831:’ vs. Ndonga ‘oshigandhi’ (=granary, corn bin). Also, there is a part of a traditional Ovambo homestead that is called ‘otshoto’ in Kwambi but ‘oshinyanga’ in Ndonga. The word ‘onime’ for lion is an exclusively Ndonga word, while the synonym ‘onkoshi’ is used in both dialects.
761:
Similarly, for 2nd person singular Kwambi ‘ngweye’ at first glance seems to contrast with Ndonga ‘ngoye’, but again there is less of a difference if we only compare the spoken varieties of the dialects, since ‘ngweye’ is commonly found in spoken Ndonga.
729:
as a lateral flap also occurring. Magnusson (2003) found a tendency for Kwambi speakers to use a tap pronunciation more often than a lateral approximant, and also a tendency for Kwambi speakers to use this alveolar tap more than speakers of Ndonga.
872:’ respectively, meaning ‘one little finger’ ‘two little fingers’ and ‘three little fingers’. Some older speakers can still be heard using these forms (Magnusson (2003) even recorded one case of an elderly man using the uncontracted form ‘
746:
There are word pairs where Kwambi has /w/ instead of Ndonga /j/ even though both dialects have both phonemes as part of their phonological inventory – for example ‘ekuwa’ vs. ‘ekuya’ for ‘axe’ and ‘uuluwi’ vs. ‘uuluyi’ for ‘brain’.
811:
Although both dialects have the words ‘kuutumba’ and ‘kaatumba’ for ‘sit’, Kwambi has a third commonly used variant, namely ‘kiitumba’, which does not exist in Ndonga. A vowel difference can also be seen in the word pair
844:
Ndonga. Furthermore, the Ndonga word ‘e’ (which can perhaps be best translated as ‘and’) is practically absent from
Magnusson's (2003) Kwambi material. ‘Nkene/nkee’ and ‘onkene/onkee’ are also very rare in Kwambi.
825:
There are also cases where the two dialects use non-cognate words, like Kwambi ‘embare’ vs. Ndonga ‘egala’ (=hat), Kwambi ‘otshimbare’ vs. Ndonga ‘ontungwa’ (a kind of traditional basket) and ‘
1258:
220:
it does not have a standardized written form in schools but is used and written in the Roman
Catholic Church in Namibia. It shares more features with Ndonga than with Kwanyama.
753:
In some words Kwambi has /h/ where Ndonga has /j/, as in for example ‘hina’ vs. ‘yina’ (=his/her/their mother), ‘ha’ vs. ‘ya’ (=go) and ‘ehego’ vs. ‘eyego’ (=tooth).
737:
Kwambi shares most of its vocabulary with Ndonga. However, in addition to some differences which are predictable due to phonological differences (such as Kwambi ‘
834:
At least one case exists where Kwambi and Ndonga assign a word to different noun classes, namely the word ‘oshoro’ (with class 9 prefix o-), which in Ndonga is ‘
1251:
792:’ etc. A phenomenon whereby non-syllabic /m/ cannot occur in front of /v/ in Kwambi might be related, and it gives rise to word pairs such as Kwambi ‘
2178:
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2168:
2163:
2158:
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2147:
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715:
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743:’ vs. Ndonga ‘shuna’ (=go back) due to the fact that Ndonga has no affricate) there are some other differences as well.
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840:’ (with class 14 prefix uu-). The word refers to a game involving small holes in the ground and pebbles.
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76:
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for example can be seen in the local names of the dialects themselves: Otshikwambi vs. Oshindonga.
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is geographic and its groupings do not imply a relationship between the languages within them.
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8:
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1360:
1225:
551:
494:
1915:
1325:
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808:
described by
Magnusson (2003), which means that this difference is not always obvious.
