Infant mortality - Knowledge

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Studies have shown that when comparing three information sources—official registries, household surveys, and popular reporters—the popular death reporters are the most accurate; popular death reporters include midwives, gravediggers, coffin builders, priests, and others, essentially people who knew the most about the child's death. In developing nations, access to vital registries, and other government-run systems which record births and deaths, is difficult for poor families for several reasons. These struggles force families to take drastic measures, like having unofficial death ceremonies for their deceased infants. As a result, government statistics will inaccurately reflect a nation's infant mortality rate. Popular death reporters have first-hand information, and, provided this information can be collected and collated, can provide reliable, accurate death counts for a nation, as well as meaningful causes of deaths that can be measured and studied.

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post-neonatal stage. High infant mortality is exacerbated because newborns are a vulnerable subgroup that is affected by air pollution. Newborns who were born into these environments are no exception, and pregnant women exposed to greater air pollution on a daily basis should be closely watched by their doctors, including after the baby is born. Babies who live in areas with less air pollution have a greater chance of living until their first birthday, meaning babies who live in environments with more air pollution are at greater risk for infant mortality. Areas that have higher air pollution also have a greater chance of having a higher population density, higher crime rates, and lower income levels, all of which can lead to higher infant mortality rates.

2021: 2303:, which was founded in the 1950s, granted healthcare access to previously underserved rural populations, and is estimated to have covered 90% of China's rural population throughout the 1960s. The Cooperative Medical System achieved an infant mortality rate of 25.09 per 1,000; while it was later defunded, leaving many rural populations to rely on an expensive fee-for-service system, the rate continued to decline. As the Cooperative Medical System was replaced, the change caused a socio-economic gap in accessibility to medical care in China, however this was not reflected in its declining infant mortality rate; prenatal care was increasingly used, and delivery assistance remained accessible. 801: 1500:

of premature babies in the United States compared to European countries. It also outlined the differences in reporting requirements between the United States and Europe, noting that France, the Czech Republic, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Poland do not report all live births under 500 g and/or 22 weeks of gestation. However, differences in reporting are unlikely to be the primary explanation for the high rate of infant mortality in the United States compared to countries at a similar level of economic development. Rather, the report concluded that the primary reason for the higher infant mortality rate in the US compared to Europe was the much higher number of preterm births.

2106:(Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults) study, "self reported experiences of racial discrimination were associated with pre-term and low-birthweight deliveries, and such experiences may contribute to black-white disparities in prenatal outcomes." A study in North Carolina, for example, concluded that "white women who did not complete high school have a lower infant mortality rate than black college graduates." Likewise, dozens of population-based studies indicate that "the subjective, or perceived experience of racial discrimination is strongly associated with an increased risk of infant death and with poor health prospects for future generations of African Americans." 393:

have had a significant impact on infant mortality, but malnutrition and infectious diseases remain the main causes of death in less developed countries. For example, in the Caribbean and Latin America in the 1980s, congenital malformations only accounted for 5% of infant deaths, while malnutrition and infectious diseases accounted for 7% to 27% of infant deaths. In more developed countries, such as the United States, there was a rise in infant deaths due to congenital malformations, mostly heart and central nervous system problems. In the 20th century, there was a decrease in the number of infant deaths from heart conditions, from 1979 to 1997, there was a 39% decline.

132:—Goal Number 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. As of January 2022, an analysis of 200 countries found 133 already meeting the SDG target, with 13 others trending towards meeting the target by 2030. Throughout the world, the infant mortality rate (IMR) fluctuates drastically, and according to Biotechnology and Health Sciences, education and life expectancy in a country are the leading indicators of IMR. This study was conducted across 135 countries over the course of 11 years, with the continent of Africa having the highest infant mortality rate of any region studied, with 68 deaths per 1,000 live births. 833: 2213: 1325: 1317: 1355:(WHO) defines a live birth as any infant born demonstrating independent signs of life, including breathing, heartbeat, umbilical cord pulsation or definite movement of voluntary muscles. This definition is used in Austria, and is also used in Germany, but with one slight modification: muscle movement is not considered to be a sign of life. Many countries, including certain European states (e.g. France) and Japan, only count cases where an infant breathes at birth as a live birth, which makes their reported IMR numbers somewhat lower and increases their rates of 506: 998: 2119:

likely to experience poverty as blacks in the U.S., however, the infant mortality rate of Latinos is much closer to white women than it is to black women. The poverty rate for blacks is 24.1% and for Latinos it is 21.4%; if there is a direct correlation, then the IMR of these two groups should be rather similar, however, blacks have an IMR double that of Latinos. Also, for black women who move out of poverty, or never experienced it in the first place, their IMR is not much lower than their counterparts experiencing higher levels of poverty.

237:(60% of all PTBs), compared with high-income countries in Europe or the United States. Low-income countries also have limited resources to care for the needs of preterm infants, which increases the risk of infant mortality. The survival rate in these countries for infants born before 28 weeks of gestation is 10%, compared with a 90% survival rate in high-income countries. In the United States, the period from 1980 to 2000 saw a decrease in the total number of infant mortality cases, despite a significant increase in premature births. 244:) rupture, and those that are medically induced. Both spontaneous factors are viewed to be a result of similar causes; hence, two main classifications remain: spontaneous and medically induced causes. The risk of spontaneous PTB increases with "extremes of maternal age (both young and old), short inter-pregnancy intervals, multiple gestations, assisted reproductive technology, prior PTB, family history, substance abuse, cigarette use, low maternal socioeconomic status, late or no prenatal care, low maternal prepregnancy weight, 2029:

homogeneous populations. In particular, IMR varies greatly by race in the US. The average IMR for the country as a whole is therefore not a fair representation of the wide variations that exist between segments of the population. Many theories have been explored as to why these racial differences exist, with socio economic factors usually coming out as a reasonable explanation. However, more studies have been conducted around this matter, and the largest advancement is around the idea of stress and how it affects pregnancy.

2164:. This unequal treatment stems from the idea that there are racial medical differences and is also rooted in racial biases and controlled images of black women. Because of this unequal treatment, research on maternal and prenatal care received by African American women and their infants, finds that black women do not receive the same urgency in medical care; they are also not taken as seriously regarding pain they feel or complications they think they are having, as exemplified by the complications tennis-star 190:, and birth injuries. Many of these common causes are preventable with low-cost measures. While 99% of infant deaths occur in developing countries, the greatest percentage reduction in infant mortality occurs in countries that already have low rates of infant mortality. In the United States, a primary source of infant mortality risk is infant birth weight, with lower birth weights increasing the risk; the causes of low birth weight include socioeconomic, psychological, behavioral, and environmental factors. 1624:, including the grave-digger, gatekeeper, midwife, popular healers etc.—all key participants in mortuary rituals. Combining the methods of household surveys, vital registries, and asking "popular death reporters" can increase the validity of child mortality rates. However there remain barriers that affect the validity of statistics of infant mortality, including political economic decisions: numbers are exaggerated when international funds are being doled out; and underestimated during reelection. 1286:, improvement in children's health, and lower rates of children's deaths. High-risk areas, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, have demonstrated that an increase in women's educational attainment leads to a reduction in infant mortality by about 35%. Similarly, coordinated efforts to train community health workers in diagnosis, treatment, malnutrition prevention, reporting and referral services has reduced infant mortality in children under 5 by as much as 38%. Public health campaigns centered around the 1612:

and expensive task for poor parents living in rural areas. Government and bureaucracies tend to show an insensitivity to these parents and produce broad disclaimers in the IMR reports that the information has not been properly reported, resulting in discrepancies. Little has been done to address the underlying structural problems with the vital registry systems regarding the lack of reporting in rural areas, which has created a gap between the official and popular meanings of child death.

1398:, who finds the high ratios of reported stillbirths to infant deaths in Hong Kong and Japan in the first 24 hours after birth dubious. As this pattern is consistent with the high male to female sex ratios recorded at birth in those countries it suggests two things: that many female infants who die in the first 24 hours are misreported as stillbirths rather than infant deaths; and that those countries do not follow WHO recommendations for the reporting of live births versus infant deaths. 1378:

with different methods, UNICEF developed, in coordination with WHO, the WB and UNSD, an estimation methodology that minimizes the errors embodied in each estimate and harmonize trends along time. Since the estimates are not necessarily the exact values used as input for the model, they are often not recognized as the official IMR estimates used at the country level. However, as mentioned before, these estimates minimize errors and maximize the consistency of trends along time.

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norm. In developing countries such as Brazil, infant mortality rates are commonly not recorded due to not registering for death certificates. Another cultural reason for infant mortality, such as what is happening in Ghana, is that "besides the obvious, like rutted roads, there are prejudices against wives or newborns leaving the house." This makes it even more difficult for pregnant women and newborns to get the needed treatment that is available to them.

