Javan rhinoceros - Knowledge

1300:. Scrapes made by the feet in the ground and twisted saplings also seem to be used for communication. Members of other rhino species have a peculiar habit of defecating in massive rhino dung piles and then scraping their back feet in the dung. The Sumatran and Javan rhinos, while defecating in piles, do not engage in the scraping. This adaptation in behavior is thought to be ecological; in the wet forests of Java and Sumatra, the method may not be useful for spreading odors. The Javan rhino is much less vocal than the Sumatran; very few Javan rhino vocalizations have ever been recorded. Adults have no known predators other than humans. The species, particularly in Vietnam, is skittish and retreats into dense forests whenever humans are near. Though a valuable trait from a survival standpoint, it has made the rhinos difficult to study. Nevertheless, when humans approach too closely, the Javan rhino becomes aggressive and will attack, stabbing with the incisors of its lower jaw while thrusting upward with its head. Its comparatively antisocial behavior may be a recent adaptation to population stresses; historical evidence suggests they, like other rhinos, were once more gregarious. 1408:, which was blanketing the park and crowding out the rhinos' food sources. Following the trails of Javan rhinoceros allowed in-depth observation of their feeding habits in their natural habitat. Comparing the acid insoluble ash (MA) content of faeces and in the dry weight of food provided reliable estimates of digestibility, and this method has potential for wider application in situations where total collection of faecal matter is not feasible. There was a strong positive correlation between the size of home range and diversity of food intake, and between the size of home range with the numbers of wallow holes used. The quantity and quality of food intake were variable among rhinoceroses and over time. Overall energy consumption was related to the size of the animal, while the digestibility of plants consumed appeared to be influenced by individual age and habitat conditions. 1274: 112: 181: 1179:, usually less than 20 cm (7.9 in) with the longest recorded only 27 cm (11 in). Only bulls have horns. Cows are the only extant rhinos that remain hornless into adulthood, though they may develop a tiny bump of an inch or two in height. Javan rhinos do not appear to often use their horn for fighting but instead uses it to scrape mud away in wallows, to pull down plants for eating, and to open paths through thick vegetation. Similar to the other browsing species of rhino ( 1336: 3936: 3370: 139: 336: 731: 1500: 1373: 1140: 1167:. The length of Javan rhinos including their head is 2 to 4 m (6.6 to 13.1 ft), and they can reach a height of 1.4–1.7 m (4.6–5.6 ft). Adults are variously reported to weigh between 900 and 2,300 kg (2,000 and 5,100 lb), although a study to collect accurate measurements of the animals has never been conducted and is not a priority because of their extreme conservation status. No substantial 1389:

protected species, which it has remained ever since. A census of the rhinos in Ujung Kulon was first conducted in 1967; only 25 animals were recorded. By 1980, that population had doubled and has remained steady, at about 50, ever since. Although the rhinos in Ujung Kulon have no natural predators, they have to compete for scarce resources with wild cattle, which may keep their numbers below the peninsula's

1212: 1289:

will use its horn to enlarge. Salt licks are also very important because of the essential nutrients the rhino receives from the salt. Bull home ranges are larger at 12–20 km (4.6–7.7 sq mi) compared to the cow, which are around 3–14 km (1.2–5.4 sq mi). Bull territories overlap each other less than those of the cow. It is not known if there are territorial fights.

1265:, but surveys of the area have failed to find any evidence of them. In the late 1980s, a small population was found in the Cat Tien area of Vietnam. However, the last known individual of that population was shot in 2010. A population may have existed on the island of Borneo, as well, though these specimens could have been the Sumatran rhinoceros, a small population of which still lives there. 1431: 1347:

rhinoceros' hide was used to make armor for Chinese soldiers, and some local tribes in Vietnam believed the hide could be used to make an antidote for snake venom. Because the rhinoceros' range encompasses many areas of poverty, it has been difficult to convince local people not to kill a seemingly (otherwise) useless animal which could be sold for a large sum of money. When the

400:, as they have plate-like, "armored" protective skin folds, but are slightly smaller in size, at just 3.1–3.2 m (10–10 ft) long and 1.4–1.7 m (4.6–5.6 ft) tall, on average. The heaviest specimens weigh around 2,300 kg/2.3 tonnes (2.54 short tons), similar to a black rhinoceros. However, unlike the long and potentially lethal horns of the 1309:

saplings to reach its food and grabs it with its prehensile upper lip. It is the most adaptable feeder of all the rhino species. Currently, it is a pure browser, but probably once both browsed and grazed in its historical range. The rhino eats an estimated 50 kg (110 lb) of food daily. Like the Sumatran rhino, it needs salt in its diet. The

501:. Nonetheless, rural, potentially rugged park boundaries mean that law enforcement cannot be equally present in all places at all times; in some areas, this lack of security still places the species at risk from poachers, disease exposure and, ultimately, loss of genetic diversity—leading to genetic "bottlenecking" (i.e., 439:. Today, it is the rarest of all rhinoceros, and among the rarest of all living animal species, with only one currently known wild population, and no individuals successfully kept in captivity. It is among the rarest large mammals on the planet Earth, with a population of approximately 74 rhinos within 1462:

By the early 2000s, their population was feared to have declined past the point of recovery in Vietnam, with some conservationists estimating as few as three to eight rhinos, and possibly no bulls, survived. Conservationists debated whether or not the Vietnamese rhinoceros had any chance of survival,

1351:

first went into effect in 1975, the Javan rhinoceros was listed under Appendix I meaning commercial international trade in the Javan rhinoceros and products derived from it is prohibited. Surveys of the rhinoceros horn black market have determined that Asian rhinoceros horn fetches a price as high as

1466:

Genetic analysis of dung samples collected in Cat Tien National Park in a survey from October 2009 to March 2010 showed only a single individual Javan rhinoceros remained in the park. In early May 2010, the body of a Javan rhino was found in the park. The animal had been shot and its horn removed by

1396:

In March 2011, a hidden-camera video was published showing adults and juveniles, indicating recent matings and breeding. During the period from January to October 2011, the cameras had captured images of 35 rhinos. As of December 2011, a rhino breeding sanctuary in an area of 38,000 hectares is

1544:

who constructed the temple. It is thought that the Indian priest who died before the construction of the temple might have influenced the use of tubercles on the skin which are based on the Indian rhino while the local Khmer artisans carved the other details of the rhinos based on the more familiar

1411:

In May 2017, Director of the Biodiversity Conservation at the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Bambang Dahono Adji announced plans to transfer the rhinos to the Cikepuh Wildlife Sanctuary located in West Java. The animals will first undergo DNA tests to determine lineage and risk to disease so

1400:

In April 2012, the WWF and International Rhino Foundation added 120 video cameras to the existing 40 to better monitor rhino movements and judge the size of the animals' population. A recent survey has found far fewer cows than bulls. Only four cows among 17 rhinos were recorded in the eastern half

1288:

in mud is a common behavior for all rhinos; the activity allows them to maintain cool body temperatures and helps prevent disease and parasite infestation. The Javan rhinoceros does not generally dig its own mud wallows, preferring to use other animals' wallows or naturally occurring pits, which it

1243:

and the islands of Sumatra, Java, and possibly Borneo. The Javan rhino primarily inhabits dense, lowland rain forests, grasslands, and reed beds with abundant rivers, large floodplains, or wet areas with many mud wallows. Although it historically preferred low-lying areas, the subspecies in Vietnam

1198:

Their hairless, splotchy gray or gray-brown skin falls in folds to the shoulder, back and rump. The skin has a natural mosaic pattern, which lends the rhino an armored appearance. The neck folds of Javan rhinos are smaller than those of the Indian rhinoceros, but still, form a saddle shape over the

1355:

Loss of habitat because of agriculture has also contributed to its decline, though this is no longer as significant a factor because the rhinoceros only lives in one nationally protected park. Deteriorating habitats have hindered the recovery of rhino populations that fell victim to poaching. Even

1454:

In 1988, the assumption of the subspecies' extinction was challenged when a hunter shot an adult cow, proving the species had somehow survived the war. In 1989, scientists surveyed Vietnam's southern forests to search for evidence of other survivors. Fresh tracks belonging to up to 15 rhinos were

1388:

in 1883. The Javan rhinoceros recolonized the peninsula after the event, but humans never returned in large numbers, thus creating a haven for wildlife. In 1931, as the Javan rhinoceros was on the brink of extinction in Sumatra, the government of the Dutch East Indies declared the rhino a legally

1247:

