264:
using the same system as voluntary memory when retrieving perceptual information. This is significant because it suggests that voluntary and involuntary retrieval are largely not mediated by separate cortical networks, which raises questions for future research of what distinguishes the two sub-components of memory, if not cognitive pathways and brain activation areas. Further, it might be explored whether these similarities in cognitive mechanism reflect shared properties and impacts of the recalled memories themselves, regardless of intentionality of retrieval. In this particular study, voluntary and involuntary recall were both associated with increased activations in the posterior cingulated gyrus, left precuneus, and right parahippocampal gyrus. In addition, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and left precuneus were more active during voluntary recall, while left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was more active during involuntary recall. It is suggested that the activation seen in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during involuntary memory recall reflects the attempt to prevent the recollected material from interfering with the semantic judgment task.
359:", make the victim feel as though they are reliving the trauma, and cause high levels of emotional arousal, and the sense of an impending threat. Typically, they are parts of the traumatic event that were most salient at the time, known as "hotspots" and have the definitive feature that they cause high levels of emotional distress, and may be difficult to recall deliberately. Although this is a defining feature of PTSD, intrusive memories are also frequently encountered in anxiety-based disorders, psychotic disorders and even within the general population. Regardless of the context in which they are encountered, intrusions tend to have the same central feature; that the stored information is being recalled involuntarily. It is thought that intrusions arise when an individual encounters stimuli similar to the stimuli that were processed and stored during the trauma, thus triggering the memory into the conscious mind. A common example is one in which someone who has the victim of a car crash, upon hearing the screeching of tires experiences a flashback of their own collision, as if they are back at the original event.
154:
well-known contributions to the field. Ebbinghaus was also the first to attempt a description of involuntary memory, stating that, "often, even after years, mental states once present in consciousness return to it with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will; that is, they are reproduced involuntarily." He goes on to explain that these mental states were once experienced, rendering, by definition, their future spontaneous appearance into consciousness the act of remembering, though we may not always be aware of where or how we experienced this information the first time. Ebbinghaus also made the key note that these involuntary reproductions are not random or accidental; instead, "they are brought about through the instrumentality of other immediately present mental images," under the laws of association. This reflects congruence with Mace's and Linton's theory of involuntary memories as by-products of other memories, as discussed above.
255:
believe this suggests that involuntary memories may reflect the ârelative automaticityâ of hippocampally-mediated retrieval. However, their research mainly focuses on identifying areas and functions involved in intentional retrieval. Activity in the medial/lateral parietal and right prefrontal cortex was insensitive to depth of encoding, but rather, varied depending on the intentionality of retrieval. These areas were increasingly engaged during intentional retrieval, suggesting that one function of this region may be to align remembering to aid with current behavioral goals. This is distinct from involuntary memory, where individuals do not consciously retrieve memories that will be most helpful to their current situation; however, it remains unclear if this process is unconsciously undertaken by the brain. When dealing with involuntary
402:. Positive symptoms are delusional, and may include hallucinations, while negative symptoms are characterized by a "lack" of functioning, which may include a lack of affect (emotional feeling) and loss of motivation. One study found that there was a high prevalence of trauma in patients with severe mental illness. However, only a small percentage had been diagnosed with PTSD when displaying PTSD-like symptoms. Therefore, the more complex symptoms of psychosis may prevent the clinical detection required when diagnosing PTSD. In addition, those who have been diagnosed with PTSD and have an identified form of trauma show positive symptoms of psychosis such as delusions and/or hallucinations. Finally, it has been suggested that individuals suffering from psychosis may be more vulnerable to intrusions.
110:
sometimes when my mind is silent, but also as by-products of searches for other information." Mace terms these âinvoluntary memory chains,â stating that they are the product of spreading activation in the autobiographical memory system. These involuntary retrievals are experienced when activations are strong or relevant enough to current cognitive activity that they come into consciousness. According to Mace, this suggests that autobiographical memories are organized primarily conceptually (âexperiential type concepts: people, places, locations, activities, etc.â), while temporal associations are not retained over time the same way.