968:. All are possible causes of premature births, which constitute the second-highest cause of infant mortality. According to the Journal of the American Medical Association, "the post neonatal mortality risk (28 to 364 days) was highest among continental Puerto Ricans" compared to non-Hispanic babies. Ethnic differences are accompanied by a higher prevalence of behavioral risk factors and sociodemographic challenges that each ethnic group faces. 478:, "in the past two decades, the infant mortality rate (deaths under one year of age per thousand live births) in the United States has declined sharply." The rate of low birth weights among African Americans remains twice as high as the rate for white people. Low birth weight, the leading cause of infant deaths, is preventable by effective programs to help prevent low birth weight are a combination of health care, education, the environment, 20: 10314: 93:. One of the most common preventable causes of infant mortality is smoking during pregnancy. Lack of prenatal care, alcohol consumption during pregnancy, and drug use also cause complications that may result in infant mortality. Many situational factors contribute to the infant mortality rate, such as the pregnant woman's level of education, environmental conditions, political infrastructure, and level of medical support. Improving 467:

less die. As compared with normal-birth-weight infants, those with low weight at birth are almost 40 times more likely to die in the neonatal period; for infants with very low weight at birth the relative risk of neonatal death is almost 200 times greater." Infant mortality due to low birth weight is usually a direct cause stemming from other medical complications such as preterm birth, poor maternal nutritional status, a lack of

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1970, the reasons for male infant mortality were infections and chronic degenerative diseases. However, since 1970, male sex favoritism in certain cultures has led to a decrease in the infant mortality gap between males and females. Also, medical advances have resulted in a greater effect on the survival rate of male infants than female infants, due to the initial high infant mortality rate of males.

1108:, and other health professionals will increase the number of skilled attendants and the number of people able to give out immunizations against diseases such as measles. Increasing the number of skilled professionals is correlated with lower maternal, infant, and childhood mortality. With the addition of one physician per 10,000 people, there is a potential for 7.08 fewer infant deaths per 10,000. 2033:

technology, as well as medical advances. In the last century, the infant mortality rate has decreased by 93%. Overall, the rates per 1,000 births have decreased drastically from 20 deaths in 1970 to 6.9 deaths in 2003. In 2003, the leading causes of infant mortality in the United States were congenital anomalies, disorders related to immaturity, AIDS, and maternal complications.

117:, vaccinations, and improved nutrition. The global under-five mortality rate in 1950 was 22.5%, which dropped to 4.5% in 2015. Over the same period, the infant mortality rate declined from 65 deaths per 1,000 live births to 29 deaths per 1,000. Globally, 5.4 million children died before their fifth birthday in 2017; by 2021 that number had dropped to 5 million children. 2136:". She claims constantly dealing with disadvantages and racial prejudice causes black women's birth outcomes to deteriorate with age. Therefore, younger black women may experience stress with pregnancy due to social and economic factors, but older women experience stress at a compounding rate and therefore have pregnancy complications aside from economic factors. 1616:

accurate representation of a region's socio-economic situation, if the statistics are valid, which is unfortunately not always the case. An alternate method of collecting and processing statistics on infant and child mortality is via "popular death reporters" who are culturally linked to infants and may be able to provide more accurate statistics. According to

1631:. Individuals living in rural areas of Brazil need funds for lodging and travel in order to report births to a Brazilian Assistance League office, this deters registration as often these individuals are of lower income and cannot afford such expenses, similar barriers exist when choosing to report infant mortality. Financial constraints such as reliance on 940:

likely to experience infant death. Causes of infant mortality after abuse during pregnancy range from physical side effects of the initial trauma to psychological effects that lead to poor adjustment to society. Many people who became pregnant by rape in Bosnia were isolated from their hometowns, making life after childbirth exponentially more difficult.

901:. If the nation's ability to raise its own revenues is compromised, governments will lose funding for their health service programs, including those that aim to decrease infant mortality rates. Less developed countries face higher levels of vulnerability to the possible negative effects of globalization and trade in relation to more developed countries. 328:, have been shown to be associated with increased risks of infection or inflammation-related preterm birth. Biological fluids have been utilized to analyze these markers in hopes of understanding the pathology of preterm birth, but they are not always useful if not acquired at the appropriate gestational time-frame. For example, biomarkers such as 908:), the advances of medical technologies may not be felt by everyone, increasing social disparities. In England, from 2014 to 2017, a rise in infant mortality was disproportionately experienced by the poorest regions, where the previously declining trend was reversed and an additional 24 infant deaths per 100,000 live births occurred annually. 2195:

American population. Following this theory, if institutional inequalities are addressed and repaired by the United States Government, this will reduce daily stressors for African Americans, and African American women in particular, and lessen the risk of complications in pregnancy and infant mortality. Others argue that increasing

2045:, "the main reason for the high rate is preterm delivery, and there was a 10% increase in such births from 2000 to 2006." Between 2007 and 2011, however, the preterm birth rate has decreased every year. In 2011, 11.73% of babies were born before the 37th week of gestation, down from a high of 12.80% in 2006. 2270:

Although the overall infant mortality rate was sharply dropping during this time, within the United States infant mortality varied greatly among racial and socio-economic groups. Between 1915 and 1933 the change in infant mortality per 1,000 births was, for the white population, 98.6 down to 52.8 per

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Others believe black women are predisposed to a higher IMR, meaning ancestrally speaking, all women from African descent should experience an elevated rate. This theory is quickly disproven by looking at foreign-born African immigrants, these women come from a completely different social context and

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or neonatal size. All of the countries named in the table adopted the WHO definitions in the late 1980s or early 1990s, and they are used throughout the European Union. However, in 2009, the US CDC issued a report that stated that the American rates of infant mortality were affected by the high rates

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Focusing on preventing preterm and low birth weight deliveries throughout all populations can help eliminate cases of infant mortality and decrease health care disparities within communities. In the United States, these two goals have decreased regional infant mortality rates, but there has yet to be

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High rates of infant mortality occur in developing countries where financial and material resources are scarce, and where there is a high tolerance for infant deaths. There are a number of developing countries where certain cultural situations, such as favoring male babies over female babies, are the

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Many developing countries rely on foreign aid for basic nutrition, and transport of aid becomes significantly more difficult in times of war. In most situations, the average weight of a population will drop substantially. Expectant mothers are affected even more by a lack of access to food and water.

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are associated with an increased mortality rate, including infant mortality. Air pollution is consistently associated with postnatal mortality due to respiratory effects and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Specifically, air pollution is highly associated with SIDS in the United States during the

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It was in the early 1900s when countries around the world started to notice that there was a need for better child health care services; first in Europe, and then with the United States creating a campaign to decrease the infant mortality rate. With this program, they were able to lower the IMR from

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Several peer-reviewed articles have documented a difference in the levels of care a black patient receives regardless of whether they have insurance. For white women IMR drops after age 20, and remains the same until she is in her 40s; for black women IMR does not decrease when accounting for higher

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While the popular argument is that due to the trend of black women being of a lower socio-economic status there is in an increased likelihood of a child suffering, and while this does correlate, the theory is not congruent with the data on Latino IMR in the United States. Latino people are almost as

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It is also argued that the bureaucratic separation of vital death recording from cultural death rituals is to blame for the inaccuracy of the infant mortality rate (IMR). Vital death registries often fail to recognize the cultural implications and importance of infant deaths. These systems can be an

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In certain rural developing areas, such as northeastern Brazil, infant births are often not recorded, resulting in the discrepancies between the infant mortality rate (IMR) and the actual number of infant deaths. Access to vital registry systems for infant births and deaths is an extremely difficult

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and specific reporting practices, there are often inaccuracies in the statistics, particularly in rural communities in developing countries. In those communities, some other alternative methods for calculating infant mortality rate are used, for example, popular death reporting and household survey.

