337:
17:
384:
392:
128:. Maxicircles are between 20 and 40kb in size and there are a few dozen per kinetoplast. There are several thousand minicircles per kinetoplast and they are between 0.5 and 1kb in size. Maxicircles encode the typical protein products needed for the mitochondria which is encrypted. Herein lies the only known function of the minicircles - producing
403:
the mother basal body in a timing and manner similar to the rotation of the kinetoplast. By rotating, the minicircles of the daughter kinetoplast are assembled in a spiral fashion and begin moving inward toward the center of the disk as new minicircles are unlinked and moved into the KFZ for replication.
402:
As minicircle replication progresses, to prevent the build-up of new minicircles, the entire kDNA network will rotate around the central axis of the disk. The rotation is believed to be directly connected to the replication of the adjacent flagellum, as the daughter basal body will also rotate around
177:
kinetoplast is a bundle-like structure found in the mitochondrial matrix proximal to the flagellar basal body. In contrast to the conventional kDNA network, a pro-kDNA kinetoplast contains very little catenation and its maxicircles and minicircles are relaxed instead of supercoiled. Pro-kDNA has been
379:
This process occurs one minicircle at a time, and only a small number of minicircles are unlinked at any given moment. To keep track of which minicircles have been replicated, upon rejoining to the kDNA network a small gap remains in the nascent minicircles, which identifies them as having already
356:. The free minicircles are released into a region between the kinetoplast and the mitochondrial membrane called the kinetoflagellar zone (KFZ). After replication the minicircles migrate by unknown mechanisms to the antipodal protein complexes that contain several replication proteins including an
303:
kinetoplast is distributed fairly uniformly throughout the mitochondrial matrix, but does not contain minicircles. Instead, sequences of kDNA similar in sequence to other kinetoplast minicircles are connected in tandem into larger molecules approximately 200kb in length. Mega-kDNA (or structures
219:
kinetoplast is similar in kDNA structure to a pro-kDNA kinetoplast. It contains little catenation and no supercoiling. The distinctive feature of poly-kDNA is that instead of being composed of a single globular bundle as in pro-kDNA, the poly-kDNA is distributed among various discrete
265:
kinetoplast, like poly-kDNA and pro-kDNA, contains a lesser degree of catenation but it does contain minicircles that are supercoiled. Pan-kDNA kinetoplasts fill most of the mitochondrial matrix and are not limited to discrete foci like poly-kDNA. Pan-kDNA has been observed in
380:
been replicated. Minicircles that have not yet been replicated are still covalently closed. Immediately after replication, each progeny is attached to the kDNA network proximal to the antipodal protein complexes and the gaps are partially repaired.
434:: The kinetoplast begins to show antipodal protein complexes. The flagellar basal body begins replication, as does the kinetoplast. The association of the replicating kinetoplast to the two basal bodies causes it to develop a domed appearance.
144:. Reproduction of this network then requires that these rings be disconnected from the parental kinetoplast and subsequently reconnected in the daughter kinetoplast. This unique mode of DNA replication may inspire potential
815:
Schamber-Reis BL, Nardelli S, Régis-Silva CG, Campos PC, Cerqueira PG, Lima SA, Franco GR, Macedo AM, Pena SD, Cazaux C, Hoffmann JS, Motta MC, Schenkman S, Teixeira SM, Machado CR (2012).
418:") is observed that tethers the daughter kDNA networks but eventually breaks during separation. Using FISH probes to target the nabelschnur, it has been found to contain maxicircle kDNA.
340:
Figure 8. Illustration of the location of the antipodal protein complex relative to kinetoplast disk (above) and the migration of minicircle to these complexes for replication (below).
226:
324:
The presence of this variety of kDNA structures reinforces the evolutionary relationship between the species of kinetoplastids. As pan-kDNA most closely resembles a DNA
208:
51:. The variation in the structures of kinetoplasts may reflect phylogenic relationships between kinetoplastids. A kinetoplast is usually adjacent to the organism's
306:
288:
192:
240:
202:
428:: The kinetoplast has not yet initiated replication, contains no antipodal protein complexes, and is positioned relative to a single flagellar basal body.