119:
researchers in their studies of psychiatric syndromes such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Some researchers have found that involuntary memories tend to have more emotional intensity and less centrality to life story than voluntary memories do. However, one study also shows that recurrent involuntary memories post-trauma can be explained with the general mechanisms of autobiographical memory, and tend to not come up in a fixed, unchangeable form. This suggests that psychologists may be able to develop ways to help individuals deal with traumatic involuntary memories.
230:
period, in a diary. During this two-week period, participants also had to come into a laboratory at intervals, and were instructed to recall memories from certain life periods (e.g., high school, first five years of marriage). Following this, comparing their involuntary memories to a control condition found that a significant number of their involuntary memories related to the time period they were instructed to recall. Such findings suggest that involuntary memories may be primed by even the simplest of cognitive tasksânamely, reminiscing and recalling the past.
20:
163:
239:
1964:
1952:
142:
319:. It has been found that memories associated with stronger emotions (e.g.: being happy at your wedding) are more easily remembered and quickly recalled, as are those formed during moments of intense stress. The same holds true for involuntary memories, with happy involuntary memories occurring twice as often as unhappy or neutral involuntary memories.
217:
memory task. Results showed that participants did experience involuntary memory recall when they were recalling the past deliberately (also known as voluntary memory). This implies that involuntary memory production occurs as a product of chaining from voluntary memoryâthe deliberate recall of the past.
354:
When it comes to involuntary memory, researchers are mainly interested in the concept of these trauma-related intrusions, which generally involved some form of re-experiencing the event, including a sensory component (e.g., imagery in any modality be it visual, auditory etc.). These intrusions, often
216:
In the work by
Bernstein, the diary method was also applied to the study of involuntary memory chaining. The main hypothesis was that chaining would also occur on autobiographical memory tasks. Participants were asked to report the presence of involuntary memories while performing an autobiographical
259:
tasks, activity in areas such as the left inferior frontal gyrus, left superior temporal gyrus, left hippocampus, and right superior occipital cortex have all been implicated. Yet, areas and structures that are uniquely associated with involuntary memory remain unclear and more research is needed to
153:
is recognized as the first to apply the principles of experimental psychology to studying memory. He is especially well known for his introduction and application of nonsense syllables in studying memory, study of which led him to discover the forgetting curve and the spacing effect, two of his most
127:
Further research on the automatic nature of involuntary retrieval suggests that they may not require working memory input. Thus, one report hypothesizes that dementia patients may still have available precious autobiographical memories that remain inaccessible until âsuitable triggers release them,â
208:
One idea that has recently become the subject of studies on involuntary memory is chaining. This is the concept that involuntary memories have the tendency to trigger other involuntary memories that are related. Typically, it is thought to be the contents of involuntary memories that are related to
92:
The most common kind of these phenomena has been termed "precious fragments." This type includes involuntary memories as they arise in everyday mental functioning, which are characterized by their element of surprise: they appear to come into conscious awareness spontaneously. They are the products
298:
or the development of cognitive abilities across the lifespan. It has been found that this is true for both voluntary and involuntary memories. Age has been found to have a difference on the amount of memories recalled, but no age differences were found in the specificity of involuntary memories.