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There have been several instances in recent years of systematic rape as a weapon of war. People who become pregnant as a result of war rape face even more significant challenges in bearing a healthy child. Studies suggest that people who experience sexual violence before or during pregnancy are more

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2018 involved children younger than 3 years, and children younger than 1 year accounted for half (49.4%) of all fatalities. In particular, correctly identifying deaths due to neglect is problematic, and children with sudden, unexpected deaths or deaths from apparently unintentional causes often have

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It is important to note that infant mortality rates do not decline among African Americans if their socio-economic status improves. Parker Dominguez at the University of Southern California has made some headway in determining the reasons behind this, claiming black women in the US are more prone to

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The infant mortality rate is one measure of a nation's health and social conditions. Its causes are a composite of a number rates that each have their own separate relationships with each other and with various other social factors. As such, IMR can often be seen as an indicator to measure the level

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Congenital malformations are present at birth and include conditions such as cleft lip and palate, Down Syndrome, and heart defects. Some congenital malformations may be more likely when the mother consumes alcohol, but they can also be caused by genetics or unknown factors. Congenital malformations

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In the United States, approximately 3,500 infant deaths are sleep-related, a category that includes SIDS. To reduce sleep-related infant deaths, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends providing infants with safe-sleeping environments, breastfeeding, and immunizing according to the recommended

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Between 1990 and 2010 prematurity was the second leading cause of worldwide mortality for neonates and children under the age of five. The overall PTB mortality rate in 2010 was 11.1% (15 million deaths) worldwide and was highest in low to middle-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia

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of milk also helped the United States combat infant mortality in the early 1900s, as it helped curb disease in infants. These factors, on top of a general increase in the standard of living in urban areas, helped the United States make dramatic improvements to their rates of infant mortality in the

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is one of the leading causes of death of infants under the age of one, early labor is a legitimate concern. The idea of stress as a factor in IMR spans socio-economic status as Parker Dominguez says that for lower-class women stress comes from an unstable family life and chronic worry over poverty,

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Until the 1990s, Russia and the Soviet Union did not count, either as a live birth or as an infant death, extremely premature infants that were born alive but failed to survive for at least seven days (infants born weighing less than 1,000 g, of less than 28 weeks gestational age, or less than

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The method of calculating IMR often varies widely between countries, as it is based on how they define a live birth and how many premature infants are born in the country. Depending on a nation's live birth criterion, vital registration system, and reporting practices, reporting may be inconsistent

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infants for the first 6 months of life, and continuing breastfeeding as other sources of food are introduced through the next 6 months of life (up to 1 year of age). Infants under 6 months of age who are exclusively breastfed have a lower risk of mortality compared to infants who are breastfed part

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and high rates of African American infant mortality. In synthesis of this research, it has been observed that "African American infant mortality remains elevated due to the social arrangements that exist between groups and the lifelong experiences responding to the resultant power dynamics of these

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Causes of infant mortality, or direct causes of death, differ from contributions to the IMR, as contributing factors raise the risk of death, but do not directly cause death. Environmental and social barriers that prevent access to basic medical resources contribute to an increased infant mortality

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While earlier parts of this article have addressed racial differences in the infant death rate, a closer look into the effects of racial differences within the country is necessary to view discrepancies. Non-Hispanic Black women have the highest infant mortality rate with a rate of 11.3, while the

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and neonatal care are relatively high in the United States. A conventional birth averages US$ 9,775 with a C-section costing US$ 15,041. Preterm births in the US have been estimated to cost $ 51,600 per child, with a total yearly cost of $ 26.2 billion. Despite this spending, several reports state

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Another seemingly paradoxical finding is that when countries with poor medical services introduce new medical centers and services, instead of declining, the reported IMRs often increase for a time. This is mainly because improvement in access to medical care is often accompanied by improvement in

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UNICEF compiles infant mortality country estimates derived from all sources and methods of estimation obtained either from standard reports, direct estimation from micro data sets, or from UNICEF's yearly exercise. In order to sort out differences between estimates produced from different sources,

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results in increased rates of infant mortality. A reduction in household income reduces the amount being spent on food and healthcare, affecting the quality of life, and reduces access to medical services that ensure full development and survival. Likewise, increased household income translates to

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Historically, males have had higher infant mortality rates than females, with the difference being dependent on environmental, social, and economic conditions. More specifically, males are biologically more vulnerable to infections and conditions associated with prematurity and development. Before

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of developing nations. The dependency of developing nations can reduce the rate of economic growth, increase income inequality inter- and intra-nationally, and adversely affect the wellbeing of a nation's population. Collective cooperation between countries plays a role in development policies in

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in early childhood has an extreme impact over the course of a lifetime and is a significant contributor to infant mortality. Developing organs are fragile, when an infant is shaken, beaten, strangled, or raped, the impact is exponentially more destructive than when the same abuse occurs to a fully

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stated that "The lowest mortality rates occur among infants weighing 3,000 to 3,500 g (6.6 to 7.7 lb). For infants born weighing 2,500 g (5.5 lb) or less, the mortality rate rapidly increases with decreasing weight, and most of the infants weighing 1,000 g (2.2 lb) or

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In the United States, improving infant mortality in the early half of the 20th century meant tackling environmental factors. By improving sanitation, especially access to safe drinking water, the United States dramatically decreased infant mortality, which had been a growing concern in the United

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The vast majority of research conducted in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century indicates that African-American infants are more than twice as likely to die in their first year of life than white infants. Although a decline occurred from 13.63 deaths in 2005 to 11.46 deaths per 1,000

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Of the 27 most developed countries, the U.S. has the highest infant mortality rate, despite spending more on health care, per capita, than any other country. Significant racial and socio-economic differences in the United States affect the IMR, in contrast with other developed countries with more

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in 2019 found that the rate of infant mortality in England had increased with an additional 24 infant deaths per 100,000 live births per year. There was no significant change from the pre-existing trend in the most affluent areas, thus the rise disproportionately affected the poorest areas of the

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However, IMR was, and remains, higher in LDCs. In 2001, the IMR for 91 LDCs was about 10 times as large as it was for 8 MDCs. On average, for LDCs, the IMR is 17 times higher than that of MDCs. Also, while both LDCs and MDCs made significant reductions in IMR, the reduction rate has been lower in

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To reduce infant mortality rates across the world, health practitioners, governments, and non-governmental organizations have worked to create institutions, programs, and policies to generate better health outcomes. Current efforts focus on the development of human resources, strengthening health

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Genetic components result in newborn females being at a biological advantage when it comes to surviving their first birthday, versus newborn males, who have lower chances of surviving infancy. As infant mortality rates decreased globally, the gender ratios changed from males being at a biological

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and were thus less likely to use prenatal care. Additionally, economic realities and long-held cultural factors incentivized male offspring, leading some families who already had sons to avoid prenatal care or professional delivery services, and causing China to have unusually high female infant

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In developing countries such as Brazil the deaths of impoverished infants are regularly not recorded into the countries vital registration system, which skews statistics. Culturally validity and contextual soundness can be used to ground the meaning of mortality from a statistical standpoint. In

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the registration of births and deaths. Deaths that might have occurred in a remote or rural area, and not been reported to the government, might now be reported by the new medical personnel or facilities. Thus, even if the new health services reduce the actual IMR, the reported IMR may increase.

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n 2006, more than 42,000 Americans died of secondhand smoke-attributable diseases, including more than 41,000 adults and nearly 900 infants. Fully 36% of the infants who died of low birth weight caused by exposure to maternal smoking in utero were black, as were 28% of those dying of respiratory

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Understanding the biological causes and predictors of PTB is important for identifying and preventing premature birth and infant mortality. While the exact mechanisms responsible for inducing premature birth are often unknown, many of the underlying risk factors are associated with inflammation.

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Tyan Parker Dominguez at the University of Southern California offers a theory to explain the disproportionally high IMR among black women in the United States. She says African American women experience stress at much higher rates than any other group in the country. Stress produces particular

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In the 1850s, the infant mortality rate in the United States was estimated at 216.8 per 1,000 white babies and 340.0 per 1,000 African American babies, but rates have significantly declined in modern times. This declining rate has been mainly due to modern improvements in basic health care and

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The country-to-country variation in child mortality rates is huge, and growing wider despite progress in decreasing the overall IMR. Among the world's roughly 200 nations, only Somalia showed no decrease in the under-5 mortality rate over the past two decades. In 2011 the global rate of under-5

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Levels of socioeconomic development and global integration are inversely related to a nation's infant mortality rate, meaning that as they increase, IMR decreases. A nation's internal impact is highly influenced by its position in the global economy, which has adverse effects on the survival of

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on issues like infant mortality. In contrast, non-democratic governments are more interested in corporate issues than in health issues. Democratic status affects the dependency a nation has on its economic state via exports, investments from multinational corporations, and international lending

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Compared with nonsmoking women having their first birth, women who smoked less than one pack of cigarettes per day had a 25% greater risk of mortality, and those who smoked one or more packs per day had a 56% greater risk. Among women having their second or higher birth, smokers experienced 30%

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on the African American community to see if it contributed to the high IMR in black children. Hearst claims that residential segregation contributes to the high rates because of the political, economic, and health implications it poses on black mothers regardless of their socioeconomic status.

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Political economic reasons have been seen to skew the infant mortality data in the past when governor Ceara devised his presidency campaign on reducing the infant mortality rate during his term in office. By using this new way of surveying, these instances can be minimized and removed, overall

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Infant mortality rate (IMR) is not only a statistic but also a reflection of socioeconomic development, as such it effectively represents the presence of medical services in a country. IMR is an effective resource for health departments making decisions on medical resource allocation, and also

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Some research argues that to end the high infant mortality rate of black children, the country needs to fix the social and societal issues that plague African Americans, such as institutional racism, mass incarceration, poverty, and health care disparities that are present amongst the African

1155:(FASD) or other alcohol related birth defects. Tobacco use during pregnancy has also been shown to significantly increase the risk of a preterm or low birth weight birth, both of which are leading causes of infant mortality. Pregnant women should consult with their doctors to best manage any 849:

showed that economic slowdowns reduce air pollution, which results in a lower infant mortality rate. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the recession's impact on air quality was estimated to have saved around 1,300 US babies. It is only during deep recessions that infant mortality increases.

