408:", when the airplane entered in a dive after climbing or level flight with throttle open, with the engine under no load while the airplane dives generating less heat, and the flow of air that cools the engine is increased, a catastrophic engine failure may result as different parts of engine have different temperatures, and thus different thermal expansions. In such conditions, the engine may seize, and any sudden change or imbalance in the relation between heat produced by the engine and heat dissipated by cooling may result in an increased wear of engine, as a consequence also of thermal expansion differences between parts of engine, liquid-cooled engines having more stable and uniform working temperatures.
505:) have an outlet that feeds cooled water to the engine and the engine has an outlet that feeds heated water to the top of the radiator. Water circulation is aided by a rotary pump that has only a slight effect, having to work over such a wide range of speeds that its impeller has only a minimal effect as a pump. While running the leaking pump seal drained cooling water to a level where the pump could no longer return water to the top of the radiator, so water circulation ceased and water in the engine boiled. However, since water loss led to overheat and further water loss from boil-over, the original water loss was hidden.
461:
226:), which is good for keeping things cool, especially for passing one stream of coolant over several hot objects and achieving uniform temperature. In contrast, passing air over several hot objects in series warms the air at each step, so the first may be over-cooled and the last under-cooled. However, once water boils, it is an insulator, leading to a sudden loss of cooling where steam bubbles form. Steam may return to water as it mixes with other coolant, so an engine temperature gauge can indicate an acceptable temperature even though local temperatures are high enough that damage is being done.
453:
445:
417:
428:
179:, must rely on the lubrication oil as a coolant, or to a very limited amount of conduction into the block and thence the main coolant. High performance engines frequently have additional oil, beyond the amount needed for lubrication, sprayed upwards onto the bottom of the piston just for extra cooling. Air-cooled motorcycles often rely heavily on oil-cooling in addition to air-cooling of the cylinder barrels.
497:) on the pump shaft. The seal was inherited from steam engines, where water loss is accepted, since steam engines already expend large volumes of water. Because the pump seal leaked mainly when the pump was running and the engine was hot, the water loss evaporated inconspicuously, leaving at best a small rusty trace when the engine stopped and cooled, thereby not revealing significant water loss. Automobile
164:
of their passageways through the engine block so that coolant flow may be tailored to the needs of each area. Locations with either high peak temperatures (narrow islands around the combustion chamber) or high heat flow (around exhaust ports) may require generous cooling. This reduces the occurrence of hot spots, which are more difficult to avoid with air cooling. Air-cooled engines may also vary their
230:
but also not cool down the gas at the combustion. A compromise is a wall temperature of 90 °C. The viscosity of the oil is optimized for just this temperature. Any cooling of the exhaust and the turbine of the turbocharger reduces the amount of power available to the turbine, so the exhaust system is often insulated between engine and turbocharger to keep the exhaust gasses as hot as possible.
194:
engine might dump heat from the engine to a liquid, heating the liquid to 135 °C (water's standard boiling point of 100 °C can be exceeded as the cooling system is both pressurised, and uses a mixture with antifreeze) which is then cooled with 20 °C air. In each step, the liquid-cooled engine has half the temperature difference and so at first appears to need twice the cooling area.
141:) cooled by air. Marine engines and some stationary engines have ready access to a large volume of water at a suitable temperature. The water may be used directly to cool the engine, but often has sediment, which can clog coolant passages, or chemicals, such as salt which can chemically damage the engine. Thus, engine coolant may be run through a heat exchanger that is cooled by the body of water.
327:
247:
Where reliability is of utmost importance, as in aircraft, it may be a good trade-off to give up efficiency, longevity (interval between engine rebuilds), and quietness in order to achieve slightly higher reliability; the consequences of a broken airplane engine are so severe, even a slight increase in reliability is worth giving up other good properties to achieve it.
218:(about 200 times lower: 17.4 × 10 Pa·s for air vs 8.94 × 10 Pa·s for water). Continuing the calculation from two paragraphs above, air cooling needs ten times of the surface area, therefore the fins, and air needs 2000 times the flow velocity and thus a recirculating air fan needs ten times the power of a recirculating water pump.