161:. Exterior to the kDNA disk but directly adjacent are two complexes of proteins situated 180˚ from each other and are involved in minicircle replication.
268:
246:
282:
186:
874:
96:(African sleeping sickness), is an example of a trypanosome with a kinetoplast. Its kinetoplast is easily visible in samples stained with
312:
452:: The daughter kinetoplasts are completely separated as the nabelschnur is broken. Their structure is identical to that seen in Stage I.
406:
While the exact mechanisms for maxicircle kDNA have yet to be determined in the same detail as minicircle kDNA, a structure called a
43:. The most common kinetoplast structure is a disk, but they have been observed in other arrangements. Kinetoplasts are only found in
421:
Kinetoplast replication is described as occurring in five stages, each in relation to the replication of the adjacent flagellum.
69:
344:
The replication of the kinetoplast occurs simultaneously to the duplication of the adjacent flagellum and just prior to the
169:
Variations of kinetoplast networks have also been observed and are described by the arrangement and location of their kDNA.
817:"DNA polymerase beta from Trypanosoma cruzi is involved in kinetoplast DNA replication and repair of oxidative lesions"
800:
109:
1950:
867:
483:
2071:
86:, a group of flagellated protozoans, the kinetoplast exists as a dense granule of DNA within the mitochondrion.
975:
860:
1971:
132:(gRNA) to decode this encrypted maxicircle information, typically through the insertion or deletion of
1845:
1569:
667:"P166, a link between the trypanosome mitochondrial DNA and flagellum, mediates genome segregation"
68:
this cytoskeletal connection is called the tripartite attachment complex and includes the protein
2056:
1809:
471:
93:
2006:
1945:
1884:
1598:
2061:
1966:
1957:
1543:
353:
352:
kDNA network, initiation of replication is promoted by the unlinking of kDNA minicircles via
153:
487:
273:
40:
1669:
376:, which initiate repair of remaining discontinuities in the newly replicated minicircles.
8:
2066:
1894:
475:
537:
1143:
852:
757:
728:
691:
666:
157:, a catenated disk of circular kDNA maxicircles and minicircles, most of which are not
88:
64:
642:
617:
1940:
1899:
1252:
965:
838:
833:
796:
762:
696:
647:
583:
541:
462:
145:
446:: The kinetoplasts appear as separate disks but remain connected by the nabelschnur.
16:
1914:
1758:
1705:
1657:
1616:
1581:
1574:
1511:
1388:
1314:
828:
816:
752:
744:
686:
678:
665:
Zhao, Z; Lindsay, M. E.; Roy
Chowdhury, A; Robinson, D. R.; Englund, P. T. (2008).
637:
629:
575:
533:
440:: The new flagellum begin to separate and the kinetoplast takes on a bilobed shape.
943:
1690:
922:
491:
411:
105:
633:
1874:
1715:
1625:
1611:
1412:
1268:
1216:
1073:
992:
415:
365:
48:
2050:
1804:
1776:
1680:
1653:
1650:
1584:
1078:
1052:
1002:
682:
579:
387:
Figure 9. Illustration of kinetoplast rotation during minicircle replication.
158:
36:
1991:
1961:
1821:
1472:
1324:
1319:
1221:
1157:
1026:
1021:
887:
883:
842:
766:
700:
651:
587:
521:
495:
357:
180:
59:
545:
336:
221:
2021:
1996:
1984:
1799:
1753:
1554:
1521:
1501:
1335:
1206:
1174:
1112:
1102:
1037:
1012:
960:
748:
369:
125:
101:
83:
2035:
2030:
2011:
2001:
1979:
1635:
1559:
1379:
1350:
1278:
1257:
1128:
1016:
970:
912:
391:
383:
373:
255:
141:
137:
55:
814:
566:
Shlomai J (2004). "The structure and replication of kinetoplast DNA".