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35 cm in length, who that breathed, had a heartbeat, or exhibited voluntary muscle movement). Although such extremely premature infants typically accounted for only about 0.5% of all live-born children, their exclusion led to an estimated 22%–25% lower reported IMR. In some cases, too,

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Malnutrition or undernutrition is defined as inadequate intake of nourishment, such as proteins and vitamins, which adversely affects the growth, energy, and development of people all over the world. It is especially prevalent during pregnancy and in infants and children under 5 who live in

581:. In Africa, the number of stunted children has risen, while Asia has the most children under 5 suffering from wasting. Inadequate nutrients adversely affect physical and cognitive development, increasing susceptibility to severe health problems. Micronutrient deficiency has been linked to 8028: 361:

have used this research to lower the SIDS death rate by 50%. Though the exact cause is unknown, the "triple-risk model" presents three factors that together may contribute to SIDS: smoking while pregnant, the age of the infant, and stress from conditions such as prone sleeping,

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systems for global health as most neglect infant mortality rates among the poor. There remains a certain amount of unrecorded infant death in rural area as they either do not have the concept of reporting early infant death, or they do not know about the importance of the IMR.

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and public policy. Preterm birth is the leading cause of newborn deaths worldwide. Even though America has a higher survival rate for premature infants, the percentage of Americans who deliver prematurely is comparable to those in developing countries. Reasons for this include

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of 37 weeks, as opposed to full term birth at 40 weeks. This can be further sub-divided in various ways, one being: "mild preterm (32–36 weeks), very preterm (28–31 weeks) and extremely preterm (<28 weeks)". A lower gestational age increases the risk of infant mortality.

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is a commonly cited and overlooked issue. Black feminists have often been cited as the backbone of numerous Civil Rights events, but they feel overlooked when it comes to meaningful change that positively changes the lives of Black women specifically. During the June 2020

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Contemporary research findings have demonstrated that nationwide racial disparities in infant mortality are linked to the experiences of the postpartum parent and that these disparities cannot be totally accounted for by socio-economic, behavioral or genetic factors. The

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northeast Brazil they have accomplished this standpoint while conducting an ethnographic study combined with an alternative method to survey infant mortality. These types of techniques can develop quality data that will lead to a better portrayal of the IMR of a region.

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Unplanned pregnancies and birth intervals of less than twenty-four months are known to correlate with low birth weights and delivery complications. Also, mothers who are already small in stature tend to deliver smaller than average babies, perpetuating a cycle of being

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account for 30% of childhood deaths; 95% of pneumonia cases occur in the developing world. Diarrhea is the second-largest cause of childhood mortality in the world, while malaria causes 11% of childhood deaths. Measles is the fifth-largest cause of childhood mortality.

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report SIDS to be the leading cause of death in infants aged one month to one year of life. Even though researchers are not sure what causes SIDS, they have found that putting babies to sleep on their backs, instead of their stomachs, lowers the risk. Campaigns like

140:

Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births of children under one year of age. The rate for a given region is the number of children dying under one year of age, divided by the number of live births during the year, multiplied by 1,000.

1017:

and general undernutrition. In 55 developing countries 57% of reported pregnancies had birth spaces of less than three years, and 26% of less than two years. While only 20% of new parents report wanting another birth within two years, only 40% are taking steps like

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In the 20th century decreases in infant mortality around the world were linked to several common trends, including social programs, improved sanitation, improved access to healthcare, and improved education, as well as scientific advancements like the discovery of

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Strides have been made, however, to combat this epidemic. In Los Angeles County, health officials have partnered with non-profits around the city to help black women after the delivery of their child. One non-profit that has made a large impact on many lives is

2237:. Through this movement they were able to establish public health care and government agencies, which in turn made more sanitary and healthier environments for infants. Medical professionals helped further the cause for infant health by creating the field of 1008:

Birth spacing is the time between births. Births spaced at least three years apart are associated with the lowest rate of mortality. The longer the interval between births, the lower the risk of having complications at birth, or of infant, childhood, or

927:

Many other significant factors influence infant mortality rates in war-torn areas. Health care systems in developing countries in the midst of war often collapse, and obtaining basic medical supplies and care becomes increasingly difficult. During the

1140:, can help reduce the chances of birth defects, a leading cause of infant mortality. Many countries have instituted mandatory folic acid supplementation in their food supply, which has significantly reduced the occurrence of a birth defect known as 1494:

The inclusion or exclusion of high-risk neonates from the reported IMRs can cause problems in making comparisons. Many countries, including the United States, Sweden and Germany, count any birth exhibiting any sign of life as alive, no matter the

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in the health care industry can help reduce the IMR as more representation can tackle deep-rooted racial biases and stereotypes that exist towards African American women. Another attempt to reduce high IMR among black children is the use of

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are more prone to inadequate plumbing infrastructure and poorly maintained facilities. Climate and geography often play a role in sanitation conditions. For example, the inaccessibility of clean water exacerbates poor sanitation conditions.

629:. These bacteria can also move up the vaginal canal into the amniotic sac surrounding the baby causing in utero transmission. Maternal blood-borne infection is another route of bacterial infection. Neonatal infection is more likely with the 1351:

or understated. The reported IMR provides one statistic which reflects the standard of living in each nation. Changes in the infant mortality rate "reflect enduring social and technical capacities that become attached to a population". The

112:

In 1990, 8.8 million infants younger than one-year-old died globally out of 12.6 million child deaths under the age of five. More than 60% of the deaths of children under-five are seen as avoidable with low-cost measures such as continuous

717:. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that can kill, and is especially dangerous to infants because of their immature respiratory systems. Another major pollutant that can have detrimental effects on a fetus is second-hand smoke. 924:. In most cases, war-affected areas will experience a significant increase in infant mortality rates. Having a war take place when planning pregnancy is not only stressful on the mother and fetus but also has several detrimental effects. 773:

developed body. Studies estimate that 1–2 per 100,000 U.S. children are fatally injured annually, and it is reasonable to assume that these statistics underrepresent actual mortality. Almost three-quarters (70.6%) of child fatalities in

828:

were also apparent. African-American mothers experience infant mortality at a rate 44% higher than average; however, research indicates that socio-economic factors do not totally account for the racial disparities in infant mortality.

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psychological stress than women of other races. Stress is a leading factor in the start of labor, and therefore, high levels of stress during pregnancy could lead to premature births that have the potential to be fatal for the infant.

263:

Infant mortality caused by premature birth is mainly attributed to developmental immaturity, which impacts multiple organ systems in the infant's body. The main body systems affected include the respiratory system, which may result in

366:, overheating, and covering of the face or head. In the early 1990s, it was argued that immunizations could contribute to an increased risk of SIDS; however, more recent support the idea that vaccinations reduce the risk of SIDS. 2290:

By 1984, the United States' decreasing infant mortality slowed. Funding for the federally subsidized Medicaid and Maternal and Infant Care programs was reduced, and availability of prenatal care decreased for low-income parents.

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was consistently 2% higher than other regions in the US across a 20-year period starting in 1985. Southern states also tend to perform worse on predictors for higher infant mortality, such as per capita income and poverty rate.

1295:

habits have a positive impact on health, especially for developing children. Educational attainment and public health campaigns provide the knowledge and means to practice better habits and lead to lower infant mortality rates.

2155:

Studies have also shown that high IMR is due to the inadequate care that pregnant African Americans receive compared to other women in the country. In another study, it was shown that Black patients were more likely to receive

815:

is a major factor in infant mortality, both historically and today. Between 1912 and 1915, the Children's Bureau in the United States examined data across eight cities and nearly 23,000 live births. They discovered that lower

332:

are accurate predictors of premature birth at over 24 weeks of gestation but have poor predictive values before then. Additionally, understanding the risks associated with different gestational ages is a helpful determiner of

491:(which increases the risk of multiple births), obesity, and diabetes. Also, pregnant people who do not have access to health care are less likely to visit a doctor, therefore increasing their risk of delivering prematurely. 603:

measures used to lower levels of iron deficiency anemia include added iodine to salt or drinking water and including vitamin A and multivitamin supplements in the diet. A deficiency of this vitamin causes certain types of

157:

is death occurring within 28 days postpartum. Neonatal death is often attributed to inadequate access to basic medical care, during pregnancy and after delivery. This accounts for 40–60% of infant mortality in developing

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in Inglewood. The non-profit centers around helping women deal with stress by forming support networks, keeping an open dialogue around race and family life, and also finding these women a secure place in the workforce.

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protests, many black feminists criticized the movement for excluding them. When examined through this lens, the increased rates of IMR of African American women becomes a matter of equity and an issue of social justice.