The range of the Javan rhinoceros has been shrinking for at least 3,000 years. Starting around 1000 BC, the northern range of the rhinoceros extended into China, but began moving southward at roughly 0.5 km (0.31 mi) per year, as human settlements increased in the region. It likely

1308:

The Javan rhinoceros is herbivorous, eating diverse plant species, especially their shoots, twigs, young foliage and fallen fruit. Most of the plants favored by the species grow in sunny areas in forest clearings, shrubland and other vegetation types with no large trees. The rhino knocks down

1346:

The main factor in the continued decline of the Javan rhinoceros population has been poaching for horns, a problem that affects all rhino species. The horns have been a traded commodity for more than 2,000 years in China, where they are believed to have healing properties. Historically, the

1223:

Even the most optimistic estimate suggests fewer than 100 Javan rhinos remain in the wild. They are considered one of the most endangered species in the world. The Javan rhinoceros is known to survive in only one place, the Ujung Kulon National Park on the western tip of

542:

samples to gauge health and behavior. Consequently, Javan rhinos are the least-studied of all rhinoceros species. Two adult female Javan rhinoceroses, each with a calf, were filmed using a motion-triggered trail camera, the video being released on 28 February 2011 by

1527:

on the basis of the skinfold on the shoulder which continues along the back in the Javan to give a saddle-like appearance. A depiction of the rhino in the east wing of the South Gallery shows a rhino attacking the damned in the panel depicting

547:

and Indonesia's National Park Authority, proving they are still breeding in the wild. In April 2012, the National Parks Authority released further trailcam videos showing 35 individuals, including mother-offspring pairs and courting adults.

2169:

Liu, Shanlin; Westbury, Michael V.; Dussex, Nicolas; Mitchell, Kieren J.; Sinding, Mikkel-Holger S.; Heintzman, Peter D.; Duchêne, David A.; Kapp, Joshua D.; von Seth, Johanna; Heiniger, Holly; Sánchez-Barreiro, Fátima (24 August 2021).

1486:

The Javan rhinoceros never fared well in captivity. The oldest lived to be 20, about half the age that the rhinos can reach in the wild. No records are known of a captive rhino giving birth. The last captive Javan rhino died at the

520:

at forest-edges. It is mostly solitary, except for courtship and rearing offspring, though groups may occasionally congregate near wallows and salt licks. Aside from humans, whom they usually avoid, adult rhinos have no natural

1260:

by the middle of the 20th century. By the end of the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese rhinoceros was believed extinct across all of mainland Asia. Local hunters and woodcutters in Cambodia claim to have seen Javan rhinos in the

1171:

is seen between genders, but cows may be slightly bigger. The rhinos in Vietnam appeared to be significantly smaller than those in Java, based on studies of photographic evidence and measurements of their footprints.

1442:

Once widespread in Southeast Asia, the Javan rhinoceros was presumed extinct in Vietnam in the mid-1970s, at the end of the Vietnam War. The combat wrought havoc on the ecosystems of the region through the use of

533:

or, rarely, crocodiles. Scientists and conservationists rarely study the animals directly due to their extreme rarity and the danger of interfering with such an endangered species. Researchers instead rely on

447:, Indonesia. In 2023, the Indonesian authorities captured two gangs of poachers who confessed to killing 26 rhinos from 2019-2023. No census has been released since 2019. The Javan rhinoceros population in 2406:

Fernando, Prithiviraj; Gert Polet; Nazir Foead; Linda S. Ng; Jennifer Pastorini; Don J. Melnick (June 2006). "Genetic diversity, phylogeny and conservation of the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)".

1483:, and London. At least 22 Javan rhinos have been documented as having been kept in captivity; the true number is possibly greater, as the species was sometimes confused with the Indian rhinoceros. 2060:"Observations on the preserved specimens and skeletons of the Rhinocerotidae in the collection of the British Museum and Royal College of Surgeons, including the descriptions of three new species" 2686: 582:, and surrounding smaller islands. The Javan rhino is also known as the lesser one-horned rhinoceros (in contrast with the greater one-horned rhinoceros, another name for the Indian rhino). 1248:

became locally extinct in India in the first decade of the 20th century. The Javan rhino was hunted to extinction on the Malay Peninsula by 1932. The last ones on Sumatra died out during

2229:

Joordens, J.C.A.; Wesselingh, F.P.; de Vos, J.; Vonhof, H.B.; Kroon, D. (December 2009). "Relevance of aquatic environments for hominins: a case study from Trinil (Java, Indonesia)".

776:

The last common ancestor of living rhinoceroses belonging to the subfamily Rhinocerotinae is suggested to have lived around 16 million years ago, with the ancestors of the genus

1284:

The Javan rhinoceros is a solitary animal with the exception of breeding pairs and mothers with calves. They sometimes congregate in small groups at salt licks and mud wallows.

2373: 1356:

with all the conservation efforts, the prospects for their survival are grim. Because the population is restricted to one small area, they are very susceptible to disease and

2903: 1393:. Ujung Kulon is managed by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry. Evidence of at least four baby rhinos was discovered in 2006, the most ever documented for the species. 3056: 2925:

Hariyadi, A. R. S. (July 2015). "Analysis of nutritional quality and food digestibility in male Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) in Ujung Kulon National Park".

1549:

of the god Agni is unique to Khmer culture. Another rhinoceros carving in the centre of a circular arrangement in a column with other circles containing elephants and

1422:

In 2024, officials announced that recently arrested poachers confessed to killing a total of 26 Javan rhinos, potentially cutting the total population by one-third.

3149: 1239:(where their range would have overlapped with both the Sumatran and Indian rhinos) eastward to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and southwards to the 1195:

are used for chewing coarse plants. Like all rhinos, Javan rhinos smell and hear well, but have very poor vision. They are estimated to live for 30 to 45 years.

1463:

with some arguing that rhinos from Indonesia should be introduced in an attempt to save the population, with others arguing that the population could recover.

2737:

Setiawan, R.; Gerber, B. D.; Rahmat, U. M.; Daryan, D.; Firdaus, A. Y.; Haryono, M.; Khairani, K. O.; Kurniawan, Y.; Long, B.; Lyet, A.; Muhiban, M. (2018).

1467:

poachers. In October 2011, the International Rhino Foundation confirmed the Javan rhinoceros was extinct in Vietnam, leaving only the rhinos in Ujung Kulon.

4246: 3406:

van Strien, N. J.; Steinmetz, R.; Manullang, B.; Sectionov; Han, K.H.; Isnan, W.; Rookmaaker, K.; Sumardja, E.; Khan, M. K. M. & Ellis, S. (2008).

3011: 1792: 2954: 1199:

shoulder. Because of the risks of interfering with such an endangered species, however, Javan rhinos are primarily studied through fecal sampling and

4321: 3339: 2683: 4101: 2940: 4166: 4140: 1175:

Like the Indian rhino, the Javan rhinos have a single horn (the other extant species have two horns). Its horn is the smallest of all extant

4301: 2312: 2272:

Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (March 2012). "Pleistocene and Holocene rhinocerotids (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from the Indochinese Peninsula".

2457: 614: 3163: 2492: 2381: 408:

of Africa, the Javan species' single, somewhat blunted horn (only present on males) is usually shorter than 25 cm (9.8 in).

4075: 3467: 2514: 2342: 2150: 1475:

A Javan rhinoceros has not been exhibited in a zoo for over a century. In the 19th century, at least four rhinos were exhibited in

4114: 3416: 1965: 1412:

as to avoid issues such as "inbreeding" or marriage kinship. As of December 2018, these plans had yet to concretely materialise.

3387: 1946: 1244:

was pushed onto much higher ground (up to 2,000 m or 6,561 ft), probably because of human encroachment and poaching.

2911: 4296: 4158: 2811: 2664: 2572: 1754: 1624: 4119: 1415:

In December 2018, the remaining Javan rhino population was severely endangered by the tsunami triggered by nearby volcano

4311: 3290: 2968: 1360:. Conservation geneticists estimate a population of 100 rhinos would be needed to preserve the genetic diversity of this 1131:, Java. Molecular estimates suggest the two species diverged from each other earlier, around 4.3 million years ago. 486:

also became a serious threat. Loss of habitat and massive human population growth (especially post-wartimes, such as the

490:) have also contributed to its decline and hindered the species' recovery. The remaining range is within one nationally- 4291: 4256: 3191:"Some observations on the presence of one-horned rhinos in the bas reliefs of the Angkor Wat temple complex, Cambodia" 1818:

Brook, S. M.; Dudley, N.; Mahood, S. P.; Polet, G.; Williams, A. C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Van Ngoc, T.; Long, B. (2014).