281:
In younger children (ages 10 and under), it has also been found that inducing involuntary memory during testing produced significantly better results than using voluntary memory. This can be accomplished by posing a vague, mildly related question or sentence prior to the actual test question. In
229:
Mace, in one of his recent studies, wanted to test the notion that basic cognitive activities, such as thinking about the past, may prime involuntary memories. To test this idea, Mace set up a diary method study in which participants recorded involuntary memories they experienced during a two-week
190:
Proust viewed involuntary memory as containing the "essence of the past," claiming that it was lacking from voluntary memory. When the protagonist of Proust's novel eats a tea soaked madeleine, a long-forgotten childhood memory of eating tea soaked madeleine with his aunt is restored to him. From
263:
The second study found that the medial temporal lobe, the posterior cingulate gyrus, and the precuneus, are activated during retrieval success with or without executive control seen within the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This implies that involuntary memories are successfully retrieved
118:
Finally, some involuntary memories arise from traumatic experiences, and as such are fairly rare compared to other involuntary memories. Subjects describe them as salient, repetitive memories of traumatic events. The troubling nature of such memories makes these occurrences important to clinical
254:
The first study found that while involuntary memory retrieval is mediated by the hippocampus, a structure of the brain known to be associated with successful episodic memory retrieval, involvement of the hippocampus was independent of whether or not remembering was intentional. The researchers
109:
These are less common, and appear to be the result of voluntary/involuntary retrieval. Characteristic of such occurrences is the triggering effect this has, as one involuntary memory leads to another and so on. Again, Linton describes her own experiences with such memories as "coming unbidden
346:
defines a trauma as an event in which someone experiences, or witnesses' severe injury to themselves or others or a threat to their integrity. The person must also have responded with fear, helplessness or horror at the time of the trauma. The main psychological consequences of this include
128:
prodding at the possibility for caregivers to be trained to reactivate these memories to elicit positive emotional effects and maintain patientsâ life stories and sense of identity. Further empirical research is needed, but this insight starts a hopeful path into improving dementia care.
93:
of common every-day experiences such as eating a piece of cake, bringing to mind a past experience evoked by the taste. Research suggests that such experiences are especially strong and frequent in relation to one's sense of smell. The term "precious fragments" was coined by
964:
Mueser, K. T., Trumbettam S. L., Rosenberg, S. D., Vivader, R., Goodman, L. B., Osher, F. C., Auciello, P., & Foy, D. W. (1998). Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66,
277:
While age plays a role in memory capabilities, it has been found that general strategies used to encode (to remember) memories is more important. Those that are better at memorizing information are more likely to have more involuntary memories.
212:
In a diary study done by J.H Mace, participants reported that frequently, when one involuntary memory arose, it would quickly trigger a series of other involuntary memories. This was recognized as the cueing source for involuntary memories.
225:
A common question in the study of involuntary memory is related to priming; what is it that activates such a memory? Various studies have been conducted in recent years to observe the conditions under which involuntary memories are primed.
332:
Often people who have been the victims of some type of trauma describe vivid memories that intrude on their thoughts spontaneously and without warning. Such mental intrusions, if maintained over time compose the hallmark symptom of
246:
Research studies regarding the neurological functions of involuntary memory have been few in number. Thus far, only two neuroimaging studies have been conducted comparing involuntary memories to voluntary memories using
919:
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2002). Emotionally charged autobiographical memories across the life span: The recall of happy, sad, traumatic and involuntary memories. Psychology and Aging, 17 (4), 636â652.
733:
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2008). The reappearance hypothesis revisited: Recurrent involuntary memories after traumatic events and in everyday life. Memory & Cognition (pre-2012), 36 (2), 449-60.
874:
Schlagman, S., Kliegel, M., Schulz, J., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2009). According to
Berntsen (2019) involuntary memories will more often be about recent personal events (the latest one or two years). (
72:
that occurs when cues encountered in everyday life evoke recollections of the past without conscious effort. Voluntary memory, its opposite, is characterized by a deliberate effort to recall the past.
937:
Mansell, W., & Lam, D. (2004). A preliminary study of autobiographical memory in remitted bipolar and unipolar depression and the role of imagery in memory specificity. Memory, 12, 437â446.
747:
Rugg, M. D., Fletcher, P. C., Frith, C. D., J, R. S., & Dolan, R. J. (1997). Brain regions supporting intentional and incidental memory: a PET study. NeuroReport (Oxford), 8 (5), 1283-1287.
858:
Janssen, S. M. J., Kristo, G., Rouw, R., & Murre, J. M. J. (2015). The relation between verbal and visuospatial memory and autobiographical memory. Consciousness and
Cognition, 31, 12-23.
294:
is the phenomenon where in memories formed during adolescence and early adulthood are more commonly remembered than those throughout other periods in life. This is due to the formation of
983:
Steel, C., Fowler, D., & Holmes, E. A. (2005). Trauma-related intrusions and psychosis: An information processing account. Behavioural and
Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33(2), 139â152.