621:) are responsible for 25% of neonatal deaths worldwide. Newborns can acquire infections during birth from bacteria present in the birth canal, the person may not be aware of the infection, or they may have an untreated 570:, low body weight, and low birth weight accounting for about 2.2 million associated deaths. Socioeconomic and environmental factors contribute to malnutrition, as do gender, location, and cultural practices surrounding 2144:

Racism, economic disparities, and sexism in segregated communities are all examples of the daily stressors that pregnant black women face, and are risk factors for conditions that can affect their pregnancies such as

1059:), nutrition, and access to basic maternal and infant health services. Focused policies has the potential to aid those most at risk for infant and childhood mortality, including rural, poor, and migrant populations. 10350: 7000: 593:, poor brain development, and death. Malnutrition also decreases the immune system's ability to fight infections, resulting in higher rates of death from diseases such as malaria, respiratory disease, and diarrhea. 5723:

Rutstein SO (April 2005). "Effects of preceding birth intervals on neonatal, infant and under-five years mortality and nutritional status in developing countries: evidence from the demographic and health surveys".

1266:(SIDS) is the leading cause of infant mortality between 1 month and 1 year of age. Immunizations, when given in accordance to proper guidelines, have shown to reduce the risk of SIDS by 50%. For this reason, the 471:, maternal sickness during pregnancy, and unhygienic home environments. Birth weight and the length of gestation are the two most important predictors of an infant's chances of survival and their overall health. 1406:

deaths was 51 deaths per 1,000 births. Singapore had the lowest rate at 2.6, while Sierra Leone had the highest at 185 child deaths per 1,000 births. In the U.S., the rate was 8 under-5 deaths per 1,000 births.

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in three US neighborhoods. By employing community-generated solutions, the Best Babies Zone's ultimate goal is to achieve health equity in communities that are disproportionately impacted by infant mortality.

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disadvantage to females facing a societal disadvantage. Some developing nations have social and cultural patterns that favor boys over girls for their future earning potential. A country's ethnic composition,

1304:

more access to nutrients and healthcare, reducing the risks associated with malnutrition and infant mortality. Moreover, increased aggregate household incomes will produce better health facilities, water and

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of life have been successful in providing cost-effective supplemental nutrition programs, as well as assisting young mothers in sanitation, hygiene and breastfeeding. Increased intake of nutrients and better

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1,000, and for the black population, 181.2 to 94.4 per 1,000 - studies imply that this has a direct correlation with relative economic conditions between these populations. Additionally, infant mortality in

565:

and are dependent on their parents to provide the necessary food and nutritional intake. It is estimated that about 3.5 million children die each year as a result of childhood or maternal malnutrition, with

351:

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is defined as the sudden death of an infant less than one year of age with no cause detected after a thorough investigation. SIDS is more common in Western countries. The

1244:(DTapP < 7yrs). Each of these vaccinations are given at particular age ranges depending on the vaccination and are required to be done in a series of 1 to 3 doses over time depending on the vaccination. 260:, or developmental problems. Despite these risk factors, the underlying causes of premature infant death are often unknown, and approximately 65% of all cases are not associated with any known risk factor. 616:

Babies born in low- to middle-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia are at the highest risk of neonatal death. Bacterial infections of the bloodstream, lungs, and the brain's covering

2299:

The growth of medical resources in the People's Republic of China's during the latter half of the 20th century partly explains its dramatic improvement regarding infant mortality during this time. The

2074:

is also more likely to be applied in the US to marginally viable infants, although such interventions have been found to increase both costs and disability. A study following the implementation of the

252:, and poor pregnancy weight gain." Medically induced preterm birth is often conducted when continuing pregnancy poses significant risks to the pregnant parent or fetus; the most common causes include 6276:

Sankar MJ, Sinha B, Chowdhury R, Bhandari N, Taneja S, Martines J, Bahl R (December 2015). "Optimal breastfeeding practices and infant and child mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

1842:

less developed countries than among the more developed countries. Among many low- and middle-income countries, there is also substantial variation in infant mortality rate at a subnational level.

5767:

Farahani M, Subramanian SV, Canning D (June 2009). "The effect of changes in health sector resources on infant mortality in the short-run and the long-run: a longitudinal econometric analysis".

210:(sudden infant death syndrome). In North Carolina between 1980 and 1984, 37.5% of infant deaths were due to prematurity, congenital anomalies accounted for 17.4% and SIDS accounted for 12.9%. 10343: 440: 240:

Based on distinct clinical presentations, there are three main subgroups of preterm births: those that occur due to spontaneous premature labor, those that occur due to spontaneous membrane (

824:

with higher infant mortality. In cases where the father had no income, the rate of infant mortality was 357% higher than that for the highest income earners ($ 1,250+). Differences between

334: 5142: 2187: 1089:

with soap, can significantly reduce the rate of infant mortality from respiratory and diarrheal diseases. According to UNICEF, hand washing with soap before eating and after using the

865:. Developed countries, most notably the United States, have seen a divergence in IMR between those living in poverty who cannot afford medically advanced resources, and those who can. 2300: 1512:, infant deaths that occurred in the 12th month were "transferred" statistically to the 13th month (i.e., the second year of life), and thus no longer classified as an infant death. 10336: 7847:

Partridge JC, Sendowski MD, Martinez AM, Caughey AB (January 2012). "Resuscitation of likely nonviable infants: a cost-utility analysis after the Born-Alive Infant Protection Act".

8202:"The influence of implicit bias on treatment recommendations for 4 common pediatric conditions: pain, urinary tract infection, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and asthma" 2172:

education, nor change based on age, suggesting that there is a racial element. There is another element that must be considered: the effect of the intersection of race and gender.

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are not prone to the higher IMR experienced by American-born black women. Arline Geronimus, a professor at the University of Michigan School of Public Health calls the phenomenon "

1013:. Conception less than six months after a birth, abortion, or miscarriage is associated with higher rates of preterm births and low birth weight, and also increases the chances of 300:

Approximately "80% of preterm births that occur at <1,000 g or at <28 to 30 weeks of gestation" have been associated with inflammation. Biomarkers of inflammation, including

2089:

Data indicating the IMR disparity between infants non-Hispanic black postpartum parent's and infants of white or Hispanic postpartum parents in the United States from 2000 to 2010

3405:"National, regional, and worldwide estimates of preterm birth rates in the year 2010 with time trends since 1990 for selected countries: a systematic analysis and implications" 8702:

Jacobowitz S, Grossman M (2017). "Variations in Infant Mortality Rates among Counties of the United States: The Roles of Public Policies and Programs". In Grossman M (ed.).

4123: 2279:

In the latter half of the 20th century, a focus on greater access to medical care for women spurred declines in infant mortality in the United States. The implementation of

2041:, compared with 7.7% of births being low birth weights for non-smokers. Overall, babies born with low birth weight increased to 8.1% between 2003 and 2004. According to the 781:

There is a direct relationship between the age at which maltreatment or injury occurs and the risk of death. The younger an infant is, the more dangerous the maltreatment.

2283:, granting wider access to healthcare, contributed to a dramatic decrease in infant mortality, as did greater access to legal abortion and family-planning care, such the 1047:

Reductions in infant mortality are possible at any stage of a country's development. Rate reductions are evidence that a country is advancing in human knowledge, social

4194: 8420: 8253: 6882: 6176: 2936:

Alijanzadeh, Mehran; Asefzadeh, Saeed; Moosaniaye Zare, Seyed Ali (2016-02-05). "Correlation Between Human Development Index and Infant Mortality Rate Worldwide".

1831: 353: 161: 1159:

to avoid complications to both their health as well as the fetus's. Obese people are at an increased risk of developing complications during pregnancy, including

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information systems, health service delivery, etc. Improvements in such areas aim to increase regional health systems and aid efforts to reduce mortality rates.

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developing countries within the poorer regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Children are especially vulnerable as they have yet to fully develop a strong

2078:

found universal resuscitation of infants born between 20 and 23 weeks increased the neonatal spending burden by $ 313.3 million while simultaneously decreasing

5927: 2103: 164:

is the death of children aged 29 days to one year. The major contributors to postneonatal death are malnutrition, infectious disease, pregnancy complications,

7423:"National, regional, and global levels and trends in neonatal mortality between 1990 and 2017, with scenario-based projections to 2030: a systematic analysis" 3759:"Infant sleep position and risk for sudden infant death syndrome: report of meeting held January 13 and 14, 1994, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD" 1440:

Austria, Denmark, England and Wales, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Northern Ireland, Portugal, Scotland, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, United States

7527: 3631:

Behrman, Richard E.; Butler, Adrienne Stith; Outcomes, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Healthy (2007).

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Behrman, Richard E.; Butler, Adrienne Stith; Outcomes, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Healthy (2007).

2794: 6804: 11963: 7908: 1111:

In certain parts of the US, specific programs aim to reduce levels of infant mortality. One such program is the "Best Babies Zone" (BBZ), based at the

8329: 6913: 5639: 701:

The burning of inefficient fuels doubles the rate of acute respiratory tract infections in children under 5 years old. People who live in areas where

11953: 5054:

Leventhal JM, Garber RB, Brady CA (March 1989). "Identification during the postpartum period of infants who are at high risk of child maltreatment".