4306: 392:

species across South Asia and Africa. The Javan rhinoceros is one of the smallest rhinoceros species, along with the

1602: 1191:

are long and sharp; when Javan rhinos fight, they use these teeth. Behind the incisors, two rows of six low-crowned

4171: 704: 314: 3125: 1459:. Largely because of the rhinoceros, the region they inhabited became part of the Cat Tien National Park in 1992. 3445: 1519:. The west wing of the North Gallery has a relief that shows a rhino mounted by a god thought to be the fire god 2710:

Hutchins, M.; M.D. Kreger (2006). "Rhinoceros behaviour: implications for captive management and conservation".

2356:

Munro, Margaret (2002). "Their trail is warm: Scientists are studying elusive rhinos by analyzing their feces".

1491:

in Australia in 1907, where the species was so little known that it had been exhibited as an Indian rhinoceros.

4261: 3994: 3396: 3084: 3400: 1983: 4271: 143: 1313:

common in its historical range do not exist in Ujung Kulon but the rhinos there have been observed drinking

4276: 3460: 1361: 738:

pictured here is the species most closely related to the Javan rhinoceros; they are the two members of the

508:

The Javan rhinoceros can live around 30–45 years in the wild. It historically inhabited dense lowland

471: 1540:

priest named Divakarapandita (1040–1120 AD) who served king Jayavarman VI, Dharanindravarman I as well as

4281: 4251: 4153: 4031: 4026: 2890: 2047:. Vol. 1 (Deuxième, revue, corrigée et augmentée ed.). Paris: Pourrat Frères. pp. 514–515. 765:

around 50 million years ago. The extant family, the Rhinocerotidae, first appeared in the Late Eocene in

598: 291: 2679: 825: 544: 180: 4266: 1746: 1742:

The Return of the Unicorns; The Natural History and Conservation of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros

1330: 1216: 440: 2083:

Mémoires concernant l'Histoire naturelle de l'Empire chinois; par des Pères de la Compagnie de Jésus

1523:. The rhinos are thought to be Javan rhinoceros rather than the somewhat similar looking one-horned 1819: 1770: 1675: 1572: 689: 322: 3190: 2106:, and the Phylogenetic Relationship Among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea)" 2010: 1870: 3940: 3453: 2739:"Preventing Global Extinction of the Javan Rhino: Tsunami Risk and Future Conservation Direction" 2591:

Corlett, R. T. (2007). "The Impact of Hunting on the Mammalian Fauna of Tropical Asian Forests".

2059: 1598: 852: 782:

diverging from the ancestors of other living rhinoceroses around 15 million years ago. The genus

4210: 3430: 4286: 4106: 3956: 2306: 1253: 452: 2827:

Dursin, R. (16 January 2001). "Environment-Indonesia: Javan Rhinoceros Remains At High Risk".

1701: 1127:. The oldest known record of Javan rhinoceros is from Early Pleistocene (~1.5 Ma) deposits at 606: 4316: 4205: 4008: 3599: 3215:

Poole, C. M.; Duckworth, J. W. (2005). "A documented 20th century record of Javan Rhinoceros

3188: 1932: 1357: 979: 502: 372: 275: 4197: 2040: 1614: 525:

in their range. Very small juveniles may be preyed upon, if left unsupervised, typically by

4132: 4062: 4003: 3902: 3313: 2750: 2600: 2416: 2281: 2238: 1838: 1285: 665: 3383: 3099: 2874: 2122: 2101: 1187:), Javan rhinos have a long, pointed, upper lip which helps in grabbing food. Their lower 8: 3792: 3061: 2829: 2461: 1503:

Rhino tormenting the damned in the "heaven and hell" gallery at Angkor Wat (12th century)

1293: 1184: 1008: 787: 679: 618: 498: 393: 128: 3695: 3309: 2754: 2604: 2533: 2420: 2285: 2242: 1842: 1404:

In 2012, the Asian Rhino Project was working out the best eradication programme for the

3750: 3340:"Bacuya™ the rhino bounds in as Official Mascot of FIFA U-20 World Cup Indonesia 2023™" 3271: 3236: 2806:. IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 2616: 2466: 2432: 1273: 1262: 778: 657: 377: 252: 175: 3038: 2848: 2784: 2172:"Ancient and modern genomes unravel the evolutionary history of the rhinoceros family" 4192: 4039: 3759: 2807: 2723: 2660: 2636: 2612: 2568: 2254: 2211: 2203: 2127: 1820:"Lessons learned from the loss of a flagship: The extinction of the Javan rhinoceros 1750: 1652: 1630: 1620: 1390: 1168: 1148: 1124: 1064: 956: 791: 769:, and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the 758: 735: 397: 111: 3407: 3240: 3012:"Poachers claim to have killed one-third of all Javan rhinos, Indonesian police say" 2620: 2436: 1793:"Poachers claim to have killed one-third of all Javan rhinos, Indonesian police say" 1720: 1576: 4044: 3884: 3840: 3816: 3630: 3584: 3425: 3375: 3263: 3254:

Stönner, H. (1925). "Erklärung des Nashornreiters auf den Reliefs von Angkor-Vat".

3228: 2758: 2719: 2608: 2424: 2289: 2246: 2193: 2183: 2117: 1846: 1670: 1565: 1557:. It has been at the centre of anachronistic speculation that it might represent a 1180: 1152: 903: 883: 823:

showing the relationships of recent and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros species (minus

647: 405: 401: 3475: 650:

in 1867 were two rhinoceros skulls from Borneo and one from Sumatra, respectively.

4179: 3307: 2878: 2690: 2316: 2250: 1850: 1740: 1240: 725: 610: 594: 479: 456: 4223: 4145: 2736: 3893: 3686: 3517: 3477: 3310:"Meet Bacuya, the Javanese rhinoceros and mascot of the 2023 #U20WC Indonesia!" 2985: 2293: 2188: 2171: 2145:

Lacombat, F. (2005). "The evolution of the rhinoceros". In Fulconis, R. (ed.).

1541: 1456: 1405: 1349:

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

1297: 1257: 1164: 796: 761:

comparison suggests the ancestors of modern rhinos split from the ancestors of

530: 491: 483: 382: 232: 2428: 629: 564:

words ῥίς (ris) meaning 'nose' and κέρας (keras) meaning 'horn of an animal'.

4240: 4127: 3979: 3911: 3807: 3560: 2358: 2207: 1661: 1610: 1550: 1416: 1401:

of Ujung Kulon, which is a potential setback in efforts to save the species.

1326: 1192: 750: 561: 148: 62: 3189:

de Longh, H. H.; Prins, H. H. T.; van Strien, N.; Rookmaaker, L. G. (2005).

1817: 1634: 3783: 3723: 3677: 2258: 2215: 2102:"The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Greater Indian Rhinoceros, 1524: 1488: 1448: 1397:

being finalized to help reach the target of 70 to 80 Javan rhinos by 2015.

1310: 1249: 754: 575: 475: 386: 3232: 2131: 1921:

WWF – Critically Endangered Javan Rhinos and Calves Captured on Video

800:) than to living African rhinoceroses, thought there appears to have been 4184: 4088: 4018: 3988: 3533: 3150:

WWF – Inadequate protection causes Javan rhino extinction in Vietnam

1558: 1200: 535: 517: 487: 436: 37: 4054: 3308:

Fédération Internationale de Football Association (18 September 2022).

2405: 1335: 4080: 3732: 3590: 3275: 2763: 2738: 2198: 1516: 1512: 1451:, aerial bombing, use of landmines, and overhunting by local poachers. 1176: 739: 633: 513: 509: 482:

and other Europeans in its range increased, peaking in the 1700-1800s,

428: 389: 242: 82: 47: 3346:. Fédération Internationale de Football Association. 18 September 2022 1896: 1119:

The Indian and Javan rhinoceros, the living only members of the genus

4093: 3391: 2656: 1511:

in the past and there are at least three depictions of rhinos in the

1160: 820: 801: 570: 424: 192: 87: 31: 3950: 3267: 2337:

van Strien, Nico (2005). "Javan Rhinoceros". In Fulconis, R. (ed.).