84:. These include those that occur in everyday life, those that occur during the processes of voluntary and involuntary recall, and those that occur as part of a psychiatric syndrome.
674:"Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Properties of voluntary and involuntary, traumatic and non-traumatic autobiographical memories in people with and without PTSD symptoms"
804:
Sophian, C., & Hagen, J. W. (1978). Involuntary memory and the development of retrieval skills in young children. Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology, 26 (3), 458â471.
826:
Conway, M. A., Wang, Q., Hanyu, K., & Haque, S. (2005). A cross-cultural investigation of autobiographical memory. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 36, 739â749.
795:
Hall, N. M., Gjedde, A., & Kupers, R. (2008). Neural mechanisms of voluntary and involuntary recall : A PET study. Behavioural brain research, 186 (2), 261-272.
342:
928:
Hackmann, A., Clark, D. M., & Mcmanus, F. (2000). Recurrent images and early memories in social phobia. Behaviour
Research and Therapy, 38(6), 601â610.
575:
Willander, J. & Larsson, M. (2006). "Smell your way back to childhood: Autobiographical odor memory". Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review 13, 240-244.
419:
Elua, Ia; Laws, Keith R.; Kvavilashvili, Lia (2012). "From mind-pops to hallucinations? A study of involuntary semantic memories in schizophrenia".
97:, a pioneer in the study of autobiographical memory research. This is reflected, for example, in Proust's experience of remembering, upon dunking a
596:
1552:
955:
Day, S. J., Holmes, E. A., & Hackmann, A. (2004). Occurrence of imagery and its link with early memories in agoraphobia. Memory, 12, 416â427
842:
Rubin, D. C., Rahhal, T. A., & Poon, L. W. (1998). Things learned in early adulthood are remembered best. Memory & Cognition, 26, 3-19.
910:
Hall, N. M., & Berntsen, D. (2008). The effect of emotional stress on involuntary and voluntary conscious memories. Memory, 16(1), 48â57.
974:
Lindley, S. E., Carlson, E. B., & Sheikh, J. I. (2000). Psychotic symptoms in posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrums, 5(9), 52-57.
1135:
786:
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology, (trans. H.A. Ruger and C.E. Bussenius). Dover, New York.
1416:
524:
Xu, Jian; Vik, Alexandra; Groote, Inge R.; Lagopoulos, Jim; Holen, Are; Ellingsen, Ăyvind; HĂ„berg, Asta K.; Davanger, Svend (2014).
894:
D'Argembeau, A., & Van der Linden, M. (2005). Influence of emotion on memory for temporal information. Emotion, 5(4), 503â507.
80:
There appear to be at least three different contexts within which involuntary memory arises, as described by J.H. Mace in his book
191:
this memory, he then proceeds to recall the childhood home he was in, and even the town itself. This becomes a theme throughout
760:
946:
Kuyken, W., & Brewin, C. R. (1994). Stress and coping in depressed women. Cognitive
Therapy and Research, 18(5), 403â412.
580:
508:
526:"Nondirective meditation activates default mode network and areas associated with memory retrieval and emotional processing"
878:). Differential effects of age on involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memory. Psychology and Aging, 24(2), 397â411.
394:
Psychosis is defined as a range of perceptual presentations, with the associated symptoms frequently referred to as either
814:
1626:
282:
older children (aged 14 and above), the opposite holds, with strictly voluntary memory leading to better test results.
813:
Roberts, T. A. (1989). Developmental aspects of activating voluntary and involuntary memory processes during reading.
1011:
1499:
334:
195:
with sensations reminding the narrator of previous experiences. Proust dubbed these "involuntary memories".
1547:
1448:
1335:
248:
101:
cake in his tea in adulthood, a memory from childhood that occurred while eating madeleine dunked in tea.