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check-ups will help improve the baby's chances of being delivered in safer conditions and surviving. Additionally, taking supplementation, including

843:

While infant mortality is normally negatively correlated with GDP, there may be some beneficial short-term effects from a recession. A 2009 study in

2913: 2742: 2229:

100 deaths to 10 deaths per every 1,000 births. When infant mortality began being noticed as a national problem it was viewed a social problem, and

1382:

Another challenge in comparing infant mortality rates is the practice of counting frail or premature infants who die before the normal due date as

8366: 6438: 1062:

Reducing the chances of babies being born at low birth weights and contracting pneumonia can be accomplished by improving air quality. Improving

7604: 8348: 6853: 5241:

Fuse K, Crenshaw EM (January 2006). "Gender imbalance in infant mortality: a cross-national study of social structure and female infanticide".

5150: 4351: 4014:

Institute of Medicine (US) Immunization Safety Review Committee; Stratton, K.; Almario, D. A.; Wizemann, T. M.; McCormick, M. C. (2003-10-28).

1838:, the world IMR declined from 126 in 1960 to 57 in 2001. The global neonatal mortality rate, NMR, decreased from 36.6 in 1990 to 18.0 in 2017. 1171:

Appropriate nutrition for newborns and infants can help keep them healthy, and can help avoid health complications during early childhood. The

4765: 3895: 3138:

Bishai D, Opuni M, Poon A (March 2007). "Does the level of infant mortality affect the rate of decline? Time series data from 21 countries".

2334: 837: 7932:"Self-reported experiences of racial discrimination and Black-White differences in preterm and low-birthweight deliveries: the CARDIA Study" 7756:"Neonatal mortality levels for 193 countries in 2009 with trends since 1990: a systematic analysis of progress, projections, and priorities" 4151: 10724: 9961: 2262:

States since the 1850s. During this time the United States also endeavored to increase education and awareness regarding infant mortality.

6235:

Eidelman, Arthur I.; Schanler, Richard J.; Johnston, Margreete; Landers, Susan; Noble, Larry; Szucs, Kinga; Viehmann, Laura (March 2012).

1151:

Abstinence from alcohol can also decrease the chances of harm to the fetus as drinking any amount of alcohol during pregnancy may lead to

10739: 10729: 5507:

Jejeebhoy SJ (September 1998). "Associations between wife-beating and fetal and infant death: impressions from a survey in rural India".

3804:

Vennemann MM, Höffgen M, Bajanowski T, Hense HW, Mitchell EA (June 2007). "Do immunisations reduce the risk for SIDS? A meta-analysis".

1259:

strains. This reduction was even greater for children under 2 years of age with studies finding an 81% reduction in those same strains.

53:

In 2013, the leading cause of infant mortality in the United States was birth defects. Other leading causes of infant mortality include

12003: 10277: 6654:

Haddad L, Alderman H, Appleton S, Song L, Yohannes Y (2003-06-01). "Reducing Child Malnutrition: How Far Does Income Growth Take Us?".

5317:"Assessing the impact of rising child poverty on the unprecedented rise in infant mortality in England, 2000-2017: time trend analysis" 4049: 2329: 1652: 1271: 1189: 6777: 932:

in the 1990s, Bosnia experienced a 60% decrease in child immunizations. Preventable diseases can quickly become epidemics during war.

4326: 2310:, adopted in the 1980s, negatively impacted its infant mortality. Women carrying unapproved pregnancies faced state consequences and 2094:

live births in 2010, non-Hispanic black parents continued to report a rate 2.2 times as high as that for non-Hispanic white parents.

8049: 6376: 4899:

Palusci VJ, Covington TM (January 2014). "Child maltreatment deaths in the U.S. National Child Death Review Case Reporting System".

1255:

reports studies done in 2004 had shown a 57% decline in invasive penicillin resistant strains of the disease and a 59% reduction in

5844: 3848:"SIDS and Other Sleep-Related Infant Deaths: Evidence Base for 2016 Updated Recommendations for a Safe Infant Sleeping Environment" 2053:

that infant mortality rate in the United States is significantly higher than in other developed nations. Estimates vary; the CIA's

7179:

MacDorman MF, Mathews TJ (2010). "Behind international rankings of infant mortality: how the United States compares with Europe".

4586:

Gortmaker SL, Wise PH (1997). "The first injustice: socioeconomic disparities, health services technology, and infant mortality".

4134: 1192:(CDC) defines infants as those 1 month of age to 1 year of age. For these infants, the CDC recommends the following vaccinations: 120:

The child mortality rate (not the infant mortality rate) was an indicator used to monitor progress towards the Fourth Goal of the

12036: 12008: 11048: 9293: 8174: 4478: 4250: 2085: 1536: 681:

is a better indicator of infant mortality than health expenditures per capita. Water contaminated by animal waste houses various

8081: 5802:

Curtis V, Cairncross S (May 2003). "Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review".

4834: 1247:

The efficacy of these vaccinations can be seen immediately following their introduction to society. Following the advent of the

12013: 11329: 10719: 6085:"The association of mild, moderate, and binge prenatal alcohol exposure and child neuropsychological outcomes: a meta-analysis" 4865: 1590: 7713: 7392: 7113: 4502:"Risk of early-onset neonatal infection with maternal infection or colonization: a global systematic review and meta-analysis" 12071: 11978: 9354: 9318: 8574: 8457: 7640: 7311: 6350: 4563: 4185: 4035: 3686:

Duncan JR, Byard RW, Duncan JR, Byard RW (2018). "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: An Overview". In Duncan JR, Byard RW (eds.).

3459: 2070:

in similarly developed nations like Japan, Sweden, Norway, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France, thereby reducing their IMR.

2024:

1906 headline imploring parents to attend to the cleanliness of their infants, and to expose them to the "clean air" outdoors

1845:

As the lowest rate, in Monaco, is 1.80, and the highest IMR, in Afghanistan, is 121.63, a factor of about 67 separates them.

1562: 1411: 8845:

Song S, Burgard SA (September 2011). "Dynamics of inequality: mother's education and infant mortality in China, 1970-2001".

2914:"Global, regional and national trends in under-5 mortality between 1990 and 2019 with scenario-based projections until 2030" 1282:

It has been well documented that increased education among mothers, communities, and local health workers results in better

12061: 10622: 9288: 7656: 4936:"What types of unintentional injuries kill our children? Do infants die of the same types of injuries? A systematic review" 1410:

formulates global health strategies and helps evaluate their success. The use of IMR helps solve the inadequacies of other

269: 7732: 2220:

depicts the death of Bathsheba's first child with David, who lamented, "I shall go to him, but he will not return to me" (

2059:

ranks the US 55th internationally in 2014, with a rate of 6.17, while the UN figures from 2005 to 2010 place the US 34th.

936:

During the Yugoslav Wars in Bosnia, the number of premature babies born increased and the average birth weight decreased.

12018: 11582: 11170: 9590: 789: 462: 8794:

Liu X, Cao H (1992). "China's Cooperative Medical System: its historical transformations and the trend of development".

6889: 6883:"Demographic Statistics: Definitions and Methods of Collection in 31 European Countries (by European Communities, 2003)" 2139:

Mary O. Hearst, a professor in the Department of Public Health at Saint Catherine University, researched the effects of

1569: 1180:

of the time or not at all. For this reason, breast feeding is favored over formula feeding by healthcare professionals.

1163:

or pre-eclampsia. Additionally, they are more likely to experience a pre-term birth or have a child with birth defects.

11086: 10627: 9323: 3109: 1112: 1074:

for organic water pollution could reduce cases of diarrhea in children by up to 48%. Improvements in food supplies and

630: 8475:"The early history of the infant mortality rate in America: "A reflection upon the past and a prophecy of the future"" 5040: 4013: 2233:

American women with an educational background started to create a movement to provide housing for families of a lower

12076: 11602: 11185: 10405: 9298: 8719: 7886:"QuickStats: Infant Mortality Rates,* by Race and Hispanic Ethnicity of Mother — United States, 2000, 2005, and 2010" 6414: 6126:"Short and long term health effects of parental tobacco smoking during pregnancy and lactation: a descriptive review" 3695: 3037: 2075: 2020: 1339:, and is among the best predictors thereof. IMR is therefore also a useful indicator of a country's level of health ( 8367:"Hidden in plain sight? Black female activists feel left out of BLM movement. | Milwaukee Neighborhood News Service" 7232:

Anderson BA, Silver BD (1986). "Infant Mortality in the Soviet Union: Regional Differences and Measurement Issues".

7019: 6044:"Effect of women's nutrition before and during early pregnancy on maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review" 3973:

van der Linde D, Konings EE, Slager MA, Witsenburg M, Helbing WA, Takkenberg JJ, Roos-Hesselink JW (November 2011).