1384:

The Ujung Kulon peninsula of Java was devastated by the eruption of

730: 335: 3973: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3126:"Javan rhino driven to extinction in Vietnam, conservationists say" 2853: 1987: 1554: 1508: 1499: 1480: 1476: 1385: 1372: 1352:$ 30,000 per kg, three times the value of African rhinoceros horn. 1314: 1139: 804:

between the ancestors of living African rhinoceroses and the genus

522: 463: 212: 77: 72: 57: 52: 42: 786:

has been found to be overall slightly more closely related to the

749:

Ancestral rhinoceroses are held to have first diverged from other

3875: 3831: 3542: 3325: 1933:

New video documents nearly all the world's remaining Javan rhinos

1616:

Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference

1537: 1430: 1188: 770: 766: 762: 526: 467: 448: 420: 92: 67: 2512: 2497:

Newsletter of the Rhino Foundation of Nature in North-East India

2493:"Historical records of the Javan rhinoceros in North-East India" 1920: 1721:"Javan Rhinoceros Population, Habitat, & Facts (Britannica)" 1561:

due to the leaves behind it that give the impression of plates.

4067: 3648: 3639: 3624: 3493: 2320: 1546: 1536:. An architect of the temple is thought to have been an Indian 1529: 1444: 1236: 1128: 579: 495: 466:, for the males' horns, which—despite merely being composed of 462:

The decline of the Javan rhinoceros is primarily attributed to

432: 222: 202: 3152:. Wwf.panda.org (25 October 2011). Retrieved 24 February 2012. 3039:"World's Rarest Rhinos Found in War-Ravaged Region of Vietnam" 2684:

Inadequate protection causes Javan rhino extinction in Vietnam

2565:

Asian Rhinos – Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan

2228: 1203:. They are rarely encountered, observed or measured directly. 4218: 3858: 3671: 3657: 3610: 3569: 2896: 1619:(3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 636. 1348: 1232: 1211: 668: 664:

As of 2005, three Javan rhinoceros subspecies are considered

539: 412: 165: 159: 2955:"Badak Jawa Akan Jalani Tes DNA Sebelum Dipindah ke Cikepuh" 2941:"Javan Rhinos to be Transferred to Cikepuh Wildlife Reserve" 2081:

Heude, P. M. (1892). "Étude sur les suillens. Chapitre II".

1545:

local Javan rhino. The association of the rhinoceros as the

396:, or "hairy", rhinoceros. They are superficially similar to 3057:"Javan Rhinoceros; Rare, mysterious, and highly threatened" 2462:"Racing to Know the Rarest of Rhinos, Before It's Too Late" 1533: 1520: 1225: 1156: 602: 444: 416: 1972:(Revised and augmented ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1953:(Revised and augmented ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632:

in 1838 was a female rhinoceros without horns shot in the

2804:

African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan

2168: 2366: 415:, the Javan rhinoceros had ranged beyond the islands of 3077: 1963: 1944: 1123:, first appear in the fossil record in Asia During the 830:

based on whole nuclear genomes, after Liu et al., 2021.

3558: 2099: 1914: 2868: 1706:

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

1650: 122:

in the London Zoo from March 1874 until January 1885

3365: 2785:"Scientists Find Surviving Members of Rhino Species" 976: 953: 848: 578:

region that comprises the islands of Sumatra, Java,

2709: 2562: 1708:. Vol. 2. Paris: Mme Agasse. pp. 399–400. 2904:"Cameras Used to Help Save Endangered Javan Rhino" 2891:Cameras show 35 rare rhinos in Indonesia: official 4238: 2650: 2634:Ismail, F. (1998). "On the horns of a dilemma". 1986:. International Rhino Foundation. Archived from 1718: 1699: 808:, as well as between the ancestors of the genus 2969:"Badak jawa akan huni Suaka Margasatwa Cikepuh" 2801: 2567:. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. 2064:Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1695: 1693: 812:and the ancestors of the woolly rhinoceros and 474:, fetching as much as US$ 30,000 per kg on the 3214: 1926: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1676:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T19495A18493900.en 3461: 2986:"Endangered Javan rhino at risk from tsunami" 2586: 2584: 2374:"Top 10 most endangered species in the world" 2332: 2330: 2328: 2038: 2080: 2011:"The type locality of the Javan Rhinoceros ( 1923:. wwf.panda.org. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 1868: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1690: 1339:A painting from 1861 depicts the hunting of 423:and onto the mainland of Southeast Asia and 4247:IUCN Red List critically endangered species 3431:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en 2875:Rare rhinos captured on camera in Indonesia 2513:Cranbook, Earl of; Philip J. Piper (2007). 2486: 2484: 2339:Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 2147:Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 2057: 1857: 1206: 27:Temporal range: Early Pleistocene – Recent 3468: 3454: 3288: 3161: 2846: 2581: 2508: 2506: 2490: 2336: 2325: 2307:images and movies of the Javan Rhinoceros 2008: 1738: 1219:is the home of all remaining Javan rhinos. 615:National Museum of Natural History, France 334: 137: 110: 3429: 3399:dedicated to the conservation of rhinos: 3143: 2842: 2840: 2762: 2197: 2187: 2121: 1727: 1674: 411:Up until the mid-19th to about the early 4322:Critically endangered fauna of Indonesia 3123: 3117: 3085:"Rare Javan rhino found dead in Vietnam" 2924: 2730: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2481: 2343:European Association of Zoos and Aquaria 2151:European Association of Zoos and Aquaria 2144: 2138: 1498: 1429: 1371: 1334: 1317:, likely for the same nutritional need. 1272: 1210: 1138: 729: 3417:The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 3253: 3036: 2884: 2795: 2782: 2627: 2590: 2503: 2349: 2271: 2100:Xu, X.; Janke, A.; Arnason, U. (1996). 1964:Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1940). 1945:Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1940). 621:of hornless rhinoceros were described: 4239: 3873: 3155: 3100:"Javan rhino 'now extinct in Vietnam'" 3097: 3091: 2837: 2826: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2653:Cardamom Mountains biodiversity survey 2633: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2300: 2041:"Le Rhinocéros sans cornes ou Gaindar" 1646: 1644: 1593: 1591: 3955: 3954: 3449: 2980: 2978: 2881:, 1 March 2011 (Expires: 30 May 2011) 2847:Williamson, Lucy (1 September 2006). 2563:Foose, T. J.; van Strien, N. (1997). 2551: 2401: 2399: 2355: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2123:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025681 1935:. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 1 May 2012. 1651:Ellis, S. & Talukdar, B. (2020). 1597: 2456: 1984:"Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus)" 1438:shot in Perak on the Malay Peninsula 1231:The animal was once widespread from 660:in 1892 was a specimen from Vietnam. 16:Rare species of rhinoceros from Asia 4302:Critically endangered fauna of Asia 3291:"Stegosaurus, Rhinoceros, or Hoax?" 3124:Gersmann, Hanna (25 October 2011). 3049: 3030: 2820: 2771: 2696: 2644: 2443: 1662:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1641: 1588: 1568:is a Javan rhinoceros named Kaka. 13: 2975: 2849:"Baby boom for near-extinct rhino" 2396: 2157: 1894: 1719:Dinerstein, Eric (24 April 2009). 1147:Javan rhinos are smaller than the 14: 4333: 3361: 2659:: Fauna and Flora International. 2651:Daltry, J.C.; F. Momberg (2000). 1702:"Rhinocéros des Îles de La Sonde" 1507:The Javan rhinoceros occurred in 1159:and the second-largest animal in 1155:. They are the largest animal in 3935: 3934: 3721: 3368: 2724:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00150.x 2613:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00271.x 2380:. 4 January 2010. Archived from 1822:Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus 1277:A museum specimen of a juvenile 1143:Captive Javan rhino, around 1900 385:, and one of the five remaining 315:Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus 179: 35: 3531: 3332: 3301: 3282: 3247: 3208: 3182: 3037:Raeburn, Paul (24 April 1989). 3004: 2961: 2947: 2933: 2918: 2783:Stanley, Bruce (22 June 1993). 2673: 2526:The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 2265: 2222: 2110:Molecular Biology and Evolution 2093: 2074: 2051: 2032: 2002: 1976: 1957: 1938: 1895:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 1888: 1470: 1320: 1151:, and are close in size to the 794:and the extinct Eurasian genus 617:. In the 19th century, several 3397:International Rhino Foundation 3098:Kinver, M. (24 October 2011). 2802:Emslie, R.; M. Brooks (1999). 2022:Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 1811: 1785: 1763: 1712: 1367: 1134: 601:in 1822 for a rhinoceros from 309:Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus 1: 1871:"Javan rhinoceros in Vietnam" 1582: 1494: 1447:, extensive defoliation from 984:Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis 4297:Conservation-reliant species 2532:(1): 217–220. Archived from 2251:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.06.003 1901:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1851:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.03.014 1575:is a Javan rhinoceros named 1553:is known from the temple of 1362:conservation-reliant species 719: 551: 494:, and Ujung Kulon is also a 472:traditional Chinese medicine 443:, at the far western tip of 381:, of the rhinoceros family, 369:lesser one-horned rhinoceros 323:Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis 7: 3016:Mongabay Environmental News 2893:, PhysOrg, 30 December 2011 1897:"Ujung Kulon National Park" 1797:Mongabay Environmental News 1425: 1376:A Dutch hunter with a dead 1268: 790:(as well as to the extinct 726:Rhinoceros § Evolution 710:Vietnamese Javan rhinoceros 684:Indonesian Javan rhinoceros 585: 10: 4338: 4312:Extinct animals of Vietnam 2712:International Zoo Yearbook 2491:Rookmaaker, L. C. (2002). 2294:10.1016/j.crpv.2011.03.002 2231:Journal of Human Evolution 2189:10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.032 1771:"Rhino population figures" 1564:One of the mascots of the 1324: 826:Stephanorhinus hemitoechus 723: 4292:Mammals described in 1822 4257:Mammals of Southeast Asia 3963: 3932: 3857: 3829: 3805: 3781: 3748: 3731: 3720: 3716: 3541: 3530: 3526: 3488: 3162:Rookmaaker, L.C. (2005). 2429:10.1007/s10592-006-9139-4 2315:27 September 2011 at the 2009:Rookmaaker, L.C. (1982). 1869:Santiapillai, C. (1992). 1747:Columbia University Press 1700:Desmarest, A. G. (1822). 1331:Conservation in Indonesia 1252:. They were extinct from 1217:Ujung Kulon National Park 1062: 1042: 1035: 1006: 974: 951: 944: 937: 930: 901: 881: 874: 867: 846: 838: 441:Ujung Kulon National Park 342: 333: 304: 299: 281: 274: 176:Scientific classification 174: 157: 135: 126: 118: 109: 23: 4307:Extinct animals of India 1573:2023 FIFA U-20 World Cup 1207:Distribution and habitat 1013:Dicerorhinus sumatrensis 699:lesser Indian rhinoceros 599:Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest 560:is a combination of the 1970:A Greek-English Lexicon 1951:A Greek-English Lexicon 1831:Biological Conservation 1739:Dinerstein, E. (2003). 1303: 1296:with dung piles and by 961:Coelodonta antiquitatis 853:Elasmotherium sibiricum 695:Indian Javan rhinoceros 343:Javan rhinoceros range 3903:South American tapir ( 2910:. 2012. Archived from 2515:"The Javan Rhinoceros 2309:(Rhinoceros sondaicus) 2274:Comptes Rendus Palevol 2039:Lesson, R. P. (1838). 1613:; Reeder, D.M (eds.). 1504: 1439: 1381: 1343: 1294:mark their territories 1281: 1220: 1144: 746: 654:Rhinoceros annamiticus 470:—are highly valued in 453:Cat Tien National Park 4262:Mammals of Bangladesh 4206:Paleobiology Database 3793:Sumatran rhinoceros ( 3392:Rhino Resource Center 3233:10.1515/mamm.2005.039 3164:"A Javan rhinoceros, 3043:Associated Press News 2789:Associated Press News 2409:Conservation Genetics 2182:(19): 4874–4885.e16. 2045:Compléments de Buffon 1669:: e.T19495A18493900. 