234:
engine is neither too hot nor too cold. Cooling system regulation includes adjustable baffles in the air flow (sometimes called 'shutters' and commonly run by a pneumatic 'shutterstat'); a fan which operates either independently of the engine, such as an electric fan, or which has an adjustable clutch; and a
530:
A special class of experimental prototype internal combustion piston engines have been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss. The engines are variously called adiabatic engines, due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion, low heat rejection
508:
After isolating the pump problem, cars and trucks built for the war effort (no civilian cars were built during that time) were equipped with carbon-seal water pumps that did not leak and caused no more geysers. Meanwhile, air cooling advanced in memory of boiling engines even though boil-over was no
242:
that can block the coolant flow when too cool. In addition, the motor, coolant, and heat exchanger have some heat capacity which smooths out temperature increase in short sprints. Some engine controls shut down an engine or limit it to half throttle if it overheats. Modern electronic engine controls
229:
An engine needs different temperatures. The inlet including the compressor of a turbo and in the inlet trumpets and the inlet valves need to be as cold as possible. A countercurrent heat exchanger with forced cooling air does the job. The cylinder-walls should not heat up the air before compression,
403:
is known for their large displacement air-cooled V8 car engines; Tatra engineer Julius
Mackerle published a book on it. Air-cooled engines are better adapted to extremely cold and hot environmental weather temperatures: you can see air-cooled engines starting and running in freezing conditions that
221:
Moving heat from the cylinder to a large surface area for air cooling can present problems including difficulties manufacturing the shapes needed for good heat transfer and the space needed for free flow of a large volume of air. Water boils at about the same temperature desired for engine cooling.
163:
There are many demands on a cooling system. One key requirement is to adequately serve the entire engine, as the whole engine fails if just one part overheats. Therefore, it is vital that the cooling system keep all parts at suitably low temperatures. Liquid-cooled engines are able to vary the size
535:
coatings. Some make use of titanium pistons and other titanium parts due to its low thermal conductivity and mass. Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether. Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures involved has
365:
where two radiator refill stations remain. They have instructions on a cast metal plaque and a spherical bottom watering can hanging next to a water spigot. The spherical bottom was intended to keep it from being set down thus being useless around the house, in spite of which it was stolen, as the
82:
engines largely replaced them. Modern propeller-driven aircraft with internal-combustion engines are still largely air-cooled. Modern cars generally favor power over weight, and typically have water-cooled engines. Modern motorcycles are lighter than cars and both cooling methods are common. Some
246:
Finally, other concerns may dominate cooling system design. As example, air is a relatively poor coolant, but air cooling systems are simple, and failure rates typically rise as the square of the number of failure points. Also, cooling capacity is reduced only slightly by small air coolant leaks.
277:
are chosen for reliability even in extreme heat, because air-cooling would be simpler and more effective at coping with the extremes of temperatures during the depths of winter and height of summer, than water cooling systems, and are often used in situations where the engine runs unattended for
233:
The temperature of the cooling air may range from well below freezing to 50 °C. Further, while engines in long-haul boat or rail service may operate at a steady load, road vehicles often see widely varying and quickly varying load. Thus, the cooling system is designed to vary cooling so the
193:
Conductive heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference between materials. If engine metal is at 250 °C and the air is at 20 °C, then there is a 230 °C temperature difference for cooling. An air-cooled engine uses all of this difference. In contrast, a liquid-cooled
113:
Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and lubricants and becomes even more important in hot climates. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the melting temperature of engine materials, and hot enough to set fire to lubricants. Engine cooling removes
109:
Engines with higher efficiency have more energy leave as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some waste heat is essential: it guides heat through the engine, much as a water wheel works only if there is some exit velocity (energy) in the waste water to carry it away and make room for more
513:
advertised in the US as not boiling over, even though new water-cooled cars no longer boiled over, but the cars sold well. But as air quality awareness rose in the 1960s and laws governing exhaust emissions were passed, unleaded gas replaced leaded gas and leaner fuel mixtures became the norm.