10948: 10923: 10714: 8278: 7624: 5992:"Global Birth Prevalence of Spina Bifida by Folic Acid Fortification Status: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" 3233:

Osel JD (2008). "Being (Born) Black in America: Perceived Discrimination & African-American Infant Mortality".

1509: 1469:

All live births for civil registration, births at 500 grams birthweight or more for the national perinatal register

1082: 952:

In the United States cultural influences and lifestyle habits can account for some infant deaths. Examples include

8417:

Duke University's Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity and Insight Center for Community Economic Development

7135: 5472:

Emenike E, Lawoko S, Dalal K (March 2008). "Intimate partner violence and reproductive health of women in Kenya".

5193:"Dependency, democracy, and infant mortality: a quantitative, cross-national analysis of less developed countries" 4210:"The worldwide magnitude of protein-energy malnutrition: an overview from the WHO Global Database on Child Growth" 2460: 1576: 1359:. In other countries, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, for instance, requirements for live birth are even higher. 11719: 11347: 11324: 11015: 10965: 10533: 10328: 9826: 9278: 8968: 1152: 825: 5165: 2802: 2582: 2364:

only includes deaths between the fetal viability (22 weeks gestation) and the end of the 7th day after delivery.

1394:

can greatly affect the accuracy of its infant mortality statistics. This point is reinforced by the demographer

705:

air pollution is higher tend to have more health problems regardless of age. The short and long-term effects of

12174: 11993: 11943: 11755: 11652: 11413: 11314: 11227: 7535: 5951:

Otundo Richard M (2019). "WHO Recommendations on Antenatal Care for a Positive Pregnancy Experience in Kenya".

4810: 2847: 1547: 1344: 1267: 1248: 1205: 1172: 989:, can explain social attitudes and practices. Heterogeneous levels are a strong predictor of infant mortality. 34:

before the infant's first birthday. The occurrence of infant mortality in a population can be described by the

8304: 7557: 6811: 6351:"CDC Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for ages 18 years or younger, United States, 2020" 2435:

In 1990, the Baltic states moved to the WHO standard definition; in 1993 Russia also moved to this definition.

2062:

Differences in measurement could play a substantial role in the disparity between the US and other nations. A

800: 586: 12186: 11826: 11597: 10707: 9374: 9052: 6329: 5610:

Nations MK, Amaral ML (1991). "Flesh, Blood, Souls, and Households: Cultural Validity in Mortality Inquiry".

5433:"Violence against women increases the risk of infant and child mortality: a case-referent study in Nicaragua" 3648:

Goldenberg RL, Goepfert AR, Ramsey PS (May 2005). "Biochemical markers for the prediction of preterm birth".

3062:"New evidence on birth spacing: promising findings for improving newborn, infant, child, and maternal health" 2217: 1558: 1340: 129: 7916: 6464:"Women's education, infant and child mortality, and fertility decline in rural and urban sub-Saharan Africa" 722:

distress syndrome, 25% dying of other respiratory conditions, and 24% dying of sudden infant death syndrome.

11691: 11418: 10943: 10866: 10684: 10632: 9852: 9396: 9303: 9270: 6921: 5368: 2561: 2071: 626: 402: 346: 121: 10443: 7302:

Ksenofontova NY (1994). "Trends in infant mortality in the USSR". In Lutz W, Scherbov S, Volkov A (eds.).

6503:

Mugeni C, Levine AC, Munyaneza RM, Mulindahabi E, Cockrell HC, Glavis-Bloom J, et al. (August 2014).

2750: 1078:

have been shown to work for the most vulnerable populations in the US, including among African Americans.

154: 11838: 11731: 11642: 11455: 11443: 11352: 11041: 10933: 10838: 10775: 9308: 7981:"Psychosocial factors and preterm birth among African American and White women in central North Carolina" 1477:

Live births at 22 weeks of gestation or more, 500 grams birthweight or more if gestational age is unknown

1453:

Live births at 500 grams birthweight or more, and less than 500 grams if the infant survives for 24 hours

1056: 1002: 748:

Modern research in the United States into racial disparities in infant mortality suggests a link between

637: 622: 406: 405:, malnutrition, congenital malformations, infectious diseases, and low income for health care, including 3257:"Infant mortality: a practical approach to the analysis of the leading causes of death and risk factors" 2221: 401:

Causes of infant mortality and deaths that are related to medical conditions include: low birth weight,

42:), which is the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. Similarly, the 11908: 11833: 11738: 11274: 10780: 10770: 10661: 10656: 5990:

Atta CA, Fiest KM, Frolkis AD, Jette N, Pringsheim T, St Germaine-Smith C, et al. (January 2016).

4274:

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The bureaucratic separation of vital death reporting and cultural death rituals stems, in part, from

1352: 1252: 6861: 4362: 574:. It is difficult to assess the most pressing factor as they can intertwine and vary among regions. 11868: 11567: 11279: 11175: 10876: 10797: 4773: 4485:. ]National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine. Archived from 2212: 2034: 2012:, as a result of sustained reductions in the welfare benefits available to families with children. 1922: 1823: 749: 412:

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that infants need multiple doses of vaccines such as

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is late fetal death (22 weeks gestation to birth) or death of a newborn up to one week postpartum.

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Social class dictates which medical services are available to an individual. Disparities due to

832: 778:

preventable risk factors that are substantially similar to those in families with maltreatment.

443:

concluded that there is no relationship between these vaccines and the risk of SIDS in infants.

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can save children's lives by reducing deaths from diarrhea and acute respiratory infections.

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hospitals or regional health departments were held accountable for lowering the IMR in their

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Requirements for reporting a live birth, United States and selected European countries, 2004

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Developing nations with democratic governments tend to be more responsive to public opinion,

436: 289: 6781: 1316: 768:

includes physical, sexual, and psychological abuse of a child from birth to five years old.

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Children suffering from malnutrition can become underweight, and experience stunting or

11726: 11309: 11158: 10928: 10884: 10861: 10751: 10528: 10289: 10193: 10133: 10093: 10041: 9973: 9945: 9857: 9811: 9403: 9035: 9005: 8921: 8913: 8878: 8862: 8827: 8811: 8768: 8725: 8676: 8641: 8633: 8446: 8226: 8201: 8005: 7980: 7956: 7931: 7782: 7755: 7628: 7504: 7471: 7447: 7422: 7355: 7328: 7284: 7249: 7214: 7095: 6981: 6965: 6724: 6716: 6633: 6625: 6570: 6553: 6529: 6504: 6311: 6217: 6152: 6125: 6016: 5991: 5972: 5904: 5869: 5749: 5697: 5662: 5571: 5524: 5449: 5432: 5413: 5341: 5316: 5220: 5116: 5009: 4984: 4960: 4935: 4742: 4717: 4693: 4668: 4649: 4528: 4501: 4455: 4428: 4302: 4275: 4226: 4209: 4100: 4073: 3950: 3925: 3877: 3786: 3701: 3608: 3540: 3432: 3344: 3292: 3199: 3174: 3091: 2961: 2719: 2684: 2637: 2339: 2178: 2140: 2123:

hormones that can induce labor and contribute to other pregnancy problems. Considering

2055: 2049: 1363: 1071: 1067: 1010: 702: 505: 301: 62: 8764: 8525: 7438: 5815: 5067: 4486: 3706: 3420: 2823: 2511:"Infant Mortality Statistics from the 1999 Period: Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set" 997: 11888: 11883: 11811: 11760: 11534: 11514: 11502: 11462: 11433: 11401: 11319: 11212: 11180: 11076: 10761: 10679: 10649: 10590: 10568: 10385: 10061: 10056: 9900: 9882: 9515: 9503: 8925: 8870: 8819: 8776: 8715: 8684: 8645: 8580: 8570: 8548: 8529: 8494: 8453: 8231: 8154: 8010: 7961: 7930:

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1014: 953: 886: 484: 128:

for the year 2015. A reduction in child mortality was established as a target in the

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World historical and predicted infant mortality rates per 1,000 births (1950–2050)

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There are three main leading causes of infant mortality: conditions related to

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5112: 5000: 4445: 3469: 3151: 2709: 1461:

Live births at 22 weeks of gestation or more, or 500 grams birthweight or more

12202: 12109: 11988: 11796: 11770: 11647: 11607: 11572: 11562: 11542: 11284: 11242: 11217: 11165: 11153: 11148: 11057: 10524: 10364: 10066: 10051: 10008: 9966: 9920: 9754: 9732: 9608: 9575: 9467: 9442: 8858: 8217: 7472:"Mapping 123 million neonatal, infant and child deaths between 2000 and 2017" 7160: 7046:

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1336: 1176: 1133: 986: 982: 929: 898: 885:

and stratification within the global system, which contributes to the global

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5687: 296:. Poor development of these systems increases the risk of infant mortality. 12129: 11557: 11406: 11396: 11374: 11304: 11197: 11111: 10644: 10485: 10282: 10163: 10046: 9930: 9847: 9771: 9759: 9618: 9525: 9462: 9457: 9452: 9447: 9380: 9231: 9211: 9154: 9139: 9030: 8874: 8688: 8490: 8235: 8158: 8014: 7996: 7965: 7868: 7833: 7825: 7791: 7698: 7513: 7456: 7364: 7210: 6579: 6538: 6307: 6262: 6253: 6236: 6213: 6161: 6110: 6069: 6025: 5913: 5823: 5788: 5745: 5706: 5493: 5458: 5350: 5301: 5262: 5216: 5018: 4969: 4920: 4751: 4702: 4607: 4537: 4464: 4413: 4404: 4387: 4311: 4109: 4045: 4000: 3959: 3873: 3864: 3825: 3715: 3669: 3604: 3428: 3386: 3340: 3256: 3159: 3087: 2728: 2633: 2547: 2529: 2461:"Infant Mortality | Maternal and Infant Health | Reproductive Health | CDC" 2234: 2230: 2149: 1141: 1120: 1086: 1048: 812: 792:, and parenting practices are all thought to contribute to increased risk. 253: 241: 203: 98: 78: 8942:

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The infant mortality rate correlates very strongly with the likelihood of

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in newborns. Similarly, the fortification of salt with iodine, called

636:

Seven out of ten childhood deaths are due to infectious diseases like

460:

makes up 60–80% of the infant mortality rate in developing countries.