1502: 1433: 1375: 1358:inbreeding depression 1338: 1276: 1214: 1142: 733: 714:Vietnamese rhinoceros 503:inbreeding depression 478:. As the presence of 373:critically endangered 144:Critically Endangered 4272:Mammals of Indonesia 4009:Rhinoceros_sondaicus 3995:Rhinoceros sondaicus 3965:Rhinoceros sondaicus 3600:Przewalski's horse ( 3480:(Odd-toed ungulates) 3424:: e.T19495A8925965. 3410:Rhinoceros sondaicus 3295:Smithsonian Magazine 3217:Rhinoceros sondaicus 3166:Rhinoceros sondaicus 2743:Conservation Letters 2689:5 March 2016 at the 2517:Rhinoceros Sondaicus 2104:Rhinoceros unicornis 2058:Gray, J. E. (1864). 2013:Rhinoceros sondaicus 1655:Rhinoceros sondaicus 1605:Rhinoceros sondaicus 1380:in Ujung Kulon, 1895 1069:Rhinoceros unicornis 1049:Rhinoceros sondaicus 619:zoological specimens 591:Rhinoceros sondaicus 375:member of the genus 356:Rhinoceros sondaicus 285:Rhinoceros sondaicus 4277:Mammals of Malaysia 3760:Indian rhinoceros ( 3483:species by suborder 3289:Switek, B. (2009). 3087:. WWF. 10 May 2010. 3062:World Wildlife Fund 2830:Inter Press Service 2755:2018ConL...11E2366S 2605:2007Biotr..39..292C 2421:2006ConG....7..439F 2378:The Daily Telegraph 2286:2012CRPal..11..159A 2243:2009JHumE..57..656J 2089:: 85–115, XIX–XXIX. 1843:2014BCons.174...21B 1009:Sumatran rhinoceros 888:Ceratotherium simum 788:Sumatran rhinoceros 680:nominate subspecies 607:Pierre-Médard Diard 499:World Heritage Site 435:, and the south of 129:Conservation status 4282:Mammals of Vietnam 4252:Rhinoceros (genus) 3841:Black rhinoceros ( 3817:White rhinoceros ( 3769:Javan rhinoceros ( 3631:African wild ass ( 3172:Zoologische Garten 3168:, in Bali in 1839" 2992:. 28 December 2018 2764:10.1111/conl.12366 2682:(25 October 2011) 2467:The New York Times 1773:. SaveTheRhino.org 1571:The mascot of the 1505: 1440: 1382: 1344: 1327:Rhinoceros's Horns 1282: 1263:Cardamom Mountains 1221: 1145: 980:Merck's rhinoceros 747: 658:Pierre Marie Heude 644:Rhinoceros floweri 640:Rhinoceros nasalis 626:Rhinoceros inermis 406:white rhinoceroses 4234: 4233: 4193:Open Tree of Life 3957:Taxon identifiers 3948: 3947: 3928: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3867: 3853: 3852: 3742: 3712: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3602:E. f. przewalskii 3575: 3552: 3481: 2813:978-2-8317-0502-6 2666:978-1-903703-00-7 2637:New Straits Times 2574:978-2-8317-0336-7 2539:on 11 August 2007 2384:on 6 January 2010 2345:. pp. 75–79. 2153:. pp. 46–49. 2015:Desmarest, 1822)" 1756:978-0-231-08450-5 1745:. New York City: 1723:. Britannica.com. 1626:978-0-8018-8221-0 1515:of the temple at 1436:R. s. annamiticus 1391:carrying capacity 1149:Indian rhinoceros 1125:Early Pleistocene 1116: 1115: 1107: 1106: 1098: 1097: 1089: 1088: 1080: 1079: 1065:Indian rhinoceros 1024: 1023: 995: 994: 957:Woolly rhinoceros 919: 918: 792:woolly rhinoceros 759:Mitochondrial DNA 736:Indian rhinoceros 705:R. s. annamiticus 427:, northwest into 347: 346: 267:R. sondaicus 169: 152: 4329: 4267:Mammals of India 4227: 4226: 4214: 4213: 4201: 4200: 4188: 4187: 4175: 4174: 4162: 4161: 4149: 4148: 4136: 4135: 4123: 4122: 4110: 4109: 4097: 4096: 4084: 4083: 4071: 4070: 4058: 4057: 4048: 4047: 4035: 4034: 4022: 4021: 4012: 4011: 3999: 3998: 3997: 3984: 3983: 3982: 3952: 3951: 3938: 3937: 3894:Mountain tapir ( 3871: 3870: 3866: 3865: 3861: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3740: 3736: 3718: 3717: 3687:Mountain zebra ( 3611:Domestic horse ( 3574: 3573: 3565: 3556: 3555: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3528: 3527: 3479: 3470: 3463: 3456: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3433: 3384:Javan Rhino Info 3378: 3376:Indonesia portal 3373: 3372: 3371: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3323: 3321: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3227:(3–4): 443–444. 3219:from Cambodia". 3212: 3206: 3205: 3195: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3008: 3002: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2982: 2973: 2972: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2914:on 23 June 2012. 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2844: 2835: 2834: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2780: 2769: 2768: 2766: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2707: 2694: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2648: 2642: 2641: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2588: 2579: 2578: 2560: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2538: 2523: 2510: 2501: 2500: 2488: 2479: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2460:(11 July 2006). 2454: 2441: 2440: 2403: 2394: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2370: 2364: 2363: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2334: 2323: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2280:(2–3): 159–168. 2269: 2263: 2262: 2226: 2220: 2219: 2201: 2191: 2166: 2155: 2154: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2125: 2116:(9): 1167–1173. 2097: 2091: 2090: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2019: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1980: 1974: 1973: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1912: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1875: 1866: 1855: 1854: 1828: 1815: 1809: 1808: 1806: 1804: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1767: 1761: 1760: 1736: 1725: 1724: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1697: 1688: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1678: 1648: 1639: 1638: 1595: 1566:2018 Asian Games 1455:found along the 1153:black rhinoceros 1045:Javan rhinoceros 1038: 1037: 978: 955: 947: 946: 940: 939: 933: 932: 908:Diceros bicornis 904:Black rhinoceros 884:White Rhinoceros 877: 876: 870: 869: 850: 844:Elasmotheriinae 841: 840: 834: 833: 648:John Edward Gray 568:is derived from 365:Sunda rhinoceros 351:Javan rhinoceros 338: 287: 184: 183: 163: 146: 141: 140: 114: 104: 34: 24:Javan rhinoceros 21: 20: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4237: 4236: 4235: 4230: 4222: 4217: 4209: 4204: 4196: 4191: 4183: 4180:Observation.org 4178: 4170: 4165: 4157: 4152: 4144: 4139: 4131: 4126: 4118: 4113: 4105: 4100: 4092: 4087: 4079: 4074: 4066: 4061: 4053: 4051: 4043: 4038: 4030: 4025: 4017: 4015: 4007: 4002: 3993: 3992: 3987: 3978: 3977: 3972: 3959: 3949: 3944: 3920: 3912:Malayan tapir ( 3885:Baird's tapir ( 3863: 3862: 3849: 3825: 3801: 3777: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3727: 3704: 3696:Grévy's zebra ( 3567: 3566: 3564: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3537: 3522: 3484: 3478:Perissodactyla 3474: 3436: 3434: 3405: 3374: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3359: 3349: 3347: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3319: 3317: 3306: 3302: 3287: 3283: 3268:10.2307/3248014 3252: 3248: 3213: 3209: 3193: 3187: 3183: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3134: 3132: 3122: 3118: 3108: 3106: 3096: 3092: 3083: 3082: 3078: 3068: 3066: 3065:. 28 March 2007 3055: 3054: 3050: 3035: 3031: 3021: 3019: 3010: 3009: 3005: 2995: 2993: 2984: 2983: 2976: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2923: 2919: 2902: 2901: 2897: 2889: 2885: 2879:ABC News Online 2873: 2869: 2859: 2857: 2845: 2838: 2825: 2821: 2814: 2800: 2796: 2781: 2772: 2735: 2731: 2708: 2697: 2691:Wayback Machine 2678: 2674: 2667: 2649: 2645: 2632: 2628: 2589: 2582: 2575: 2561: 2552: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2521: 2511: 2504: 2489: 2482: 2472: 2470: 2455: 2444: 2404: 2397: 2387: 2385: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2354: 2350: 2335: 2326: 2317:Wayback Machine 2305: 2301: 2270: 2266: 2227: 2223: 2167: 2158: 2143: 2139: 2098: 2094: 2079: 2075: 2056: 2052: 2037: 2033: 2017: 2007: 2003: 1993: 1991: 1990:on 22 July 2011 1982: 1981: 1977: 1962: 1958: 1943: 1939: 1931: 1927: 1919: 1915: 1905: 1903: 1893: 1889: 1873: 1867: 1858: 1826: 1816: 1812: 1802: 1800: 1791: 1790: 1786: 1776: 1774: 1769: 1768: 1764: 1757: 1737: 1728: 1717: 1713: 1698: 1691: 1681: 1679: 1649: 1642: 1627: 1596: 1589: 1585: 1497: 1473: 1434:Head of a male 1428: 1378:R. s. sondaicus 1370: 1341:R. s. sondaicus 1333: 1323: 1306: 1279:R. s. sondaicus 1271: 1241:Malay Peninsula 1209: 1169:size difference 1137: 1117: 1108: 1099: 1090: 1081: 1025: 996: 920: 865:Rhinocerotinae 728: 722: 708:, known as the 693:, known as the 682:, known as the 676:R. s. sondaicus 611:Alfred Duvaucel 595:scientific name 588: 576:biogeographical 556:The genus name 554: 531:Sumatran tigers 457:locally extinct 329: 295: 289: 283: 270: 178: 170: 153: 142: 138: 131: 120:R. s. sondaicus 105: 103: 102: 101: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 45: 40: 29: 28: 25: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4335: 4325: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4232: 4231: 4229: 4228: 4215: 4202: 4189: 4176: 4163: 4150: 4137: 4124: 4111: 4098: 4085: 4072: 4059: 4049: 4036: 4023: 4013: 4000: 3985: 3969: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3946: 3945: 3933: 3930: 3929: 3926: 3925: 3922: 3921: 3919: 3918: 3909: 3900: 3891: 3881: 3879: 3868: 3855: 3854: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3847: 3837: 3835: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3823: 3813: 3811: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3799: 3795:D. sumatrensis 3789: 3787: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3775: 3766: 3756: 3754: 3743: 3739:(Rhinoceroses) 3733:Rhinocerotidae 3729: 3728: 3714: 3713: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3702: 3693: 3684: 3678:Plains zebra ( 3665: 3664: 3655: 3646: 3637: 3618: 3617: 3608: 3607: 3606: 3578: 3576: 3553: 3549:(Horse family) 3539: 3538: 3524: 3523: 3521: 3520: 3518:Laurasiatheria 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3489: 3486: 3485: 3473: 3472: 3465: 3458: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3403: 3394: 3380: 3379: 3363: 3362:External links 3360: 3358: 3357: 3331: 3300: 3281: 3262:(2): 128–130. 