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525:. During this time, Schwinger, who previously had already had the habit of working until late at night, went further and made the day/night switch more complete, working at night and sleeping during the day, a habit he would carry throughout his career. Schwinger later commented that this switch was in part a way to retain greater intellectual independence and avoid being "dominated" by Breit and Wigner by simply reducing the duration of contact with them by working different hours.
361:
780:. It treats quantum fields as long-distance phenomena and uses auxiliary 'sources' that resemble currents in classical field theories. The source theory is a mathematically consistent field theory with clearly derived phenomenological results. The criticisms by his Harvard colleagues led Schwinger to leave the faculty in 1972 for
792:, there found a pair of old shoes, with the implied message, "think you can fill these?" Based on Schwinger's source theory, Weinberg set the underpinnings of the effective field theory, that is more appreciated among physicists. In spite of the shoes incident, Weinberg gave the credit to Schwinger for the inspiration.
891:, while Schwinger was able to formally renormalize to one loop without an explicit regulator. Schwinger believed in the formalism of local fields, while Feynman had faith in the particle paths. They followed each other's work closely, and each respected the other. On Feynman's death, Schwinger described him as
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from his radar work, and he used these methods to formulate quantum field theory in terms of local Green's functions in a relativistically invariant way. This allowed him to calculate unambiguously the first corrections to the electron magnetic moment in quantum electrodynamics. Earlier non-covariant
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after their refusal to publish his papers. He felt that cold fusion research was being suppressed and academic freedom violated. He wrote, "The pressure for conformity is enormous. I have experienced it in editors' rejection of submitted papers, based on venomous criticism of anonymous referees. The
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Schwinger disliked
Feynman diagrams because he felt that they made the student focus on the particles and forget about local fields, which in his view inhibited understanding. He went so far as to ban them altogether from his class, although he understood them perfectly well. The true difference is
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who he knew at
Columbia for help. Rabi also immediately recognized Schwinger's capabilities on their first meeting, and then made arrangements to award Schwinger with a scholarship to study at Columbia. At first Julian's bad grades in some subjects at CCNY prevented the scholarship award. But Rabi
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In the fall of 1934, Schwinger entered the City
College of New York as an undergraduate. CCNY automatically accepted all Townsend Harris graduates at the time, and both institutions offered free tuition. Due to his intense interest in physics and mathematics, Julian performed very well in those
862:. He worked with local field operators, and found relations between them, and he felt that physicists should understand the algebra of local fields, no matter how paradoxical it was. By contrast, Feynman was more intuitive, believing that the physics could be extracted entirely from the
509:, who happened to be passing by New York. Bethe's approval of the paper and his reputation in that domain were then enough to secure the scholarship for Julian, who then transferred to Columbia. His academic situation at Columbia was much better than at CCNY. He was accepted into the
31:
628:, and noted that the field algebra led to anomalous Schwinger terms in various classical identities, because of short distance singularities. These were foundational results in field theory, instrumental for the proper understanding of
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During
Schwinger's graduate studies, Rabi felt that it would be good for Julian to visit other institutions around the country, and Julian was awarded a travelling fellowship for the year 37/38 which he spent at working with
485:
subjects despite often skipping classes and learning directly from books. On the other hand, his lack of interest for other topics such as
English led to academic conflicts with teachers of those subjects.
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At UCLA, and for the rest of his career, Schwinger continued to develop the source theory and its various applications. After 1989 Schwinger took a keen interest in the non-mainstream research of
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as a long-distance quantum radiative phenomenon associated not with atoms, but with fast-moving surfaces in the collapsing bubble, where there are discontinuities in the dielectric constant. The
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Schwinger had a mixed relationship with his colleagues, because he always pursued independent research, different from mainstream fashion. In particular, Schwinger developed the
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model, and the first example of confinement in 1+1 dimensions. He is responsible for the theory of multiple neutrinos, Schwinger terms, and the theory of the spin-3/2 field.
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883:. The latter, spearheaded by Feynman has had all the press coverage, but I continue to believe that the differential viewpoint is more general, more elegant, more useful.
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An honest man, the outstanding intuitionist of our age, and a prime example of what may lie in store for anyone who dares to follow the beat of a different drum.