333:
82:
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Dammann, Ernst (1975): Die Übersetzung der Bibel in afrikanische
Sprachen, page 236
328:
323:
217:
92:
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2016:
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355:
343:
205:
112:
107:
97:
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68:
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The word for ‘who’ in Kwambi is ‘ore’ (plural ‘oore’), contrasting with Ndonga ‘
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423:
361:
974:
Fourie, David J. (1994): Kwambi subject, object and possessive concords. In
1998:
1857:
1652:
1511:
1176:
1133:
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241:
1007:
931:
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49:
1085:
878:’ for ‘eight’), but they are clearly disappearing from the language.
274:
163:
147:
976:
South
African Journal of African Languages, vol 14:2, pp. 59–61
1622:
1158:
750:
Kwambi ‘pwaakena’ for ‘listen’ corresponds to Ndonga ‘pulakena’.
209:
35:
2155:
Narrow Bantu languages by
Guthrie classification zone templates
39:
985:. Unpublished manuscript, Oshakati: University of Namibia.
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967:Dammann, Ernst (1962): Zur Kenntnis der Kwambi. In
315:Kwambi contains the following consonant phonemes:
804:’ (=this year) vs. Ndonga ‘omvula’ and ‘nuumvo’.
2191:
854:’. These were contracted forms of the phrases ‘
818:’ (Kwambi) vs. ‘kakama’ (Ndonga) for ‘shiver’.
983:The Wambo dialect Kwambi as compared to Ndonga
1252:
1023:
2179:Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)
2174:Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M)
2169:Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H)
2164:Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D)
2159:Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones A–B)
969:Afrika und Übersee vol.46, pp. 200–203
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208:spoken by the Kwambi tribe in Northern
2192:
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16:Ovambo language of Namibia and Angola
992:. Unpublished manuscript, Ombalantu.
13:
2137:Languages between parentheses are
920:
233:Kwambi uses a five-vowel system:
14:
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990:Grammatik der Otshikwambi-Sprache
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949:New Updated Guthrie List Online
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2141:of the language on their left.
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988:Wisskirchen, Anton (1935):
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21:
981:Magnusson, Lars (2003):
947:Jouni Filip Maho, 2009.
937:(subscription required)
2148:Guthrie classification
1273:Guthrie classification
1210:Namibian Sign Language
1101:Other Bantu languages
1039:Languages of Namibia
204:is a dialect of the
1361:Mwera of Mbamba Bay
1219:Immigrant languages
1062:Recognized regional
1993:(Northern) Ndebele
61:33,000 (2006)
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2132:extinct languages
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1777:North-West Herero
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1046:Official language
935:(18th ed., 2015)
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2041:Sumayela Ndebele
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1783:Botswana Herero
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1589:Lomwe of Malawi
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1338:Ngoni of Malawi
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798:’ (=rain) and ‘