2016:
1889:
1879:
1743:
1725:
1700:
1630:
1482:
1462:
1448:
1427:
1355:
1235:
1138:
1117:
1063:
955:
934:
231:
129:
113:
52:
124:
The kinetoplast contains circular DNA in two forms, maxicircles and
1909:
1904:
1816:
1781:
1710:
1695:
1685:
1564:
1487:
1438:
1402:
1369:
1283:
1195:
1092:
1047:
927:
907:
395:
Kinetoplast (K) divides first and then the nucleus (N) in dividing
361:
251:
224:
throughout the mitochondrial lumen. Poly-kDNA has been observed in
44:
1826:
1345:
1299:
938:
891:
345:
325:
235:
133:
664:
1748:
1606:
1309:
1185:
917:
618:"Kinetoplast DNA Network: Evolution of an Improbable Structure"
490:. It appears that DNA polymerase beta acts during kinetoplast
1720:
1288:
950:
317:
277:
795:. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 1996. pages=1029–42.
733:
is orchestrated by cytoskeleton-mediated cell morphogenesis"
524:(1995). "The structure and replication of kinetoplast DNA".
466:
is able to repair nucleotides in its genomic or kinetoplast
293:
97:
467:
136:
residues. The network of maxicircles and minicircles are
32:
882:
58:, suggesting that it is bound to some components of the
519:
474:produced by the parasite's host during infection.
1509:
20:Electron micrograph of normal kinetoplast (K) of
2048:
810:
808:
1470:
868:
304:similar to mega-kDNA) have been observed in
805:
494:to repair oxidative DNA damages induced by
151:The best studied kDNA structure is that of
875:
861:
1377:
832:
756:
690:
641:
565:
482:is employed in the removal of oxidative
390:
382:
335:
328:, it may be the ancestral form of kDNA.
140:to form a planar network that resembles
15:
2049:
729:"The kinetoplast replication cycle in
726:
856:
615:
561:
559:
557:
555:
515:
513:
511:
784:
782:
780:
778:
776:
727:Gluenz E, et al. (March 2011).
722:
720:
718:
716:
714:
712:
710:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
793:DNA Replication in Eukaryotic Cells
538:10.1146/annurev.mi.49.100195.001001
244:(a free-living kinetoplastid), and
13:
552:
508:
14:
2083:
773:
707:
594:
110:fluorescent in situ hybridization
39:that contains many copies of the
834:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2012.02.007
1622:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous
658:
331:
75:
1:
1592:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid
616:Lukes J, et al. (2002).
501:
456:
164:
119:
92:, the parasite which causes
7:
634:10.1128/ec.1.4.495-502.2002
10:
2088:
470:that have been damaged by
227:Dimastigella trypaniformis
1931:
1865:
1790:
1767:
1734:
1667:
1541:
1534:
1500:
1461:
1436:
1410:
1401:
1368:
1333:
1297:
1266:
1243:
1234:
1204:
1183:
1165:
1156:
1126:
1100:
1091:
1061:
1035:
1000:
991:
984:
898:
31:is a network of circular
913:Mastigophora/Flagellates
683:10.1038/sj.emboj.7601956
580:10.2174/1566524043360096
1951:Baas-Becking hypothesis
821:Mol. Biochem. Parasitol
472:reactive oxygen species
346:nuclear DNA replication
209:Cephalothamnium cyclopi
94:African trypanosomiasis
35:(called kDNA) inside a
2072:Mitochondrial genetics
1946:Microbial biogeography
737:Molecular Cell Biology
399:
388:
341:
310:(a fish parasite) and
254:of the intestine of a
234:in the intestine of a
24:
966:Fungus-like organisms
394:
386:
350:Crithidia fasciculata
339:
307:Trypanoplasme borreli
289:Cryptobia branchialis
193:Procryptobia sorokini
154:Crithidia fasciculata
19:
1681:Simple cell membrane
1617:Pseudoparenchymatous
1605:Filamentous/trichal/
1589:Colonial flagellated
1522:Collar of microvilli
749:10.1128/MCB.01176-10
526:Annu. Rev. Microbiol
488:base excision repair
274:receptaculum seminis
241:Dismastigella mimosa
112:(FISH) with BrdU, a
41:mitochondrial genome
1895:Contractile vacuole
1846:Meiosis in protists
1827:Mitosis in protists
1805:Multinucleate cells
1027:Flagellar apparatus
976:Ambiregnal protists
918:Sarcodina/Amoeboids
498:in this organelle.