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Despite sharing the Nobel Prize, Schwinger and
Feynman had a different approach to quantum electrodynamics and to quantum field theory in general. Feynman used a
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Having supervised 73 doctoral dissertations, Schwinger is known as one of the most prolific graduate advisors in physics. Four of his students won Nobel prizes:
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Eventually, these ideas led to
Lagrangian or action formulations of quantum mechanics, appearing in two distinct but related forms, which I distinguish as
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to the United States. Both his father and his mother's parents were prosperous clothing manufacturers, although the family business declined after the
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Schwinger is recognized as one of the greatest physicists of the twentieth century, responsible for much of modern quantum field theory, including a
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in an electric field, a process now known as the "Schwinger effect." This effect could not be seen in any finite order in perturbation theory.
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at the time. Lloyd made the acquaintance, and soon recognized Julian's talent. Noticing
Schwinger's academic problems, Lloyd decided to ask
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1264:(September 15, 1949). "Quantum Electrodynamics. III. The Electromagnetic Properties of the ElectronâRadiative Corrections to Scattering".
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work had arrived at infinite answers, but the extra symmetry in his methods allowed
Schwinger to isolate the correct finite corrections.
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from 1932 to 1934, a highly regarded high school for gifted students at the time. During high school, Julian had already started reading
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1946:
Revised version published as (2007) "Julian
Schwinger: From Nuclear Physics and Quantum Electrodynamics to Source Theory and Beyond,"
838:(1964), honorary D.Sc. degrees from Purdue University (1961) and Harvard University (1962), and the Nature of Light Award of the U.S.
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Milton, Kimball (2007). "Julian Schwinger: Nuclear Physics, the Radiation Laboratory, Renormalized QED, Source Theory, and Beyond".
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Schwinger's foundational work on quantum field theory constructed the modern framework of field correlation functions and their
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into the accepted pattern of electroweak unification. He attempted to formulate a theory of quantum electrodynamics with point
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is required, and Schwinger later regretted that he had not followed up on this work far enough to discover supersymmetry.
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tradition. Julian's older brother Harold Schwinger was born in 1911, seven years before Julian who was born in 1918.
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In the same era, he introduced non-perturbative methods into quantum field theory, by calculating the rate at which
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After Julian had joined CCNY, his brother Harold, who had previously graduated from CCNY, asked his ex-classmate
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571:, where he taught from 1945 to 1974. In 1966 he became the Eugene Higgins professor of physics at Harvard.
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776:, a phenomenological theory for the physics of elementary particles, which is a predecessor of the modern
420:, and for renormalizing QED to one loop order. Schwinger was a physics professor at several universities.
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Like the silicon chips of more recent years, the Feynman diagram was bringing computation to the masses.
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and allowed bosons and fermions to be treated equally for the first time, using a differential form of
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As a famous physicist, Schwinger was often compared to another legendary physicist of his generation,
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now supported by experiments focuses on superheated gas inside the bubble as the source of the light.
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parents, Belle (née Rosenfeld) and Benjamin Schwinger, a garment manufacturer, who had emigrated from
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Schwinger, J. (1983) "Renormalization Theory of Quantum Electrodynamics: An Individual View", in
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866:, which gave a particle picture. Schwinger commented on Feynman diagrams in the following way,
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After having worked with Oppenheimer, Schwinger's first regular academic appointment was at
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1206:(February 15, 1949). "Quantum Electrodynamics. II. Vacuum Polarization and Self-Energy".
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2007:
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1103:
666:. Nowadays there are known to be three light neutrinos; the third is the partner of the
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677:, quantum electrodynamics in one space and one time dimension, the first example of a
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2011:
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Brenner, M. P.; Hilgenfeldt, S.; Lohse, D. (2002). "Single-bubble sonoluminescence".
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2002:, World Scientific series in 20th century physics, vol. 26, World Scientific,
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Schwinger, J. (1973). "A report on quantum electrodynamics". In J. Mehra (ed.),
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replacement of impartial reviewing by censorship will be the death of science."
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The headstone of Julian Schwinger at Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, MA.
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theory of the spin-3/2 field in a concrete form, as a vector of Dirac spinors,
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1933:
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to "get to know ". Lloyd was a CCNY physics instructor and Ph.D. candidate at
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858:. Schwinger was more formally inclined and favored symbolic manipulations in
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1148:(November 15, 1948). "Quantum Electrodynamics. I. A Covariant Formulation".
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however deeper, and it was expressed by Schwinger in the following passage,
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during World War II. He provided theoretical support for the development of
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Electromagnetic Radiation: Variational Methods, Waveguides and Accelerators
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In other notable early work, Rarita and Schwinger formulated the abstract
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In the 1960s, Schwinger formulated and analyzed what is now known as the
647:. In order for the spin-3/2 field to interact consistently, some form of
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428:
427:, and the equations of motion for quantum fields. He developed the first
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1698:(illustrated ed.), New York: Oxford University Press, p. 550,
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81:
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Schwinger obtained his PhD overseen by Rabi in 1939 at the age of 21.