1673:
1598:
1431:
384:
1711:
1656:
1631:
1461:
1438:
1388:
1293:
615:"Involuntary Autobiographical Memory Chains: Implications for Autobiographical Memory Organization"
1398:
1164:
1994:
1805:
1765:
1666:
1635:
1273:
1061:
356:
175:
25:
1820:
1535:
1421:
1393:
1378:
1373:
1211:
1704:
1688:
1567:
1325:
1278:
1268:
1056:
1004:
8:
1835:
1735:
1426:
1310:
1258:
1226:
1206:
187:). Proust did not have any psychological background, and worked primarily as a writer.
1989:
1932:
1917:
1755:
1700:
1693:
1562:
1557:
1509:
1487:
1456:
1283:
706:
673:
649:
614:
590:
552:
525:
462:
316:
150:
1968:
1956:
1927:
1775:
1646:
1621:
1577:
1504:
1482:
1383:
1320:
1288:
1263:
1231:
1216:
1126:
1096:
1034:
711:
693:
654:
636:
576:
557:
504:
454:
446:
348:
291:
1907:
1860:
1830:
1785:
1641:
1572:
1525:
1330:
1305:
1191:
1151:
1039:
895:
879:
859:
843:
827:
701:
685:
644:
626:
547:
537:
466:
436:
432:
428:
380:
256:
98:
34:
367:
Stressful and traumatic events, which may manifest as involuntary memories called
242:
The hippocampus is important for the successful retrieval of involuntary memories.
1999:
1845:
1825:
1800:
1790:
1745:
1740:
1494:
1466:
1201:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1044:
997:
863:
498:
94:
351:
and images), avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, and increased arousal levels.
1912:
1876:
1770:
1368:
1315:
1141:
1111:
1091:
1078:
899:
1983:
1891:
1881:
1855:
1850:
1810:
1795:
1760:
1683:
1530:
1358:
1221:
1196:
1159:
1116:
1106:
1101:
1086:
831:
697:
640:
631:
542:
450:
376:
295:
170:
30:
19:
875:
1922:
1886:
1840:
1750:
1593:
1408:
1363:
1350:
1340:
1300:
1020:
715:
658:
561:
458:
260:
understand the cognitive and neurological basis of this memory phenomenon.
1780:
1651:
1605:
388:
391:, are a few examples of disorders that have influences from flashbacks.
1815:
1678:
1245:
847:
412:
173:
was the first person to coin the term involuntary memory, in his novel
1051:
883:
689:
441:
372:
162:
1540:
1253:
312:
989:
574:
69:
238:
141:
23:
A famous example of involuntary memory is when, in his book
761:"Involuntary autobiographical memories | The Psychologist"
672:
Rubin, David C.; Boals, Adriel; Berntsen, Dorthe (2008).
568:
523:
418:
122:
671:
347:re-experiencing the traumatic event (through both
209:one another, thereby causing the chaining effect.
157:
1981:
371:, may trigger a wide range of anxiety-based and
327:
104:
33:is reminded of his childhood by the taste of a
729:
727:
725:
1005:
595:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
496:
113:
1136:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
722:
678:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
1012:
998:
492:
490:
488:
486:
484:
482:
480:
478:
476:
876:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1127-z
705:
648:
630:
551:
541:
440:
322:
237:
161:
140:
18:
16:Memory triggered by an environmental cue
473:
1982:
302:
993:
782:
780:
233:
136:
87:
755:
753:
743:
741:
739:
612:
608:
606:
335:posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
307:
285:
145:Herman Ebbinghaus (1850–1909).
815:Contemporary Educational Psychology
315:plays a strong role in relation to
198:
66:involuntary autobiographical memory
13:
777:
249:Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
123:Implications for dementia patients
14:
2011:
1417:DeeseâRoedigerâMcDermott paradigm
750:
736:
603:
267:
149:Born in Bremen, Germany in 1850,
1962:
1950:
1019:
977:
968:
958:
949:
940:
931:
922:
913:
904:
888:
868:
852:
836:
820:
807:
798:
789:
530:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
1627:AtkinsonâShiffrin memory model
1500:Memory and social interactions
665:
517:
433:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.11.026
272:
158:Marcel ProustâProustian memory
75:
1:
427:(2â3). Elsevier BV: 165â170.