757:respectively).
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2212:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2112:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2038:
2036:
2035:South Ndebele
2032:
2030:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1853:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1683:
1679:
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1673:
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1670:
1666:
1660:
1656:
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1620:
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1613:
1610:
1606:
1596:
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1568:
1566:
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1537:
1533:
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1527:
1525:
1521:
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1509:
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1502:
1496:
1492:
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1474:
1472:
1468:
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1465:
1461:
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1434:
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1428:
1426:
1422:
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1416:
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1401:
1397:
1391:
1387:
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1368:
1362:
1358:
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1317:
1315:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1297:
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1290:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1262:
1257:
1255:
1250:
1248:
1243:
1242:
1239:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1014:
1013:
1010:
1004:
1001:
1000:
991:
987:
984:
980:
977:
973:
970:
966:
965:
956:
950:
944:
934:
933:
928:
923:
919:
911:
902:
892:
883:
879:
845:
841:
832:
823:
819:
816:
809:
805:
777:
762:
758:
754:
751:
748:
744:
730:
722:
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638:
635:
631:
629:
626:
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619:
615:
612:
608:
605:
601:
600:
596:
592:
590:
587:
583:
580:
576:
573:
569:
566:
562:
559:
555:
553:
549:
546:
544:
541:
537:
535:
533:
531:
528:
524:
523:
520:
518:
515:
511:
509:
507:
505:
502:
498:
496:
492:
489:
486:
482:
480:
478:
475:
471:
468:
464:
461:
457:
456:
453:
450:
446:
444:
442:
439:
435:
432:
428:
425:
421:
419:
415:
412:
410:
407:
403:
401:
398:
394:
391:
387:
384:
380:
379:
376:
374:
372:
370:
368:
366:
363:
359:
357:
353:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
319:
316:
303:
297:
294:
293:
289:
285:
282:
278:
276:
273:
272:
268:
264:
261:
257:
255:
252:
251:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
237:
234:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:
197:
186:
182:
176:
172:
168:
166:
165:
160:
156:
152:
149:
144:
139:
119:
116:
115:
114:
111:
110:
109:
106:
105:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
95:
94:
91:
90:
89:
86:
85:
84:
81:
80:
78:
74:
70:
64:
60:
54:
51:
48:
44:
41:
37:
34:
30:
25:
20:
2127:
1687:
989:
982:
975:
968:
955:
943:
930:
922:
908:
893:
889:
880:
863:uunwe uwaari
857:okanwe kamwe
846:
842:
833:
824:
820:
810:
806:
778:
763:
759:
755:
752:
749:
745:
736:
727:
314:
232:
200:
199:
195:
194:
181:Guthrie code
162:
117:
1443:Sena-Malawi
1187:ǂKxʼauǁʼein
1167:Nama/Damara
1144:Thimbukushu
875:uunwe utatu
869:uunwe utatu
770:’ (plural ‘
644:Approximant
201:Otshikwambi
88:Benue–Congo
77:Niger–Congo
2023:Nhlangwini
1999:Old Mfengu
1940:Phalaborwa
1736:Dombondola
1471:Ndengereko
1226:Portuguese
1182:Kung-Ekoka
1114:Rukwangali