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1964:
QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga
1086:"On Quantum-Electrodynamics and the Magnetic Moment of the Electron"
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1896:
Climbing the Mountain: the scientific biography of Julian Schwinger
1882:; "A Path to Quantum Electrodynamics," Physics Today, February 1989
1695:
Climbing the Mountain: The Scientific Biography of Julian Schwinger
1470:
Climbing the mountain: the scientific biography of Julian Schwinger
681:. He was also the first to suggest an electroweak gauge theory, an
659:
655:
598:
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842:(1949). In 1987, Schwinger received the Golden Plate Award of the
822:
in 1965 for his work on quantum electrodynamics (QED), along with
1865:
416:(QED), in particular for developing a relativistically invariant
3675:
978:
correction ("anomalous") to the magnetic moment of the electron
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249:
1764:"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"
799:. He wrote eight theory papers about it. He resigned from the
396:
564:
106:
97:
1341:(June 1951). "On Gauge Invariance and Vacuum Polarization".
30:
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663:
393:
368:. Original caption: "His laboratory is his ballpoint pen."
133:
1998:
Julian Seymour Schwinger (2000), Kimball A. Milton (ed.),
1528:
1516:
384:
1984:
Julian Schwinger: The Physicist, the Teacher, and the Man
807:
In his last publications, Schwinger proposed a theory of
531:
During the fall of 1939 Schwinger started working at the
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110:
1997:
1717:
444:
Julian Seymour Schwinger was born in New York City, to
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1540:
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555:
in 1941. While on leave from Purdue, he worked at the
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Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications
1320:"Effect of Tensor Range in Nuclear Two-Body Problems"
958:
926:
719:
687:
387:
3875:
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
2000:
A quantum legacy: seminal papers of Julian Schwinger
1018:
A Quantum Legacy: Seminal Papers of Julian Schwinger
742:
at long distances. This was extended by his student
713:
gauge group spontaneously broken to electromagnetic
481:, in whose campus Townsend Harris was then located.
463:
Schwinger was a precocious student. He attended the
1060:
Quantum Mechanics: Symbolism of Atomic Measurements
381:
1961:
1637:
964:
944:
734:
705:
2045:
1688:; K. A. Milton; Julian Seymour Schwinger (2000),
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1260:
1202:
1144:
1080:
2039:including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1965
3608:
1894:Mehra, Jagdish, and Milton, Kimball A. (2000)
1039:Einstein's Legacy: The Unity of Space and Time
788:, who inherited Schwinger's paneled office in
3895:University of California, Los Angeles faculty
3594:
2083:
1784:
501:persisted and showed an unpublished paper on
1787:"Quantum Electrodynamics-An Individual View"
1318:Feshbach, H., Schwinger, J. and J. A. Harr.
1711:
990:List of things named after Julian Schwinger
567:. After the war, Schwinger left Purdue for
404:; February 12, 1918 â July 16, 1994) was a
158:List of things named after Julian Schwinger
3601:
3587:
2090:
2076:
2034:
29:
16:American theoretical physicist (1918â1994)
1915:
1739:
1435:"The Theory of Quantizied Fields. Part 3"
1111:
3930:Fellows of the American Physical Society
3855:American people of Polish-Jewish descent
1956:
1635:
1558:
1546:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1403:, Nuclear Development Associates, Inc.,
1005:
945:{\displaystyle {\frac {\alpha }{2\pi }}}
903:
849:
658:come in multiple varieties, one for the
439:
359:
2057:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
1863:
513:society and received his B.A. in 1936.
3822:
1901:
1827:, Cambridge University Press, p. 329.
539:, where he stayed for two years as an
256:On the magnetic scattering of neutrons
3582:
2071:
1845:The Physicist's Conception of Nature.
1465:
1027:, 2nd ed, Taylor & Francis, 2024.
1000:List of textbooks in electromagnetism
364:Julian Schwinger, winner of the 1965
239:University of California, Los Angeles
231:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1866:"Dr. Richard P. Feynman (1918â1988)"
1474:. Oxford University Press. pp.