292:
used in many liquid-cooled engines must be renewed periodically and can freeze at ordinary temperatures thus causing permanent engine damage when it expands. Air-cooled engines do not require coolant service, and do not suffer damage from freezing, two commonly cited advantages for air-cooled
404:
seized water-cooled engines and continue working when water-cooled ones start producing steam jets. Air-cooled engines possibly have an advantage from a thermodynamic point of view due to higher operating temperature. The worst problem met in air-cooled aircraft engines was the so-called "
156:. Most air-cooled engines use some liquid oil cooling, to maintain acceptable temperatures for both critical engine parts and the oil itself. Most liquid-cooled engines use some air cooling, with the intake stroke of air cooling the combustion chamber. An exception is in a
301:
It is usually more difficult to achieve either low emissions or low noise from an air-cooled engine, two more reasons most road vehicles use liquid-cooled engines. It is also often difficult to build large air-cooled engines, so nearly all air-cooled engines are under
358:, water-cooled cars and trucks routinely overheated while climbing mountain roads, creating geysers of boiling cooling water. That was considered normal, and at the time, most noted mountain roads had auto repair shops to minister to overheating engines.
34:
can use water directly from the surrounding environment to cool their engines. For water-cooled engines on aircraft and surface vehicles, waste heat is transferred from a closed loop of water pumped through the engine to the surrounding atmosphere by a
46:
than air, and can thus move heat more quickly away from the engine, but a radiator and pumping system add weight, complexity, and cost. Higher-power engines generate more waste heat, but can move more weight, meaning they are generally water-cooled.
206:
of water is about four times that of oil, which can aid heat transfer. The viscosity of oil can be ten times greater than water, increasing the energy required to pump oil for cooling, and reducing the net power output of the engine.
471:
is also employed in maritime vehicles (vessels, ...). For vessels, the seawater itself is mostly used for cooling. In some cases chemical coolants are also employed (in closed systems) or they are mixed with seawater cooling.
197:
However, properties of the coolant (water, oil, or air) also affect cooling. As example which compares water and oil as coolants, one gram of oil can absorb about 55% of the heat for the same rise in temperature (called the
480:
The change of air cooling to liquid cooling occurred at the start of World War II when the US military needed reliable vehicles. The subject of boiling engines was addressed, researched, and a solution found. Previous
297:
is liquid to −55 °C, colder than is encountered by many engines; shrinks slightly when it crystallizes, thus avoiding damage; and has a service life over 10,000 hours, essentially the lifetime of many engines.
186:
cooling alone, where hot coolant left the top of the engine block and passed to the radiator, where it was cooled before returning to the bottom of the engine. Circulation was powered by convection alone.
353:
Cars and trucks using direct air cooling (without an intermediate liquid) were built over a long period from the very beginning and ending with a small and generally unrecognized technical change. Before
102:
extracts mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a distance. Engines are inefficient, so more heat energy enters the engine than comes out as mechanical power; the difference is
148:
and rust inhibitors. The industry term for the antifreeze mixture is 'engine coolant'. Some antifreezes use no water at all, instead using a liquid with different properties, such as
171:
Only the fixed parts of the engine, such as the block and head, are cooled directly by the main coolant system. Moving parts such as the pistons, and to a lesser extent the
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engines are both used commonly. Each principle has advantages and disadvantages, and particular applications may favor one over the other. For example, most
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Similarly, it is usually desirable to minimize the number of heat transfer stages in order to maximize the temperature difference at each stage. However,
106:
which must be removed. Internal combustion engines remove waste heat through cool intake air, hot exhaust gasses, and explicit engine cooling.
202:). Oil has about 90% the density of water, so a given volume of oil can absorb only about 50% of the energy of the same volume of water. The
1143:, March 1943 issue, and also in "The Institution of Automobile Engineers Proceedings, XXXVII, Session 1942-43, pp 99-134 and 309-312.
739:
30:. For small or special purpose engines, cooling using air from the atmosphere makes for a lightweight and relatively simple system.
1181:
243:
adjust cooling based on throttle to anticipate a temperature rise, and limit engine power output to compensate for finite cooling.
70:
Aircraft design more strongly favors lower weight and air-cooled designs. Rotary engines were popular on aircraft until the end of
67:
have a similar configuration, but the cylinders also continually rotate, creating an air flow even when the vehicle is stationary.