3246: 3207: 3181: 3154: 3142: 3116: 3090: 3076: 3048: 3029: 3003: 2974: 2971:. 23 May 2017. 2960: 2946: 2932: 2917: 2895: 2883: 2867: 2836: 2819: 2812: 2794: 2770: 2729: 2718:(1): 150–173. 2695: 2672: 2665: 2643: 2626: 2599:(3): 202–303. 2580: 2573: 2550: 2502: 2480: 2442: 2415:(3): 439–448. 2395: 2365: 2348: 2324: 2299: 2264: 2237:(6): 656–671. 2221: 2156: 2137: 2092: 2073: 2050: 2031: 2001: 1975: 1956: 1937: 1925: 1913: 1887: 1856: 1810: 1784: 1762: 1755: 1726: 1711: 1689: 1640: 1625: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1542:Suryavarman II 1496: 1493: 1472: 1469: 1457:Dong Nai River 1427: 1424: 1369: 1366: 1322: 1319: 1305: 1302: 1298:urine spraying 1270: 1267: 1258:the Sunderbans 1208: 1205: 1165:Asian elephant 1136: 1133: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1082: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1026: 1022: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1005: 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 993: 992: 989: 988: 973: 970: 969: 966: 965: 950: 945: 943: 938: 936: 931: 929: 926: 925: 922: 921: 917: 916: 913: 912: 900: 897: 896: 893: 892: 880: 875: 873: 868: 866: 862: 861: 858: 857: 845: 839: 837: 832: 814:Stephanorhinus 797:Stephanorhinus 751:perissodactyls 724:Main article: 721: 718: 717: 716: 701: 686: 662: 661: 651: 637: 587: 584: 553: 550: 492:protected area 484:trophy hunting 480:colonial Dutch 383:Rhinocerotidae 345: 344: 340: 339: 331: 330: 328: 327: 319: 311: 305: 302: 301: 297: 296: 290: 279: 278: 272: 271: 264: 262: 258: 257: 250: 246: 245: 243:Rhinocerotidae 240: 236: 235: 233:Perissodactyla 230: 226: 225: 220: 216: 215: 210: 206: 205: 200: 196: 195: 190: 186: 185: 172: 171: 158: 155: 154: 136: 133: 132: 127: 124: 123: 116: 115: 107: 106: 98: 97: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 41: 36: 26: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4334: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4287:Fauna of Java 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4244: 4242: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3996: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3975: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3943: 3942: 3931: 3917: 3915: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3905:T. terrestris 3901: 3899: 3897: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3869: 3860: 3856: 3846: 3844: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3833: 3828: 3822: 3820: 3815: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3809: 3808:Ceratotherium 3804: 3798: 3796: 3791: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3785: 3780: 3774: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3758: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3752: 3747: 3744: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3725: 3719: 3715: 3701: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3675: 3674: 3673: 3667: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3603: 3598: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3571: 3563: 3562: 3557: 3554: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3535: 3529: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3513: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3471: 3466: 3464: 3459: 3457: 3452: 3451: 3448: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3411: 3404: 3402: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3366: 3345: 3341: 3335: 3327: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3296: 3292: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3256:Artibus Asiae 3250: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3185: 3178:(2): 129–131. 3177: 3173: 3169: 3167: 3158: 3151: 3146: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3086: 3080: 3064: 3063: 3058: 3052: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3018:. 31 May 2024 3017: 3013: 3007: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2979: 2970: 2964: 2956: 2950: 2942: 2936: 2928: 2921: 2913: 2909: 2908:Jakarta Globe 2905: 2899: 2892: 2887: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2856: 2855: 2850: 2843: 2841: 2832: 2831: 2823: 2815: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2749:(1): e12366. 2748: 2744: 2740: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2692: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2668: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2647: 2639: 2638: 2630: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2585: 2576: 2570: 2566: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2520: 2518: 2509: 2507: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2485: 2469: 2468: 2463: 2459: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2402: 2400: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2369: 2361: 2360: 2359:National Post 2352: 2344: 2340: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2303: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2268: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2105: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2054: 2046: 2042: 2035: 2028:(6): 381–382. 2027: 2023: 2016: 2014: 2005: 1989: 1985: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1960: 1952: 1948: 1941: 1934: 1929: 1922: 1917: 1902: 1898: 1891: 1883: 1879: 1872: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1825: 1824:from Vietnam" 1823: 1814: 1799:. 31 May 2024 1798: 1794: 1788: 1772: 1766: 1758: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1743: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1722: 1715: 1707: 1703: 1696: 1694: 1677: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1656: 1647: 1645: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1608: 1606: 1600: 1594: 1592: 1587: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1567: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1551:water buffalo 1548: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1501: 1492: 1490: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1458: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1437: 1432: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1417:Anak Krakatau 1413: 1409: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1379: 1374: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1353: 1350: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1328: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1287: 1280: 1275: 1266: 1264: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1245: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1227: 1218: 1213: 1204: 1202: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1173: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1141: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1112: 1111: 1103: 1102: 1094: 1093: 1085: 1084: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1040: 1039: 1033: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1004: 1003: 1000: 999: 991: 990: 987: 985: 981: 972: 971: 968: 967: 964: 962: 958: 949: 948: 942: 941: 935: 934: 928: 927: 924: 923: 915: 914: 911: 909: 905: 899: 898: 895: 894: 891: 889: 885: 879: 878: 872: 871: 864: 863: 860: 859: 856: 855: 854: 843: 842: 836: 835: 831: 829: 827: 822: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 798: 793: 789: 785: 781: 780: 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 744: 741: 737: 732: 727: 715: 711: 707: 706: 702: 700: 696: 692: 691: 690:R. s. inermis 687: 685: 681: 677: 674: 673: 672: 670: 667: 659: 655: 652: 649: 645: 641: 638: 635: 631: 627: 624: 623: 622: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 583: 581: 577: 573: 572: 567: 563: 562:ancient Greek 559: 549: 546: 541: 537: 532: 528: 524: 519: 515: 511: 506: 504: 500: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 460: 458: 455:was declared 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 409: 407: 403: 399: 398:Indian rhinos 395: 391: 388: 384: 380: 379: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 357: 352: 341: 337: 332: 325: 324: 320: 317: 316: 312: 310: 307: 306: 303: 298: 293: 288: 286: 280: 277: 276:Binomial name 273: 269: 268: 263: 260: 259: 256: 255: 251: 248: 247: 244: 241: 238: 237: 234: 231: 228: 227: 224: 221: 218: 217: 214: 211: 208: 207: 204: 201: 198: 197: 194: 191: 188: 187: 182: 177: 173: 167: 161: 156: 150: 145: 134: 130: 125: 121: 117: 113: 108: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 44: 39: 33: 22: 19: 4317:EDGE species 3964: 3939: 3913: 3904: 3896:T. pinchaque 3895: 3886: 3874: 3842: 3830: 3818: 3806: 3794: 3784:Dicerorhinus 3782: 3771:R. sondaicus 3770: 3768: 3762:R. unicornis 3761: 3749: 3724:Ceratomorpha 3722: 3697: 3688: 3679: 3670: 3668: 3659: 3650: 3641: 3633:E. africanus 3632: 3623: 3621: 3612: 3601: 3592: 3591:Wild horse ( 3583: 3581: 3559: 3532: 3435:. Retrieved 3421: 3415: 3409: 3348:. Retrieved 3343: 3334: 3324:– via 3320:18 September 3318:. Retrieved 3303: 3294: 3284: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3210: 3201: 3197: 3184: 3175: 3171: 3165: 3157: 3145: 3133:. Retrieved 3130:The Guardian 3129: 3119: 3107:. Retrieved 3103: 3093: 3079: 3067:. Retrieved 3060: 3051: 3042: 3032: 3020:. Retrieved 3015: 3006: 2994:. Retrieved 2989: 2963: 2949: 2935: 2929:(57): 86–96. 