1109:Otjiherero
932:Ethnologue
914:References
905:Literature
886:Morphology
733:Vocabulary
311:Consonants
50:Ovamboland
27:Oshikwambi
2139:varieties
2130:indicate
1916:Khalaxadi
1748:Kwaluudhi
1724:Ndongwena
1694:Ngandyera
1326:Ndendeule
1086:Afrikaans
1069:Oshiwambo
558:voiceless
552:Fricative
501:voiceless
495:Affricate
424:voiceless
362:voiceless
224:Phonology
212:. Unlike
164:Glottolog
148:ISO 639-3
2194:Category
1828:Korekore
1718:Mbalanhu
1676:Kwanyama
1390:Manganja
1119:Setswana
1074:Kwanyama
334:Alveolar
218:Kwanyama
171:kwam1251
2128:Italics
2082:Hlengwe
1864:Kalanga
1852:Karanga
1840:Manyika
1730:Kwankwa
1712:Mbandja
1635:Nyaneka
1623:Umbundu
1524:Makonde
1483:Matumbi
1419:Nyungwe
1355:Tumbuka
1308:Matengo
1267:Narrow
1159:Khoisan
1149:Shiyeyi
1129:Gciriku
1053:English
866:’ and ‘
828:eshisha
681:lateral
650:central
418:Plosive
349:Glottal
339:Palatal
210:Namibia
36:Namibia
2109:[S611
2080:[S511
2070:Tsonga
2064:Gwamba
2017:Phuthi
1997:[S401
1958:Pulana
1946:Kutswe
1938:[S301
1928:Lobedu
1910:Ngwatu
1904:Kgatla
1898:Tswana
1834:Zezuru
1813:Zone S
1775:[R311
1771:Herero
1742:Esinga
1700:Kafima
1698:[R211
1688:Kwambi
1682:Ndonga
1647:Kuvale
1645:[R101
1641:Khumbi
1629:Ndombe
1608:Zone R
1595:Moniga
1583:Sakati
1575:[P311
1536:Mabiha
1530:Ndonde
1495:Mbunga
1489:Ngindo
1456:Zone P
1441:[N441
1407:Nsenga
1378:Nyanja
1359:[N201
1324:[N101
1281:Zone N
1139:Kuhane
1091:German
1079:Ndonga
927:Kwambi
851:hetatu
837:uuholo
815:kekama
740:tshuna
604:voiced
527:voiced
460:voiced
383:voiced
329:Dental
324:Labial
229:Vowels
214:Ndonga
196:Kwambi
118:Kwambi
113:Ovambo
46:Region
40:Angola
22:Kwambi
2111:Lenge
2105:Tonga
2076:Ronga
2039:S408
2033:S407
2027:S406
2021:S405
2015:S404
2011:Hlubi
2009:S403
2005:Bhaca
2003:S402
1987:Swati
1975:Xhosa
1956:S304
1950:S303
1944:S302
1934:Sotho
1926:S32b
1920:S32a
1914:S31d
1908:S31c
1902:S31b
1896:S31a
1881:Venda
1844:S13b
1838:S13a
1781:R312
1752:R242
1746:R241
1740:R218
1734:R217
1728:R216
1722:R215
1716:R214
1710:R213
1706:Evale
1704:R212
1659:Mbali
1657:R103
1653:Kwisi
1651:R102
1593:P341
1587:P331
1581:P312
1571:Cuabo
1565:Ngulu
1559:Lomwe
1553:Makua
1518:Mwera
1477:Ruihi
1437:Podzo
1413:Kunda
1388:N31c
1382:N31b
1376:N31a
1336:N121
1332:Nindi
1330:N102
1320:Tonga
1314:Mpoto
1302:Ngoni
1296:Manda
1124:Zemba
898:otayi
801:nuuvo
795:ovura
789:nkoka
783:nkuka
773:oolye
356:Nasal
344:Velar
254:Close
242:Front
98:Bantu
2146:The
2103:S62
2099:Copi
2097:S61
2074:S54
2068:S53
2062:S52
2058:Tswa
2056:S51
2029:Lala
1991:S44
1985:S43
1981:Zulu
1979:S42
1973:S41
1932:S33
1922:Pedi
1879:S21
1862:S16
1858:Ndau
1856:S15
1850:S14
1846:Tebe
1832:S12
1826:S11
1798:R41
1769:R31
1692:R24
1686:R23
1680:R22
1674:R21
1639:R14
1633:R13
1627:R12
1621:R11
1577:Koti
1569:P34
1563:P33
1557:P32
1551:P31
1534:P25
1528:P24
1522:P23
1516:P22
1510:P21
1493:P15
1487:P14
1481:P13
1475:P12
1469:P11
1435:N46
1429:N45
1425:Sena
1423:N44
1417:N43
1411:N42
1405:N41
1384:Cewa
1353:N21
1318:N15
1312:N14
1306:N13
1300:N12
1294:N11
1192:Kxoe
1177:ǃXóõ
1172:Naro
860:’, ‘
786:’, ‘
776:’).
767:olye
296:Open
247:Back
216:and
188:R.23
38:and
2091:S60
2050:S50
1967:S40
1952:Pai
1890:S30
1873:S20
1820:S10
1800:Yei
1792:R40
1763:R30
1668:R20
1615:R10
1545:P30
1512:Yao
1504:P20
1463:P10
1431:Rue
1399:N40
1370:N30
1347:N20
1288:N10
1134:Fwe
929:at
706:Tap
275:Mid
198:or
155:kwm
2196::
540:nʤ
485:ŋg
474:nd
467:mb
79:?
2134:.
1275:)
1260:e
1253:t
1246:v
1031:e
1024:t
1017:v
978:.
971:.
812:‘
780:‘
716:ɾ
694:ʎ
668:j
657:w
634:ɣ
625:z
618:ð
611:v
595:h
586:ʃ
579:s
572:θ
565:f
514:ʧ
449:k
438:t
431:p
406:ɲ
397:n
390:m
302:a
288:ɔ
281:ɛ
267:u
260:i
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