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121:. Such engines can achieve high efficiency but compromise power output, duty cycle, engine weight, durability, and emissions.
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For many years air cooling was favored for military applications as liquid cooling systems are more vulnerable to damage by
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160:, where some parts of the combustion chamber are never cooled by intake, requiring extra effort for successful operation.
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engines, or high-temperature engines. They are generally diesel engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic
761:
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by using more closely spaced cooling fins in that area, but this can make their manufacture difficult and expensive.
595:
573:
1845:
1139:
P V Lamarque: "The Design of
Cooling Fins for Motor-Cycle Engines". Report of the Automobile Research Committee,
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Some high-efficiency engines run without explicit cooling and with only incidental heat loss, a design called
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This has an advantage in that it absorbs a great deal of energy with very little rise in temperature (called
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1010:
967:
924:
315:
1146:"Air-cooled Automotive Engines", Julius Mackerle, M. E.; Charles Griffin & Company Ltd., London, 1972.
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cylinder head. The fins provide additional surface area for air to pass over the cylinder and absorb heat.
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948:"Low Heat Rejection From High Output Ceramic Coated Diesel Engine and Its Impact on Future Design"
74:, but had serious stability and efficiency problems. Radial engines were popular until the end of
16:
System which uses either air or liquid to remove the waste heat from an internal combustion engine
1576:
1032:
Nanlin, Zhang; Shengyuan, Zhong; Jingtu, Feng; Jinwen, Cai; Qinan, Pu; Yuan, Fan (1 March 1993).
405:
285:
two-stroke cycle engines commonly use oil cooled by water, with the water in turn cooled by air.
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It is difficult to make generalizations about air-cooled and liquid-cooled engines. Air-cooled
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allow air to flow around each cylinder directly, giving them an advantage for air cooling over
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Other demands include cost, weight, reliability, and durability of the cooling system itself.
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longer a common problem. Air-cooled engines became popular throughout Europe. After the war,
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per gram and per volume (4000) and less than a tenth the conductivity, but also much lower
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8:
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were properly designed and survived durability tests, but used water pumps with a leaky
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991:"Thermomechanical Stress Analysis of Novel Low Heat Rejection Cylinder Head Designs"
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Liquid-cooled engines usually have a circulation pump. The first engines relied on
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Schwarz, Ernest; Reid, Michael; Bryzik, Walter; Danielson, Eugene (1 March 1993).
881:
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Danielson, Eugene; Turner, David; Elwart, Joseph; Bryzik, Walter (1 March 1993).
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Kamo, Lloyd; Kleyman, Ardy; Bryzik, Walter; Schwarz, Ernest (1 February 1995).
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cooled using either air (a gaseous fluid) or a liquid coolant run through a
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905:"Combustion and Performance Characteristics of a Low Heat Rejection Engine"
355:
183:
75:
1077:"Recent Development of Tribological Coatings for High Temperature Engines"
946:
Bryzik, Walter; Schwarz, Ernest; Kamo, Roy; Woods, Melvin (1 March 1993).
98:
generate mechanical power by extracting energy from heat flows, much as a
1819:
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362:
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ACS (Auto Club Suisse) maintains historical monuments to that era on the
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Most liquid-cooled engines use a mixture of water and chemicals such as
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energy fast enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can survive.
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became famous with air-cooled passenger cars. In the United States,
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How Boat Things Work: An
Illustrated Guide: An Illustrated Guide
441:
Today, most automotive and larger IC engines are liquid-cooled.
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https://automotivedroid.com/can-low-coolant-cause-rough-idle/
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Coolant being poured into the radiator of an automobile
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and trucks use liquid-cooled engines, while many small
1122:
Biermann, Arnold E.; Ellerbrock, Herman H. Jr (1939).
945:
310:), whereas large liquid-cooled engines exceed 80
110:
water. Thus all heat engines need cooling to operate.
83:
sport motorcycles were cooled with both air and oil (
1121:
330:A cylinder from an air-cooled aviation engine, a
1837:
596:"Preparing Your Vehicle for Hot-Weather Driving"
1196:
522:(flat) engine when it was introduced in 1966.