2926: 2920: 2912:the original 2907: 2898: 2886: 2870: 2858:. Retrieved 2852: 2828: 2822: 2803: 2797: 2788: 2746: 2742: 2732: 2715: 2711: 2675: 2652: 2646: 2635: 2629: 2596: 2592: 2564: 2541:. Retrieved 2534:the original 2529: 2525: 2516: 2496: 2471:. Retrieved 2465: 2412: 2408: 2386:. Retrieved 2382:the original 2377: 2368: 2357: 2351: 2338: 2308: 2302: 2277: 2273: 2267: 2234: 2230: 2224: 2179: 2175: 2146: 2140: 2113: 2109: 2103: 2095: 2086: 2082: 2076: 2070:: 1003–1032. 2067: 2063: 2053: 2044: 2034: 2025: 2021: 2012: 2004: 1992:. Retrieved 1988:the original 1978: 1969: 1959: 1950: 1940: 1928: 1916: 1904:. Retrieved 1900: 1890: 1881: 1877: 1834: 1830: 1821: 1813: 1801:. Retrieved 1796: 1787: 1775:. Retrieved 1765: 1741: 1714: 1705: 1680:. Retrieved 1666: 1660: 1654: 1615: 1611:Wilson, D.E. 1604: 1570: 1563: 1525:Indian rhino 1506: 1489:Adelaide Zoo 1485: 1474: 1471:In captivity 1465: 1461: 1453: 1449:Agent Orange 1441: 1435: 1421: 1414: 1410: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1383: 1377: 1354: 1345: 1340: 1321:Conservation 1307: 1291: 1283: 1278: 1250:World War II 1246: 1230: 1222: 1201:Camera traps 1197: 1174: 1146: 1120: 1118: 1068: 1063: 1048: 1044: 1043: 1012: 1007: 983: 975: 960: 952: 907: 902: 887: 882: 851: 847: 824: 818: 813: 809: 805: 795: 783: 777: 775: 755:Early Eocene 748: 742: 713: 709: 703: 698: 694: 688: 683: 675: 663: 656:proposed by 653: 646:proposed by 643: 639: 628:proposed by 625: 590: 589: 569: 565: 557: 555: 536:camera traps 507: 476:black market 461: 413:20th century 410: 376: 368: 364: 360: 355: 354: 350: 348: 321: 313: 308: 284: 282: 266: 265: 253: 119: 18: 4089:iNaturalist 3989:Wikispecies 3843:D. bicornis 3672:Hippotigris 3651:E. hemionus 3613:E. caballus 3568:(including 3534:Hippomorpha 3516:Superorder 3510:Infraclass 3401:Javan Rhino 3350:12 November 2996:28 December 2499:(4): 11–12. 2199:10230/48693 1994:17 December 1906:7 September 1513:bas reliefs 1406:arenga palm 1368:Ujung Kulon 1135:Description 630:René Lesson 518:floodplains 516:, and vast 488:Vietnam War 361:Javan rhino 300:Subspecies 30:1.5–0 4241:Categories 3914:T. indicus 3887:T. bairdii 3751:Rhinoceros 3437:25 October 3135:25 October 3069:4 November 2860:16 October 2593:Biotropica 2543:4 November 2519:in Borneo" 2473:14 October 2458:Derr, Mark 2341:. London: 2149:. London: 1777:2 February 1682:16 January 1583:References 1517:Angkor Wat 1495:In culture 1325:See also: 1311:salt licks 1254:Chittagong 1163:after the 1121:Rhinoceros 810:Rhinoceros 806:Rhinoceros 784:Rhinoceros 779:Rhinoceros 743:Rhinoceros 740:type genus 634:Sundarbans 558:Rhinoceros 514:grasslands 510:rainforest 459:in 2011. 429:East India 390:rhinoceros 378:Rhinoceros 254:Rhinoceros 162:Appendix I 3859:Tapiridae 3698:E. grevyi 3680:E. quagga 3669:Subgenus 3642:E. asinus 3622:Subgenus 3582:Subgenus 3204:: 98–100. 3198:Pachyderm 2927:Pachyderm 2877:, video, 2657:Cambridge 2208:0092-8674 1878:Pachyderm 1837:: 21–29. 1603:"Species 1599:Grubb, P. 1559:Stegosaur 1286:Wallowing 1161:Indonesia 821:cladogram 802:gene flow 720:Evolution 566:sondaicus 552:Etymology 523:predators 425:Indochina 292:Desmarest 261:Species: 199:Kingdom: 193:Eukaryota 4219:Species+ 4159:14100067 4107:11108763 4016:BioLib: 3974:Wikidata 3941:Category 3864:(Tapirs) 3819:C. simum 3689:E. zebra 3660:E. kiang 3649:Onager ( 3640:Donkey ( 3593:E. ferus 3512:Eutheria 3506:Mammalia 3500:Chordata 3494:Animalia 3492:Kingdom 3388:Pictures 3344:FIFA.com 3241:85394693 3221:Mammalia 3104:BBC News 2990:BBC News 2854:BBC News 2687:Archived 2621:85988264 2437:24586209 2388:19 March 2313:Archived 2259:19683789 2216:34433011 1884:: 25–27. 1635:62265494 1601:(2005). 1555:Ta Prohm 1509:Cambodia 1481:Calcutta 1477:Adelaide 1426:Cat Tien 1386:Krakatoa 1315:seawater 1269:Behavior 1189:incisors 1185:Sumatran 605:sent by 597:used by 593:was the 586:Taxonomy 527:leopards 464:poaching 394:Sumatran 239:Family: 223:Mammalia 213:Chordata 209:Phylum: 203:Animalia 189:Domain: 149:IUCN 3.1 4146:1006114 4081:5220112 3980:Q170311 3876:Tapirus 3832:Diceros 3658:Kiang ( 3543:Equidae 3498:Phylum 3476:Extant 3390:on the 3326:Twitter 3276:3248014 3109:19 June 2751:Bibcode 2601:Bibcode 2417:Bibcode 2282:Bibcode 2239:Bibcode 2132:8896369 1839:Bibcode 1538:Brahmin 1215:Java's 771:Miocene 767:Eurasia 763:Equidae 753:in the 613:to the 468:keratin 449:Vietnam 421:Sumatra 249:Genus: 229:Order: 219:Class: 164: ( 147: ( 99:↓ 4211:197767 4198:668145 4172:102233 4120:625004 4068:328342 4052:ECOS: 4032:211164 3625:Asinus 3570:Zebras 3504:Class 3274: 3239: 3022:6 June 2810: 2663: 2619: 2571: 2435: 2321:ARKive 2257: 2214: 2206: 2130: 1966:"κέρᾳ" 1803:6 June 1753: 1633: 1623: 1577:Bacuya 1547:vahana 1530:heaven 1445:napalm 1237:Bengal 1193:molars 1177:rhinos 1129:Trinil 678:, the 580:Borneo 574:, the 512:, wet 496:UNESCO 433:Bhutan 387:extant 294:, 1822 4185:87169 4133:19495 4102:IRMNG 4094:43346 4045:4S84X 4019:33429 3585:Equus 3561:Equus 3314:Tweet 3272:JSTOR 3237:S2CID 3194:(PDF) 2617:S2CID 2537:(PDF) 2522:(PDF) 2433:S2CID 2018:(PDF) 1947:"ῥίς" 1874:(PDF) 1827:(PDF) 1609:. In 1292:Bull 1233:Assam 1181:black 666:valid 571:sunda 540:fecal 437:China 402:black 371:is a 166:CITES 160:CITES 4224:5553 4167:NCBI 4128:IUCN 4115:ITIS 4076:GBIF 4055:3511 4027:BOLD 3439:2019 3422:2008 3386:and 3352:2022 3322:2022 3137:2011 3111:2012 3071:2007 3024:2024 2998:2018 2862:2007 2808:ISBN 2661:ISBN 2569:ISBN 2545:2007 2475:2007 2390:2012 2255:PMID 2212:PMID 2204:ISSN 2176:Cell 2128:PMID 2068:1867 1996:2014 1908:2023 1805:2024 1779:2021 1751:ISBN 1684:2022 1667:2020 1631:OCLC 1621:ISBN 1534:hell 1532:and 1521:Agni 1329:and 1304:Diet 1256:and 1235:and 1226:Java 1183:and 1157:Java 734:The 669:taxa 642:and 609:and 603:Java 538:and 505:). 445:Java 419:and 417:Java 349:The 38:PreꞒ 4154:MSW 4141:MDD 4063:EoL 4040:CoL 4004:ADW 3426:doi 3264:doi 3229:doi 2759:doi 2720:doi 2680:WWF 2609:doi 2425:doi 2290:doi 2247:doi 2194:hdl 2184:doi 2180:184 2118:doi 1847:doi 1835:174 1671:doi 712:or 697:or 545:WWF 451:'s 404:or 367:or 359:), 4243:: 4221:: 4208:: 4195:: 4182:: 4169:: 4156:: 4143:: 4130:: 4117:: 4104:: 4091:: 4078:: 4065:: 4042:: 4029:: 4006:: 3991:: 3976:: 3676:: 3629:: 3589:: 3420:. 3414:. 3342:. 3293:. 3270:. 3258:. 3235:. 3225:69 3223:. 3202:38 3200:. 3196:. 3176:75 3174:. 3170:. 3128:. 3102:. 3059:. 3041:. 3014:. 2988:. 2977:^ 2906:. 2851:. 2839:^ 2787:. 2773:^ 2757:. 2747:11 2745:. 2741:. 2716:40 2714:. 2698:^ 2655:. 2615:. 2607:. 2597:39 2595:. 2583:^ 2553:^ 2530:55 2528:. 2524:. 2505:^ 2495:. 2483:^ 2464:. 2445:^ 2431:. 2423:. 2411:. 2398:^ 2376:. 2327:^ 2319:, 2288:. 2278:11 2276:. 2253:. 2245:. 2235:57 2233:. 2210:. 2202:. 2192:. 2178:. 2174:. 2159:^ 2126:. 2114:13 2112:. 2108:. 2085:. 2066:. 2062:. 2043:. 2026:47 2024:. 2020:. 1968:. 1949:. 1899:. 1882:15 1880:. 1876:. 1859:^ 1845:. 1833:. 1829:. 1795:. 1749:. 1729:^ 1704:. 1692:^ 1665:. 1659:. 1643:^ 1629:. 1590:^ 1579:. 1479:, 1419:. 1364:. 1228:. 1071:) 1051:) 1015:) 986:) 963:) 910:) 890:) 819:A 816:. 773:. 757:. 671:: 529:, 431:, 363:, 88:Pg 32:Ma 3916:) 3907:) 3898:) 3889:) 3845:) 3821:) 3797:) 3773:) 3764:) 3700:) 3691:) 3682:) 3662:) 3653:) 3644:) 3635:) 3615:) 3604:) 3595:) 3572:) 3469:e 3462:t 3455:v 3441:. 3428:: 3412:" 3408:" 3354:. 3328:. 3316:) 3312:( 3297:. 3278:. 3266:: 3260:1 3243:. 3231:: 3139:. 3113:. 3073:. 3045:. 3026:. 3000:. 2957:. 2943:. 2864:. 2833:. 2816:. 2791:. 2767:. 2761:: 2753:: 2726:. 2722:: 2693:. 2669:. 2640:. 2623:. 2611:: 2603:: 2577:. 2547:. 2477:. 2439:. 2427:: 2419:: 2413:7 2392:. 2362:. 2296:. 2292:: 2284:: 2261:. 2249:: 2241:: 2218:. 2196:: 2186:: 2134:. 2120:: 2087:2 1998:. 1910:. 1853:. 1849:: 1841:: 1807:. 1781:. 1759:. 1686:. 1673:: 1657:" 1653:" 1637:. 1607:" 1067:( 1047:( 1011:( 982:( 977:† 959:( 954:† 906:( 886:( 849:† 828:) 745:. 636:. 353:( 326:† 318:† 168:) 151:) 93:N 83:K 78:J 73:T 68:P 63:C 58:D 53:S 48:O 43:Ꞓ

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index