476:DNA polymerase beta
348:. In a traditional
272:(a parasite of the
203:Rhynchomonas nasuta
108:, or by the use of
1726:Periplast/pellicle
1449:Periplast/pellicle
1389:Cruciform division
731:Trypanosoma brucei
486:by the process of
400:
389:
342:
89:Trypanosoma brucei
65:Trypanosoma brucei
25:
22:Trypanosoma brucei
2044:
2043:
1941:Microbial ecology
1927:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1900:Eyespot apparatus
1530:
1529:
1512:Choanoflagellates
1496:
1495:
1457:
1456:
1397:
1396:
1364:
1363:
1230:
1229:
1152:
1151:
1087:
1086:
463:Trypanosoma cruzi
269:Cryptobia helicis
2079:
1915:Mastigont system
1868:
1793:
1770:
1759:Gliding motility
1737:
1674:
1619:/plektenchymatic
1575:Amoeboflagellate
1548:
1539:
1538:
1515:
1507:
1506:
1476:
1468:
1467:
1442:
1416:
1408:
1407:
1382:
1375:
1374:
1339:
1303:
1272:
1246:
1241:
1240:
1210:
1189:
1168:
1163:
1162:
1132:
1106:
1098:
1097:
1067:
1041:
1005:
998:
997:
989:
988:
877:
870:
863:
854:
853:
847:
846:
836:
812:
803:
786:
771:
770:
760:
743:(5): 1012–1021.
724:
705:
704:
694:
671:The EMBO Journal
662:
656:
655:
645:
613:
592:
591:
563:
550:
549:
517:
496:genotoxic stress
354:topoisomerase II
2087:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2040:
1933:
1919:
1866:
1861:
1791:
1786:
1768:
1763:
1735:
1730:
1671:
1668:
1663:
1545:
1542:
1526:
1510:
1492:
1471:
1453:
1437:
1432:
1411:
1393:
1378:
1360:
1334:
1329:
1298:
1293:
1269:Dinoflagellates
1267:
1262:
1244:
1226:
1205:
1200:
1184:
1179:
1166:
1148:
1127:
1122:
1101:
1083:
1062:
1057:
1036:
1031:
1001:
980:
901:classifications
900:
894:
881:
851:
850:
813:
806:
787:
774:
725:
708:
663:
659:
622:Eukaryotic Cell
614:
595:
564:
553:
518:
509:
504:
492:DNA replication
459:
334:
292:(a parasite of
247:Cruzella marina
167:
122:
80:
12:
11:
5:
2085:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2057:Kinetoplastids
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1969:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1937:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1802:
1796:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1740:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1677:
1675:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1643:Siphonocladous
1641:
1633:
1626:Multinucleated
1623:
1620:
1614:
1612:Parenchymatous
1609:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1551:
1549:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1518:
1516:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1445:
1443:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1417:
1413:Kinetoplastids
1405:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1385:
1383:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1304:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1192:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1177:
1171:
1169:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1133:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1109:
1107:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1079:Phycobilisomes
1076:
1074:Pit connection
1070:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1053:Phycobilisomes
1050:
1044:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1008:
1006:
1003:Chloroplastida
995:
993:Archaeplastida
986:
982:
981:
979:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
947:
946:
941:
932:
931:
930:
925:
915:
904:
902:
896:
895:
880:
879:
872:
865:
857:
849:
848:
804:
772:
706:
657:
628:(4): 495–502.