1416:"The Theory of Quantized Fields. II"
574:Schwinger developed an affinity for
3870:National Medal of Science laureates
412:. He is best known for his work on
13:
3905:Townsend Harris High School alumni
3880:Columbia College (New York) alumni
1888:
1636:Weinberg, Steven (April 1, 1979).
1443:United States Department of Energy
1424:United States Department of Energy
1405:United States Department of Energy
1328:United States Department of Energy
818:Schwinger was jointly awarded the
784:. It is a story widely told that
533:University of California, Berkeley
223:University of California, Berkeley
14:
3941:
2041:Relativistic Quantum Field Theory
2024:
620:. He gave elegant proofs for the
590:unambiguously to one-loop order.
3920:Scientists from New York (state)
3900:Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
3860:20th-century American physicists
1872:from the original on May 7, 2007
1791:Le Journal de Physique Colloques
1445:(through predecessor agency the
1426:(through predecessor agency the
1407:(through predecessor agency the
1330:(through predecessor agency the
377:
3850:American theoretical physicists
1986:. Singapore: World Scientific.
1857:
1837:
1817:
1778:
1772:American Academy of Achievement
1756:
1678:
1629:
1608:Particles, Sources, and Fields.
1053:Quantum Kinematics and Dynamics
844:American Academy of Achievement
1968:. Princeton University Press.
1639:"Phenomenological Lagrangians"
1600:
1564:
1459:
1046:Particles, Sources, and Fields
995:List of Jewish Nobel laureates
729:
723:
700:
694:
612:. His approach started with a
561:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1:
1825:The Birth of Particle Physics
1626:, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
1572:"Julian Schwinger Foundation"
1453:
1067:Discontinuities in Waveguides
813:mechanism of sonoluminescence
3915:American particle physicists
1664:10.1016/0378-4371(79)90223-1
1322:, Computation Laboratory of
840:National Academy of Sciences
434:
7:
3925:American quantum physicists
983:
465:Townsend Harris High School
10:
3946:
3885:Harvard University faculty
3865:Jewish American physicists
3840:Nobel laureates in Physics
1898:. Oxford University Press.
1069:, Gordon and Breach, 1968.
654:Schwinger discovered that
473:papers by authors such as
456:. The family followed the
130:Cavity perturbation theory
3890:Purdue University faculty
3747:
3716:
3685:
3661:
3637:
3618:
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2565:
2343:
2109:
1934:10.1007/s00016-007-0326-6
1750:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.425
1720:Reviews of Modern Physics
1025:Classical Electrodynamics
1020:, World Scientific, 2000.
881:differential and integral
836:National Medal of Science
801:American Physical Society
645:RaritaâSchwinger equation
546:
454:Wall Street Crash of 1929
352:
278:
266:
248:
218:
210:
203:
187:National Medal of Science
174:
163:
117:
89:
66:
40:
28:
21:
3845:American Nobel laureates
2062:University of St Andrews
1982:Ng, Y. Jack, ed. (1996)
1811:10.1051/jphyscol:1982826
1447:Atomic Energy Commission
1428:Atomic Energy Commission
1409:Atomic Energy Commission
1332:Atomic Energy Commission
1030:Milton KA, Schwinger J,
1023:Milton KA, Schwinger J,
899:
557:MIT Radiation Laboratory
505:written by Schwinger to
479:City College of New York
373:Julian Seymour Schwinger
94:City College of New York
45:Julian Seymour Schwinger
1690:Oxford University Press
1466:Mehra, Jagdish (2000).
1172:10.1103/PHYSREV.74.1439
1065:Schwinger J, Saxon DS,
974:fine structure constant
965:{\displaystyle \alpha }
622:spin-statistics theorem
588:quantum electrodynamics
503:quantum electrodynamics
414:quantum electrodynamics
150:Mutually unbiased bases
142:MacMahon Master theorem
138:Spinâstatistics theorem
126:Electroweak interaction
122:Quantum electrodynamics
3753:Nobel Prize recipients
3718:Physiology or Medicine
2103:Nobel Prize in Physics
1948:Physics in Perspective
1904:Physics in Perspective
1785:Schwinger, J. (1982).
1365:10.1103/PHYSREV.82.664
1288:10.1103/PHYSREV.76.790
1230:10.1103/PHYSREV.75.651
1113:10.1103/PHYSREV.73.416
966:
946:
909:
897:
885:
872:
820:Nobel Prize in Physics
778:effective field theory
759:Benjamin Roy Mottelson
736:
707:
477:in the library of the
369:
366:Nobel Prize in Physics
343:Charles M. Sommerfield
194:Nobel Prize in Physics
3628:Robert Burns Woodward
1411:) (January 26, 1952).