475:
268:
210:Comparing air and water, air has vastly lower
1182:
1152:for physical properties of air, oil and water
682:"Detroit Diesel - North American Diesel icon"
525:
420:A typical engine coolant radiator used in an
1141:Institution of Automobile Engineers Magazine
1034:"Development of Model 6105 Adiabatic Engine"
1125:The design of fins for air-cooled cylinders
536:been a major barrier to commercialization.
369:During that period, European firms such as
1189:
1175:
152:or a combination of propylene glycol and
22:uses either air or liquid to remove the
1255:Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve)
459:
451:
443:
426:
415:
325:
632:from the original on September 14, 2017
448:A fully closed IC engine cooling system
1838:
1170:
265:and low-cost engines are air-cooled.
129:Most internal combustion engines are
838:
802:from the original on 27 January 2018
772:from the original on 28 January 2018
742:from the original on 22 October 2011
662:from the original on August 26, 2017
464:Semi-closed IC engine cooling system
335:Notice the rows of fins on both the
1158:for Low coolant causing rough idle.
1099:from the original on 23 August 2017
1056:from the original on 23 August 2017
1013:from the original on 23 August 2017
970:from the original on 24 August 2017
927:from the original on 24 August 2017
762:"Liquid cooling system alternative"
652:"ALLUVIAL EXPLORATION & MINING"
377:built air-cooled farm tractors and
293:engines. However, coolant based on
124:
85:sprayed underneath the piston heads
13:
692:from the original on July 24, 2017
576:from the original on 9 August 2017
566:"No. 2558: Cooled by Air or Water"
20:Internal combustion engine cooling
14:
1872:
1162:
411:
373:built air-cooled diesel trucks,
1357:Overhead valve (pushrod) layout
1068:
1025:
982:
939:
896:
866:
832:
821:Marine cooling systems overview
814:
518:chose liquid-cooling for their
1083:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
1040:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
997:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
954:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
911:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
784:
754:
732:"How Car Cooling Systems Work"
724:
704:
674:
644:
614:
588:
558:
321:
1:
839:Wing, Charlie (14 May 2007).
551:
456:Open IC engine cooling system
1856:Combustion engine components
845:. McGraw Hill Professional.
792:"Liquid cooling schematic 3"
7:
539:
476:Transition from air cooling
269:Generalization difficulties
90:
10:
1877:
1198:Internal combustion engine
1115:
526:Low heat rejection engines
434:
385:built air-cooled engines.
346:
28:internal combustion engine
1815:
1779:
1739:
1694:
1666:Diesel particulate filter
1651:
1618:Idle air control actuator
1600:
1567:
1559:Engine control unit (ECU)
1549:
1496:
1450:
1412:
1332:
1217:
1204:
862:– via Google Books.
493:-lubricated "rope" seal (
437:Radiator (engine cooling)
1731:Viscous fan (fan clutch)
1643:Throttle position sensor
1352:Overhead camshaft layout
339:cylinder barrel and the
1270:Core plug (freeze plug)
316:Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C
1846:Engine cooling systems
1150:engineeringtoolbox.com
465:
457:
449:
432:
424:
344:
200:specific heat capacity
1087:. SAE International.
1044:. SAE International.
1001:. SAE International.
958:. SAE International.
915:. SAE International.
463:
455:
447:
430:
419:
347:Further information:
329:
318:14-cylinder diesel).
1511:Compression ignition
738:. 22 November 2000.
224:heat of vaporization
204:thermal conductivity
1661:Catalytic converter
874:"SAE International"
42:Water has a higher
1851:Cooling technology
1787:Knocking / pinging
1379:Combustion chamber
826:2009-09-25 at the
721:." March 20, 2008.
717:2007-02-10 at the
626:worktrucksales.com
466:
458:
450:
433:
425:
345:
314:(107000 hp) (
278:months at a time.
1861:Combustion engine
1833:
1832:
1802:Stratified charge
1569:Electrical system
1551:Engine management
1384:Compression ratio
1324:Starter ring gear
1223:rotating assembly
1135:. Report Nº. 726.