593:
568:Curr. Mol. Med
551:
506:
505:
503:
500:
458:
455:
454:
453:
447:
441:
435:
429:
416:umbilical cord
366:DNA polymerase
333:
330:
322:
321:
297:
259:
213:
166:
163:
121:
118:
79:
74:
49:Kinetoplastida
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2084:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1972:Fertilization
1970:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1930:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1864:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1844:
1840:Pleuromitosis
1839:
1836:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1777:Hydrogenosome
1775:
1774:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1651:Multicellular
1649:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1473:Dictyostelids
1469:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1336:Apicomplexans
1332:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1158:Stramenopiles
1155:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1004:
999:
996:
994:
990:
987:
983:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
945:
942:
940:
936:
933:
929:
926:
924:
921:
920:
919:
916:
914:
911:
910:
909:
906:
905:
903:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
873:
871:
866:
864:
859:
858:
855:
844:
840:
835:
830:
827:(2): 122–31.
826:
822:
818:
811:
809:
802:
801:0-87969-459-9
798:
794:
791:
785:
783:
781:
779:
777:
768:
764:
759:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
732:
723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
713:
711:
702:
698:
693:
688:
684:
680:
677:(1): 143–54.
676:
672:
668:
661:
653:
649:
644:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
612:
610:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
589:
585:
581:
577:
574:(6): 623–47.
573:
569:
562:
560:
558:
556:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
516:
514:
512:
507:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
478:expressed in
477:
473:
469:
465:
464:
451:
448:
445:
442:
439:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
423:
422:
419:
417:
413:
409:
404:
398:
393:
385:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
338:
329:
327:
319:
315:
314:
309:
308:
302:
298:
295:
291:
290:
285:
284:
283:Bodo caudatus
279:
275:
271:
270:
264:
260:
257:
253:
249:
248:
243:
242:
237:
233:
229:
228:
223:
218:
214:
211:
210:
205:
204:
199:
198:Bodo sorokini
195:
194:
189:
188:
187:Bodo designis
183:
182:
176:
172:
171:
170:
162:
160:
156:
155:
149:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
90:
85:
78:
73:
71:
67:
66:
61:
57:
54:
50:
47:of the class
46:
42:
38:
37:mitochondrion
34:
30:
23:
18:
2062:Mitochondria
1992:Heterotrophy
1962:Reproduction
1837:Orthomitosis
1822:Heterokaryon
1769:Mitochondria
1670:Cell surface
1546:organization
1502:Opisthokonta
1422:
1325:Micronucleus
1320:Macronucleus
1222:Pneumatocyst
1038:Glaucophytes
1022:Phragmoplast
961:Thallophytes
888:Protistology
884:Microbiology
824:
820:
792:
789:
740:
736:
730:
674:
670:
660:
625:
621:
571:
567:
529:
525:
520:Shapiro TA;
479:
461:
460:
449:
443:
437:
431:
425:
420:
407:
405:
401:
396:
378:
358:endonuclease
349:
343:
323:
311:
305:
300:
287:
281:
267:
262:
245:
239:
225:
216:
207:
201:
197:
191:
185:
181:Bodo saltans
179:
178:observed in
174:
168:
152:
150:
146:drug targets
123:
87:
84:trypanosomes
81:
76:
63:
60:cytoskeleton
28:
26:
21:
2022:Necrotrophy
2007:Saprotrophy
1997:Phagotrophy
1985:Phototrophy
1978:Nutrition:
1967:Life cycles
1958:Development
1932:Ecology and
1800:Nucleomorph
1754:Pseudopodia
1555:Unicellular
1439:Euglenoidea
1423:Kinetoplast
1207:Brown algae
1175:Mastigoneme
1113:Mastigoneme
1103:Cryptophyta
1013:green algae
971:Slime molds
788:Torri, A.,
484:DNA damages
408:nabelschnur
370:DNA primase
332:Replication
159:supercoiled
126:minicircles
102:fluorescent
77:Trypanosoma
29:kinetoplast
2067:Organelles
2051:Categories
2036:Auxotrophy
2031:Mixotrophy
2012:Parasitism
2002:Osmotrophy
1980:Autotrophy
1934:physiology
1810:Plasmodium
1736:Locomotion
1672:structures
1636:Coenocytic
1380:Phytomyxea
1351:Apicoplast
1279:Dinokaryon
1258:Trichocyst
1129:Haptophyte
1017:Phycoplast
985:Morphology
956:Cryptogams
532:: 117–43.