1397:"On Angular Momentum"
1006:Selected publications
967:
947:
918:Mount Auburn Cemetery
907:
893:
877:
868:
850:Schwinger and Feynman
832:Albert Einstein Award
737:
708:
706:{\displaystyle SU(2)}
601:pairs are created by
537:J. Robert Oppenheimer
440:Early life and career
410:theoretical physicist
363:
331:Lawrence Paul Horwitz
243:University of Chicago
180:Albert Einstein Award
170:(m. 1947) (1917-2011)
2048:Robertson, Edmund F.
1048:, 3 vols, CRC, 2018.
956:
924:
860:quantum field theory
828:Shin'ichirĆ Tomonaga
735:{\displaystyle U(1)}
717:
685:
618:Grassman integration
582:Schwinger developed
425:variational approach
347:Kenneth Alan Johnson
335:Margaret G. Kivelson
214:Quantum field theory
2046:O'Connor, John J.;
2008:2000qlsp.book.....K
1958:Schweber, Silvan S.
1926:2007PhP.....9...70M
1847:Dordrecht: Reidel.
1803:1982JPhys..43C.409S
1768:www.achievement.org
1732:2002RvMP...74..425B
1656:1979PhyA...96..327W
1537:, pp. 277â279.
1525:, pp. 278â279.
1357:1951PhRv...82..664S
1280:1949PhRv...76..790S
1222:1949PhRv...75..651S
1164:1948PhRv...74.1439S
1104:1948PhRv...73..416S
610:equations of motion
494:Columbia University
418:perturbation theory
103:Columbia University
3732:André Michel Lwoff
3695:Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
2052:"Julian Schwinger"
2033:on Nobelprize.org
1439:Harvard University
1420:Harvard University
1401:Harvard University
1334:) (November 1949).
1324:Harvard University
962:
942:
916:. He is buried at
912:Schwinger died of
910:
748:magnetic monopoles
732:
703:
569:Harvard University
559:instead of at the
408:-winning American
370:
235:Harvard University
3817:
3816:
3652:Mikhail Sholokhov
3576:
3575:
2017:978-981-02-4006-6
1975:978-0-691-03327-3
1853:978-94-010-2602-4
1705:978-0-19-850658-4
1588:on March 26, 2016
1485:978-0-19-850658-4
1158:(10): 1439â1461.
1084:(February 1948).
1062:, Springer, 2001.
1055:, Westview, 2000.
1034:, Springer, 2006.
940:
914:pancreatic cancer
834:(1951), the U.S.
576:Green's functions
553:Purdue University
498:Isidor Isaac Rabi
356:
355:
279:Doctoral students
273:Isidor Isaac Rabi
227:Purdue University
205:Scientific career
198:
191:
184:
154:Keldysh formalism
55:February 12, 1918
35:Schwinger in 1965
3937:
3755:
3701:Julian Schwinger
3603:
3596:
3589:
3580:
3579:
3569:
3553:
3537:
3521:
3505:
3489:
3473:
3457:
3441:
3429:
3413:
3401:
3389:
3373:
3361:
3345:
3329:
3317:
3305:
3289:
3273:
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3241:
3212:
3196:
3184:
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3152:
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3024:
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2908:
2892:
2869:
2853:
2841:
2825:
2809:
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2741:
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2709:
2701:
2689:
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2669:
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2601:
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2276:
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2253:
2241:
2233:
2231:Kamerlingh Onnes
2225:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2189:
2181:
2173:
2165:
2157:
2149:
2133:
2121:
2092:
2085:
2078:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2038:
2031:Julian Schwinger
2020:
1979:
1967:
1945:
1919:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1861:
1855:
1841:
1835:
1821:
1815:
1814:
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1709:
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1682:
1676:
1675:
1641:
1633:
1627:
1618:, Vol. 2 (1973)
1606:Schwinger, J.S.
1604:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1587:
1581:. Archived from
1576:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
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1473:
1463:
1392:
1339:Julian Schwinger
1315:
1262:Julian Schwinger
1257:
1204:Julian Schwinger
1199:
1146:Julian Schwinger
1141:
1115:
1082:Julian Schwinger
971:
969:
968:
963:
951:
949:
948:
943:
941:
939:
928:
864:Feynman diagrams
809:sonoluminescence
790:Lyman Laboratory
769:(in chemistry).