405:
328:Posttraumatic stress disorder
176:Ă la recherche du temps perdu
105:By-products of other memories
1336:Retrieval-induced forgetting
864:10.1016/j.concog.2014.10.001
362:
50:involuntary conscious memory
7:
203:
46:involuntary explicit memory
10:
2016:
1674:Levels of Processing model
1599:World Memory Championships
1432:Lost in the mall technique
1279:dissociative (psychogenic)
765:thepsychologist.bps.org.uk
220:
185:Remembrance of Things Past
131:
1945:
1900:
1869:
1728:
1721:
1614:
1586:
1518:
1475:
1447:
1407:
1349:
1244:
1150:
1125:
1077:
1070:
1027:
900:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.503
114:Not so precious fragments
1712:The Seven Sins of Memory
1657:Intermediate-term memory
1462:Indirect tests of memory
1439:Recovered-memory therapy
1389:Misattribution of memory
832:10.1177/0022022105280512
632:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00183
543:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00086
68:, is a sub-component of
54:involuntary aware memory
1399:Source-monitoring error
619:Frontiers in Psychiatry
193:In Search of Lost Time,
1806:George Armitage Miller
1766:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
613:Mace, John H. (2014).
243:
181:In Search of Lost Time
167:
146:
38:
26:In Search of Lost Time
1969:Philosophy portal
1957:Psychology portal
1821:Henry L. Roediger III
1422:False memory syndrome
1394:Misinformation effect
1374:Imagination inflation
497:John H. Mace (2007).
323:In clinical disorders
241:
165:
144:
22:
1326:Motivated forgetting
1836:Arthur P. Shimamura
1736:Richard C. Atkinson
1553:Effects of exercise
1427:Memory implantation
1311:Interference theory
1227:Selective retention
1207:Meaningful learning
503:. Wiley-Blackwell.
421:Psychiatry Research
303:The role of emotion
64:and most commonly,
1933:Andriy Slyusarchuk
1756:Hermann Ebbinghaus
1662:Involuntary memory
1563:Memory improvement
1548:Effects of alcohol
1510:Transactive memory
1488:Politics of memory
1457:Exceptional memory
848:10.3758/BF03211366
500:Involuntary memory
349:intrusive thoughts
244:
234:Neurological basis
168:
151:Hermann Ebbinghaus
147:
137:Hermann Ebbinghaus
88:Precious fragments
82:Involuntary Memory
42:Involuntary memory
39:
1977:
1976:
1941:
1940:
1928:Cosmos Rossellius
1776:Marcia K. Johnson
1647:Exosomatic memory
1632:Context-dependent
1622:Absent-mindedness
1505:Memory conformity
1483:Collective memory
1384:Memory conformity
1321:Memory inhibition
1240:
1239:
1232:Tip of the tongue
582:978-1-4051-3638-9
510:978-1-4051-3638-9
308:Emotion intensity
292:reminiscence bump
286:Reminiscence bump
2007:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1908:Jonathan Hancock
1861:Robert Stickgold
1831:Richard Shiffrin
1786:Elizabeth Loftus
1726:
1725:
1642:Childhood memory
1449:Research methods
1331:Repressed memory
1306:Forgetting curve
1294:transient global
1165:Autobiographical
1075:
1074:
1014:
1007:
1000:
991:
990:
984:
981:
975:
972:
966:
962:
956:
953:
947:
944:
938:
935:
929:
926:
920:
917:
911:
908:
902:
892:
886:
884:10.1037/a0015785
872:
866:
856:
850:
840:
834:
824:
818:
811:
805:
802:
796:
793:
787:
784:
775:
774:
772:
771:
757:
748:
745:
734:
731:
720:
719:
709:
690:10.1037/a0013165
669:
663:
662:
652:
634:
610:
601:
600:
594:
586:
572:
566:
565:
555:
545:
521:
515:
514:
494:
471:
470:
444:
416:
381:bipolar disorder
257:word recognition
199:Current research
58:madeleine moment
44:, also known as
2015:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1963:
1961:
1951:
1949:
1937:
1918:Dominic O'Brien
1896:
1865:
1846:Susumu Tonegawa
1826:Daniel Schacter
1801:Eleanor Maguire
1791:Geoffrey Loftus
1746:Stephen J. Ceci
1741:Robert A. Bjork
1717:
1636:state-dependent
1610:
1582:
1514:
1495:Cultural memory
1471:
1467:Memory disorder
1443:
1403:
1345:
1236:
1146:
1121:
1066:
1023:
1018:
988:
987:
982:
978:
973:
969:
963:
959:
954:
950:
945:
941:
936:
932:
927:
923:
918:
914:
909:
905:
893:
889:
873:
869:
857:
853:
841:
837:
825:
821:
817:, 14 (1), 1â11.