522:Englund PT
502:References
457:DNA repair
374:DNA ligase
320:parasite).
256:sea squirt
165:Variations
142:chain mail
116:analogue.
56:basal body
2017:Biotrophy
1890:Extrusome
1880:Cytostome
1744:Flagellum
1701:Cell wall
1660:/histonal
1640:Siphonous
1631:Syncytial
1599:Coenobial
1595:Sarcinoid
1544:Levels of
1483:Macrocyst
1463:Amoebozoa
1428:Glycosome
1356:Microneme
1236:Alveolata
1144:Haptonema
1139:Coccolith
1118:Periplast
1064:Red algae
1048:Cyanelles
935:Infusoria
438:Stage III
397:T. brucei
313:Jarrellia
301:mega-kDNA
232:commensal
217:poly-kDNA
138:catenated
130:guide RNA
120:Structure
114:thymidine
53:flagellar
1910:Axostyle
1905:Pyrenoid
1885:Fimbriae
1817:Dikaryon
1782:Mitosome
1711:Skeleton
1696:Frustule
1686:Mucilage
1658:tissular
1582:Colonial
1565:Amoeboid
1560:Monadoid
1488:Sorocarp
1403:Excavate
1370:Rhizaria
1300:Ciliates
1284:Dinocyst
1245:General:
1196:Frustule
1167:General:
1093:Hacrobia
944:Sporozoa
939:Ciliates
928:Heliozoa
908:Protozoa
892:Protists
843:22369885
767:21173163
701:18059470
652:12455998
588:15357213
480:T. cruzi
444:Stage IV
432:Stage II
362:helicase
263:pan-kDNA
252:parasite
175:pro-kDNA
45:Excavata
1853:Zygotic
1850:Gametic
1792:Nucleus
1570:Coccoid
1535:General
1346:Rhoptry
1253:Alveoli
1186:Diatoms
923:Testate
758:3067821
692:2206137
546:8561456
450:Stage V
426:Stage I
326:plasmid
316:sp. (a
236:termite
134:uridine
1856:Sporic
1834:Closed
1749:Cilium
1706:Lorica
1607:hyphal
1315:Cirrus
1310:Cilium
1217:Lamina
899:Former
841:
799:
790:et al.
765:
755:
699:
689:
650:
643:117999
640:
586:
544:
412:German
372:, and
286:, and
278:snails
206:, and
1867:Other
1721:Theca
1691:Scale
1289:Theca
951:Algae
414:for "
318:whale
196:syn.
106:stain
62:. In
1875:Cyst
1831:Open
1716:Test
1654:s.s.
1585:s.s.
839:PMID
797:ISBN
763:PMID
697:PMID
648:PMID
584:PMID
542:PMID
294:fish
222:foci
104:DNA
100:, a
98:DAPI
70:p166
1015:":
829:doi
825:183
753:PMC
745:doi
687:PMC
679:doi
638:PMC
630:doi
576:doi
534:doi
468:DNA
280:),
276:of
250:(a
238:),
230:(a
82:In
33:DNA
2053::
890::
886::
837:.
823:.
819:.
807:^
775:^
761:.
751:.
741:31
739:.
735:.
709:^
695:.
685:.
675:27
673:.
669:.
646:.
636:.
624:.
620:.
596:^
582:.
570:.
554:^
540:.
530:49
528:.
510:^
368:,
364:,
360:,
299:A
296:).
261:A
258:).
215:A
200:,
190:,
184:,
173:A
148:.
72:.
27:A
1960:/
1656:/
1514::
1475::
1441::
1415::
1338::
1302::
1271::
1209::
1188::
1131::
1105::
1066::
1040::
1011:"
937:/
876:e
869:t
862:v
845:.
831::
769:.
747::
703:.
681::
654:.
632::
626:1
590:.
578::
572:4
548:.
536::
410:(
212:.
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