741:
739:
738:
733:
712:
710:
709:
704:
679:confining theory
662:and one for the
446:Ashkenazi Jewish
403:
402:
399:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
295:Eugen Merzbacher
291:Ben R. Mottelson
283:Richard Arnowitt
268:Doctoral advisor
262:
199:
196:
189:
182:
73:
54:
52:
33:
23:Julian Schwinger
19:
18:
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3728:(Great Britain)
3712:
3709:(United States)
3707:Richard Feynman
3703:(United States)
3681:
3678:(United States)
3657:
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3630:(United States)
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3162:Cohen-Tannoudji
3155:
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2018:
1976:
1917:physics/0610054
1891:
1889:Further reading
1886:
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1460:
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1344:Physical Review
1267:Physical Review
1209:Physical Review
1151:Physical Review
1091:Physical Review
1073:
1008:
986:
957:
954:
953:
932:
927:
925:
922:
921:
902:
856:Richard Feynman
852:
824:Richard Feynman
786:Steven Weinberg
763:Sheldon Glashow
744:Sheldon Glashow
718:
715:
714:
686:
683:
682:
675:Schwinger model
584:renormalization
549:
470:Physical Review
458:Orthodox Jewish
442:
437:
380:
376:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
323:Lowell S. Brown
321:
317:
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311:Daniel Kleitman
309:
305:
301:
299:Sheldon Glashow
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90:Alma mater
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3735:
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3726:François Jacob
3722:
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3714:
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3691:
3689:
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3654:(Soviet Union)
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3037:
3025:
3009:
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2925:
2909:
2898:P. W. Anderson
2893:
2880:
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2874:
2873:
2871:
2870:
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2842:
2826:
2810:
2802:
2790:
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2774:
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2758:
2742:
2726:
2719:Goeppert Mayer
2710:
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2443:C. D. Anderson
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2026:
2025:External links
2023:
2022:
2021:
2016:
1995:
1980:
1974:
1954:
1899:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1868:. amasci.com.
1856:
1836:
1816:
1777:
1755:
1726:(2): 425â484.
1710:
1704:
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1650:(1): 327â340.
1628:
1610:Vol. 1 (1970)
1599:
1563:
1561:, p. 288.
1551:
1549:, p. 285.
1539:
1527:
1515:
1513:, p. 276.
1503:
1501:, p. 275.
1491:
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1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1433:Schwinger, J.
1431:
1414:Schwinger, J.
1412:
1395:Schwinger, J.
1393:
1351:(5): 664â679.
1335:
1316:
1274:(6): 790â817.
1258:
1216:(4): 651â679.
1200:
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1041:, Dover, 2002.
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614:quantum action
586:, formulating
548:
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511:Phi Beta Kappa
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118:Known for
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74:(aged 76)
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1910:(1): 70â114.
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1864:Beaty, Bill.
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1559:Schweber 1994
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1547:Schweber 1994
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1535:Schweber 1994
1531:
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1523:Schweber 1994
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1511:Schweber 1994
1507:
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1499:Schweber 1994
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1449:) (May 1953).
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1057:
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649:supersymmetry
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70:July 16, 1994
69:
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60:
59:New York City
43:
39:
32:
27:
20:
3783:
3700:
3006:von Klitzing
2998:Van der Meer
2750:
2055:
2040:
1999:
1983:
1963:
1950:
1947:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1874:. Retrieved
1859:
1844:
1839:
1824:
1819:
1797:(C-8): 409.