812:
808:
803:
799:
794:
790:
785:
778:
769:
767:
759:
758:
751:
746:
737:
732:
723:
670:
666:
611:
604:
588:
587:
583:
573:
569:
522:
518:
511:
495:
474:
417:
413:
408:
365:
330:
325:
310:
305:
288:
275:
270:
236:
223:
206:
201:
160:
139:
134:
125:
116:
107:
95:Marigold Linton
90:
78:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2013:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1959:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1913:Paul R. McHugh
1910:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1771:Ivan Izquierdo
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1732:
1730:
1723:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1528:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1453:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1424:
1419:
1413:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1369:Hindsight bias
1366:
1361:
1355:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1316:Memory erasure
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1274:post-traumatic
1271:
1266:
1261:
1250:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1212:Personal-event
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1144:
1142:Working memory
1139:
1131:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1112:Motor learning
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1083:
1081:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1031:
1029:
1028:Basic concepts
1025:
1024:
1017:
1016:
1009:
1002:
994:
986:
985:
976:
967:
957:
948:
939:
930:
921:
912:
903:
887:
867:
851:
835:
819:
806:
797:
788:
776:
749:
735:
721:
684:(4): 591â614.
664:
602:
581:
567:
516:
509:
472:
410:
409:
407:
404:
364:
361:
329:
326:
324:
321:
309:
306:
304:
301:
287:
284:
274:
271:
269:
268:Effects of age
266:
235:
232:
222:
219:
205:
202:
200:
197:
166:Proust in 1900
159:
156:
138:
135:
133:
130:
124:
121:
115:
112:
106:
103:
89:
86:
77:
74:
37:dunked in tea.
35:madeleine cake
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2012:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1995:Marcel Proust
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1892:Clive Wearing
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1856:Endel Tulving
1854:
1852:
1851:Anne Treisman
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1811:Brenda Milner
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1796:James McGaugh
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1761:Sigmund Freud
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1705:retrospective
1702:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1684:Muscle memory
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1531:Art of memory
1529:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1379:Memory biases
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1359:Confabulation
1357:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1351:Memory errors
1348:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1269:post-hypnotic
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1222:Rote learning
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1197:Hyperthymesia
1195:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1160:Active recall
1158:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1057:Consolidation
1055:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1010:
1008:
1003:
1001:
996:
995:
992:
980:
971:
961:
952:
943:
934:
925:
916:
907:
901:
897:
891:
885:
881:
877:
871:
865:
861:
855:
849:
845:
839:
833:
829:
823:
816:
810:
801:
792:
783:
781:
766:
762:
756:
754:
744:
742:
740:
730:
728:
726:
717:
713:
708:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
668:
660:
656:
651:
646:
642:
638:
633:
628:
624:
620:
616:
609:
607:
598:
592:
584:
578:
571:
563:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
535:
531:
527:
520:
512:
506:
502:
501:
493:
491:
489:
487:
485:
483:
481:
479:
477:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
443:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
415:
411:
403:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
377:Social phobia
374:
370:
360:
358:
352:
350:
345:
344:
338:
336:
320:
318:
314:
300:
297:
296:self-identity
293:
283:
279:
265:
261:
258:
252:
250:
240:
231:
227:
218:
214:
210:
196:
194:
188:
186:
182:
178:
177:
172:
171:Marcel Proust
164:
155:
152:
143:
129:
120:
111:
102:
100:
96:
85:
83:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
36:
32:
31:Marcel Proust
29:
27:
21:
1923:Ben Pridmore
1841:Larry Squire
1751:Susan Clancy
1710:
1661:
1594:Memory sport
1519:Other topics
1409:False memory
1364:Cryptomnesia
1341:Weapon focus
1301:Decay theory
1062:Neuroanatomy
1021:Human memory
979:
970:
960:
951:
942:
933:
924:
915:
906:
890:
870:
854:
838:
822:
809:
800:
791:
768:. Retrieved
764:
681:
677:
667:
622:
618:
570:
533:
529:
519:
499:
424:
420:
414:
399:
395:
393:
368:
366:
353:
341:
339:
331:
311:
289:
280:
276:
262:
253:
245:
228:
224:
215:
211:
207:
192:
189:
184:
180:
174:
169:
148:
126:
117:
108:
91:
81:
79:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
40:
24:
1781:Eric Kandel
1729:Researchers
1701:Prospective
1652:Free recall
1606:Shas Pollak
1259:anterograde
1175:Declarative
389:agoraphobia
375:disorders.
273:Development
76:Occurrences
1984:Categories
1816:Lynn Nadel
1694:intertrial
1679:Metamemory
1667:flashbacks
1587:In society
1284:retrograde
1246:Forgetting
1217:Procedural
1127:Short-term
1097:Eyewitness
770:2020-04-24
406:References
385:depression
369:flashbacks
357:flashbacks
1990:Free will
1568:Nutrition
1476:In groups
1289:selective
1264:childhood
1192:Flashbulb
1152:Long-term
1052:Attention
698:0096-3445
641:1664-0640
591:cite news
451:0165-1781
442:2299/8802
373:psychotic
363:Psychosis
99:madeleine
62:mind pops
1870:Patients
1541:mnemonic
1536:chunking
1202:Implicit
1185:Semantic
1180:Episodic
1170:Explicit
1035:Encoding
965:493â499.
716:18999355
659:25566102
562:24616684
459:22424894
400:negative
396:positive
355:termed "
204:Chaining
1689:Priming
1615:Related
1558:Emotion
1254:Amnesia
1092:Eidetic
1079:Sensory
1040:Storage
707:2597428
650:4267106
625:: 183.
553:3935386
467:7346598
313:Emotion
221:Priming
132:History
2000:Memory
1722:People
1707:memory
1638:memory
1578:Trauma
1117:Visual
1107:Iconic
1102:Haptic
1087:Echoic
1045:Recall
714:
704:
696:
657:
647:
639:
579:
560:
550:
536:: 86.
507:
465:
457:
449:
387:, and
343:DSM-IV
317:memory
70:memory
1901:Other
1573:Sleep
1526:Aging
1071:Types
463:S2CID
1703:and
1634:and
712:PMID
694:ISSN
655:PMID
637:ISSN
597:link
577:ISBN
558:PMID
505:ISBN
455:PMID
447:ISSN
340:The
290:The
896:doi
880:doi
860:doi
844:doi
828:doi
702:PMC
686:doi
682:137
645:PMC
627:doi
548:PMC
538:doi
437:hdl
429:doi
425:196
398:or
183:or
1986::
1887:NA
1882:KC
1877:HM
779:^
763:.
752:^
738:^
724:^
710:.
700:.
692:.
680:.
676:.
653:.
643:.
635:.
621:.
617:.
605:^
593:}}
589:{{
556:.
546:.
532:.
528:.
475:^
461:.
453:.
445:.
435:.
423:.
383:,
379:,
337:.
251:.
60:,
56:,
52:,
48:,
1138:"
1134:"
1013:e
1006:t
999:v
898::
882::
862::
846::
830::
773:.
718:.
688::
661:.
629::
623:5
599:)
585:.
564:.
540::
534:8
513:.
469:.
439::
431::
179:(
28:,
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