884:on 23 August 2017
852:978-0-07-149344-4
736:howstuffworks.com
600:mixtelematics.com
349:Air-cooled engine
1868:
1676:Exhaust manifold
1541:Spark plug wires
1427:Boost controller
1414:Forced induction
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880:. Archived from
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295:propylene glycol
166:cooling capacity
150:propylene glycol
125:Basic principles
53:straight engines
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686:dieselduck.info
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366:picture shows.
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177:connecting rods
154:ethylene glycol
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44:heat capacity
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1716:Electric fan
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1516:Coil-on-plug
1442:Turbocharger
1437:Supercharger
1309:Main bearing
1299:Firing order
1289:Displacement
1235:Block heater
1219:Engine block
1207:Part of the
1206:
1140:
1124:
1101:. Retrieved
1084:
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1058:. Retrieved
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998:
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972:. Retrieved
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929:. Retrieved
912:
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886:. Retrieved
882:the original
877:
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238:valve or a
236:thermostatic
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96:Heat engines
94:
76:World War II
69:
57:flat engines
41:
19:
18:
1740:Lubrication
1704:Air cooling
1521:Distributor
1473:Fuel filter
1451:Fuel system
1432:Intercooler
1399:Timing belt
1389:Head gasket
1319:Piston ring
796:answcdn.com
546:Heater core
363:Susten Pass
322:Air-cooling
100:water wheel
80:gas turbine
72:World War I
1840:Categories
1792:Power band
1752:Oil filter
1726:Thermostat
1671:EGT sensor
1633:MAF sensor
1628:MAP sensor
1613:Air filter
1577:Alternator
1536:Spark plug
1468:Carburetor
1394:Rocker arm
1334:Valvetrain
1265:Crankshaft
1209:Automobile
858:27 January
806:27 January
776:27 January
746:27 January
552:References
511:Volkswagen
422:automobile
379:Volkswagen
251:Air-cooled
240:thermostat
173:crankshaft
146:antifreeze
104:waste heat
32:Watercraft
24:waste heat
1526:Glow plug
1488:Fuel tank
1483:Fuel pump
1250:Crankcase
766:crxsi.com
520:EA series
499:radiators
483:radiators
302:500
216:viscosity
119:adiabatic
61:V engines
1825:Category
1770:Dry sump
1766:Wet sump
1757:Oil pump
1721:Radiator
1638:Throttle
1498:Ignition
1369:Camshaft
1294:Flywheel
1275:Cylinder
1260:Crankpin
1103:30 April
1097:Archived
1060:30 April
1054:Archived
1017:30 April
1011:Archived
974:30 April
968:Archived
931:30 April
925:Archived
888:30 April
824:Archived
800:Archived
770:Archived
740:Archived
715:Archived
696:July 13,
690:Archived
666:July 13,
660:Archived
658:. 2011.
636:July 13,
630:Archived
580:30 April
574:Archived
540:See also
491:graphite
390:shrapnel
383:Franklin
341:aluminum
263:airplane
139:radiator
91:Overview
78:, until
37:radiator
26:from an
1797:Redline
1681:Muffler
1582:Battery
1506:Magneto
1116:Sources
1081:sae.org
1038:sae.org
995:sae.org
952:sae.org
909:sae.org
606:May 11,
375:Porsche
290:coolant
1820:Portal
1608:Airbox
1587:Dynamo
1314:Piston
1304:Stroke
1283:layout
1211:series
849:
602:. 2021
570:uh.edu
516:Subaru
59:, and
1780:Other
1404:Valve
1374:Chest
1129:(PDF)
495:gland
401:Tatra
337:steel
306:(670
253:and
131:fluid
1762:Sump
1279:bank
1240:Bore
1133:NACA
1105:2018
1062:2018
1019:2018
976:2018
933:2018
890:2018
860:2018
847:ISBN
808:2018
778:2018
748:2018
698:2017
668:2017
638:2017
608:2021
582:2018
501:(or
485:and
395:The
288:The
259:cars
175:and
1747:Oil
1336:and
1221:and
1089:doi
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312:MW
308:hp
304:kW
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