1794:
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1767:
1758:
1723:
1719:
1713:
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1647:
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1607:
1602:
1590:. Retrieved
1583:the original
1578:
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468:
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372:
371:
357:
339:Tung-Mow Yan
307:Bryce DeWitt
254:
219:Institutions
204:
72:(1994-07-16)
3910:Cold fusion
3835:1994 deaths
3830:1918 births
3611:Nobel Prize
3050:Steinberger
2966:K. Siegbahn
2958:Bloembergen
2679:Chamberlain
2412:Schrödinger
2322:M. Siegbahn
2251:W. H. Bragg
2247:W. L. Bragg
1016:Milton KA,
797:cold fusion
767:Walter Kohn
755:Roy Glauber
626:CPT theorem
429:electroweak
406:Nobel Prize
319:Gordon Baym
315:Sam Edwards
303:Walter Kohn
287:Roy Glauber
78:Los Angeles
3824:Categories
3639:Literature
3567:L'Huillier
3531:Hasselmann
3487:Strickland
3455:Kosterlitz
3379:Perlmutter
3118:Brockhouse
2823:Schrieffer
2695:Hofstadter
2647:C. N. Yang
2404:Heisenberg
2381:De Broglie
1833:0521240050
1579:nus.edu.sg
1454:References
1381:0043.42201
1304:0035.13201
1246:0033.23406
1188:0032.09404
1130:0035.13102
668:tau lepton
507:Hans Bethe
490:Lloyd Motz
475:Paul Dirac
82:California
51:1918-02-12
3620:Chemistry
3613:laureates
3551:Zeilinger
3371:Novoselov
3339:Kobayashi
3263:Abrikosov
3110:J. Taylor
3090:de Gennes
3082:R. Taylor
2974:K. Wilson
2922:R. Wilson
2906:Van Vleck
2877:1976â2000
2867:Rainwater
2863:Mottelson
2839:Josephson
2787:Gell-Mann
2751:Schwinger
2739:Prokhorov
2699:Mössbauer
2659:Cherenkov
2651:T. D. Lee
2575:Cockcroft
2566:1951â1975
2365:C. Wilson
2344:1926â1950
2290:Guillaume
2179:Michelson
2139:Becquerel
2110:1901â1925
2099:Laureates
1953:: 70â114.
1736:CiteSeerX
1672:0378-4371
1430:) (1951).
1389:Q21709192
1373:0031-899X
1312:Q56021119
1296:0031-899X
1254:Q56021118
1238:0031-899X
1196:Q27346842
1180:0031-899X
1138:Q21709238
1122:0031-899X
960:α
937:π
930:α
889:regulator
656:neutrinos
630:anomalies
603:tunneling
435:Biography
3740:(France)
3734:(France)
3559:Agostini
3447:Thouless
3439:McDonald
3427:Nakamura
3395:Wineland
3327:GrĂŒnberg
3283:Politzer
3267:Ginzburg
3255:Giacconi
3235:Ketterle
3190:'t Hooft
3174:Laughlin
3166:Phillips
3146:Osheroff
3074:Friedman
3046:Schwartz
3042:Lederman
2962:Schawlow
2938:Weinberg
2747:Tomonaga
2639:Brattain
2631:Shockley
2540:Blackett
2532:Appleton
2524:Bridgman
2471:Lawrence
2451:Davisson
2431:Chadwick
2314:Millikan
2298:Einstein
2187:Lippmann
2155:Rayleigh
2147:M. Curie
2143:P. Curie
1960:(1994).
1870:Archived
1385:Wikidata
1308:Wikidata
1250:Wikidata
1192:Wikidata
1134:Wikidata
1075:Articles
984:See also
952:, where
660:electron
624:and the
599:positron
595:electron
543:fellow.
3697:(Japan)
3687:Physics
3547:Clauser
3511:Penrose
3495:Peebles
3451:Haldane
3419:Akasaki
3407:Englert
3399:Haroche
3383:Schmidt
3343:Maskawa
3295:Glauber
3287:Wilczek
3271:Leggett
3251:Koshiba
3231:Cornell
3222:present
3206:Kroemer
3202:Alferov
3194:Veltman
3178:Störmer
3098:Charpak
3078:Kendall
3062:Dehmelt
3030:Bednorz
2930:Glashow
2918:Penzias
2914:Kapitsa
2886:Richter
2859:A. Bohr
2835:Giaever
2815:Bardeen
2779:Alvarez
2763:Kastler
2755:Feynman
2635:Bardeen
2599:Zernike
2591:Purcell
2361:Compton
2306:N. Bohr
2195:Marconi
2127:Lorentz
2119:Röntgen
2101:of the
2004:Bibcode
1922:Bibcode
1876:May 21,
1799:Bibcode
1728:Bibcode
1692:(ed.),
1652:Bibcode
1353:Bibcode
1276:Bibcode
1218:Bibcode
1160:Bibcode
1100:Bibcode
972:is the
3676:UNICEF
3563:Krausz
3557:2023:
3543:Aspect
3541:2022:
3535:Manabe
3527:Parisi
3525:2021:
3515:Genzel
3509:2020:
3503:Queloz
3493:2019:
3483:Mourou
3479:Ashkin
3477:2018:
3471:Thorne
3467:Barish
3461:2017:
3445:2016:
3435:Kajita
3433:2015:
3417:2014:
3405:2013:
3393:2012:
3377:2011:
3365:2010:
3349:2009:
3333:2008:
3321:2007:
3311:Mather
3309:2006:
3303:HĂ€nsch
3293:2005:
3277:2004:
3261:2003:
3245:2002:
3239:Wieman
3229:2001:
3200:2000:
3188:1999:
3172:1998:
3156:1997:
3142:D. Lee
3140:1996:
3134:Reines
3128:1995:
3116:1994:
3104:1993:
3096:1992:
3088:1991:
3072:1990:
3058:Ramsey
3056:1989:
3040:1988:
3034:MĂŒller
3028:1987:
3022:Rohrer
3018:Binnig
3012:1986:
3004:1985:
2994:Rubbia
2992:1984:
2986:Fowler
2980:1983:
2972:1982:
2956:1981:
2946:Cronin
2944:1980:
2928:1979:
2912:1978:
2896:1977:
2884:1976:
2857:1975:
2851:Hewish
2845:1974:
2829:1973:
2819:Cooper
2813:1972:
2805:1971:
2795:Alfvén
2793:1970:
2785:1969:
2777:1968:
2769:1967:
2761:1966:
2745:1965:
2731:Townes
2729:1964:
2723:Jensen
2715:Wigner
2713:1963:
2707:Landau
2705:1962:
2693:1961:
2687:Glaser
2685:1960:
2673:1959:
2657:1958:
2645:1957:
2629:1956:
2617:1955:
2605:1954:
2597:1953:
2585:1952:
2579:Walton
2573:1951:
2556:Powell
2554:1950:
2548:Yukawa
2546:1949:
2538:1948:
2530:1947:
2522:1946:
2514:1945:
2506:1944:
2498:1943:
2469:1939:
2461:1938:
2449:1937:
2437:1936:
2429:1935:
2410:1933:
2402:1932:
2387:1930:
2379:1929:
2371:1928:
2359:1927:
2353:Perrin
2351:1926:
2330:Franck
2328:1925:
2320:1924:
2312:1923:
2304:1922:
2296:1921:
2288:1920:
2280:1919:
2274:Planck
2272:1918:
2266:Barkla
2264:1917:
2245:1915:
2237:1914:
2229:1913:
2221:1912:
2213:1911:
2205:1910:
2193:1909:
2185:1908:
2177:1907:
2169:1906:
2163:Lenard
2161:1905:
2153:1904:
2137:1903:
2131:Zeeman
2125:1902:
2117:1901:
2014:
1990:
1972:
1942:684471
1940:
1851:
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1178:
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1120:
547:Career
535:under
450:Poland
261:(1939)
259:
250:Thesis
211:Fields
197:(1965)
190:(1964)
183:(1951)
175:Awards
164:Spouse
84:, U.S.
61:, U.S.
3784:1965
3663:Peace
3609:1965
3499:Mayor
3463:Weiss
3423:Amano
3411:Higgs
3387:Riess
3359:Smith
3355:Boyle
3335:Nambu
3315:Smoot
3279:Gross
3247:Davis
3220:2001â
3210:Kilby
3122:Shull
3106:Hulse
3014:Ruska
2950:Fitch
2934:Salam
2831:Esaki
2807:Gabor
2771:Bethe
2735:Basov
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2663:Frank
2623:Kusch
2611:Bothe
2587:Bloch
2516:Pauli
2500:Stern
2463:Fermi
2416:Dirac
2389:Raman
2334:Hertz
2282:Stark
2223:Dalén
2199:Braun
1938:S2CID
1912:arXiv
1586:(PDF)
1575:(PDF)
1011:Books
900:Death
641:Fierz
637:Pauli
565:radar
3809:1970
3804:1969
3799:1968
3794:1967
3789:1966
3779:1964
3774:1963
3769:1962
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3759:1960
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3367:Geim
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2619:Lamb
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2508:Rabi
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2012:ISBN
1988:ISBN
1970:ISBN
1878:2007
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1829:ISBN
1700:ISBN
1668:ISSN
1620:ISBN
1612:ISBN
1594:2018
1480:ISBN
1478:â5.
1369:ISSN
1292:ISSN
1234:ISSN
1176:ISSN
1118:ISSN
826:and
782:UCLA
765:and
664:muon
639:and
521:and
134:Dyon
67:Died
41:Born
3351:Kao
3158:Chu
1930:doi
1807:doi
1746:doi
1660:doi
1377:Zbl
1361:doi
1300:Zbl
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1242:Zbl
1226:doi
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1168:doi
1126:Zbl
1108:doi
541:NRC
111:PhD
3826::
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