11848: 11667: 11237: 11118: 10901: 10360: 10253: 10248: 10213: 10003: 9895: 9680: 9633: 9570: 9535: 9510: 9386: 9067: 9062: 8410:"Fighting at Birth: Eradicating the Black-White Infant Mortality Gap" 5661:

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According to Norbert Schady and Marc-François Smitz, recessions when

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These economic factors present challenges to governments' public

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only includes deaths after 28 days of life but before one year.

1987: 1935: 1849:

Top and bottom five countries by this measure (2013 estimates)

1370: 1137: 1105: 1090: 817: 605: 31: 8941: 7929: 6330:"Center of Disease Control and Development: Child Development" 3923: 3452:

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during pregnancy is one way to combat iron deficiency. A few

293: 277: 7469: 6275: 1119:

to address the structural causes of poor birth outcomes and

11969:

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Infant mortality rates are higher in countries with higher

207: 165: 50:

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United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Invasive meaning cultured from a normally sterile site

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Map of countries by fertility rate, according to the

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5663:"The rise and fall of excess male infant mortality" 5275: 3315:"Classification and heterogeneity of preterm birth" 3066:

International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics

2931: 2929: 2037:declined to 10.2% with 12.4% of these births being 1251:(PCV13) in the United States in the year 2000, the 8701: 8445: 8173: 8130: 7379:"UNdata: Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 births)" 6552:Flood D, Chary A, Colom A, Rohloff P (June 2018). 5638: 5471: 4667:Woodruff TJ, Darrow LA, Parker JD (January 2008). 4208:de Onís M, Monteiro C, Akré J, Glugston G (1993). 4184: 3364: 2370:only includes deaths in the first 28 days of life. 8131:Hearst MO, Oakes JM, Johnson PJ (December 2008). 7421:Hug L, Alexander M, You D, Alkema L (June 2019). 6032: 5868:Russo LX, Scott A, Sivey P, Dias J (2019-05-31). 5033:"Child Maltreatment: Risk and Protective Factors" 4793:Property and Environmental Research Center Report 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4558:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 4186:"U.S. Lags in Global Measure of Premature Births" 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4059: 3757:Willinger M, Hoffman HJ, Hartford RB (May 1994). 3626: 3624: 3622: 3450:March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation. (2012). 12200: 8108:"Why Black Women, Infants Lag In Birth Outcomes" 7580:"Health resources - Health spending - OECD Data" 7178: 7174: 7172: 7170: 6778:"Neonatal mortality rate (per 1000 live births)" 6749: 5801: 5383: 4898: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4426: 4071: 3690:. University of Adelaide Press. pp. 15–50. 3360: 3358: 3308: 3306: 2926: 2583:"Labor and Delivery Complications -- the Basics" 509:Percentage of population suffering from hunger, 8704:Determinants of Health: An Economic Perspective 8658: 8511: 7714:"American Way of Birth, Costliest in the World" 6649: 6647: 4983:Smith-Greenaway E, Trinitapoli J (April 2014). 4499: 4427:Tette EM, Sifah EK, Nartey ET (November 2015). 3896:"Medical Definition of Congenital malformation" 3481: 3479: 3250: 3248: 3137: 1635:may also lead to skewed infant mortality data. 8258:. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress 8199: 7880: 7878: 7661:U.S. Department of Health & Human Services 7231: 7161:"Premature births worsen US infant death rate" 6461: 6089:Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 5950: 4572: 4385: 4056: 4020:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 3681: 3679: 3619: 2008:country, and was attributed largely to rising 414:diphtheria–tetanus–acellular pertussis vaccine 11042: 10344: 8962: 8251: 7849:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 7733:"Chapter 12: Societal Costs of Preterm Birth" 7730: 7167: 6941: 5609: 5087: 5085: 4852: 4585: 4388:"JAMA patient page. Malnutrition in children" 4251:"Top 9 countries fighting child malnutrition" 3979:Journal of the American College of Cardiology 3650:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 3355: 3303: 2978:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 ( 2335:List of countries by maternal mortality ratio 1311: 713:A key pollutant in infant mortality rates is 674:of socioeconomic disparity within a country. 8603:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) 8247: 8245: 7807:"Is US health really the best in the world?" 7301: 6644: 6371: 6369: 6367: 5362: 5360: 5276:Moore S, Teixeira AC, Shiell A (July 2006). 5240: 5164:Schady, Norbert; Smitz, Marc (August 2009). 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 3930:Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 3841: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3476: 3245: 3179:Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2892:"Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform" 1548:introducing citations to additional sources 1485:Live births at 500 or more grams birthweight 1445:Live births at 12 weeks of gestation or more 8844: 8569:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 7875: 7329:"Structural violence and clinical medicine" 7136:"Preemies Raise U.S. Infant Mortality Rate" 5718: 5716: 5605: 5163: 4549: 4547: 3676: 3398: 3396: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3175:"Weight of all births and infant mortality" 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 1277: 381: 186:, complications during delivery, perinatal 23:World map of infant mortality rates in 2017 12004:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 11049: 11035: 10351: 10337: 8969: 8955: 6944:"Five decades of missing females in China" 6345: 6343: 5603: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5186: 5184: 5182: 5082: 5037:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4864:Child Welfare Information Gateway (2020). 4766:"Infant Mortality: Reducing Infant Deaths" 4386:Torpy JM, Lynm C, Glass RM (August 2004). 3727: 3725: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2664:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2653: 2651: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2330:List of countries by infant mortality rate 1653:List of countries by infant mortality rate 1190:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1033: 11964:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 11954:Center for Disease Control and Prevention 8991: 8242: 8225: 8171: 8148: 8004: 7955: 7804: 7781: 7771: 7711: 7503: 7446: 7354: 7344: 7266: 7200: 6959: 6675: 6569: 6528: 6479: 6364: 6297: 6252: 6237:"Breastfeeding and the use of human milk" 6203: 6151: 6141: 6100: 6059: 6015: 5903: 5893: 5696: 5686: 5656: 5654: 5506: 5448: 5437:Bulletin of the World Health Organization 5357: 5340: 5008: 4959: 4811:"Tyan Parker Dominguez | USC Social Work" 4741: 4692: 4631: 4614: 4527: 4517: 4454: 4444: 4403: 4352:"Levels and trends in child malnutrition" 4301: 4291: 4225: 4214:Bulletin of the World Health Organization 4099: 4089: 4025: 3990: 3949: 3863: 3832: 3705: 3594: 3557: 3367:Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 3330: 3198: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3077: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 2718: 2708: 2623: 2537: 795: 760: 256:, diabetes, maternal medical conditions, 178:rate, 86% of infant deaths are caused by 8615: 7602: 7181:International Journal of Health Services 7133: 6698: 6404: 5722: 5713: 5384:Toole MJ, Galson S, Brady W (May 1993). 4786: 4553: 4544: 4276:"Long-lasting effects of undernutrition" 3393: 3312: 3215: 3172: 2770: 2768: 2211: 2084: 2076:Born Alive Infant Protection Act of 2002 2019: 1822:Global IMR, as well as the IMR for both 1323: 1315: 996: 831: 799: 504: 18: 12009:Health departments in the United States 8514:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 8346: 7306:. London: Routledge. pp. 359–378. 6340: 5582: 5386:"Are war and public health compatible?" 5236: 5234: 5179: 4324: 3722: 2986: 2648: 2562:"Infant Mortality & Newborn Health" 2448: 652:. Acute respiratory infections such as 396: 168:, and problems in the home environment. 12201: 12014:Council on Education for Public Health 8793: 8742: 8564: 8472: 8443: 7158: 6602:The Review of Economics and Statistics 6593:Baird S, Friedman J, Schady N (2011). 5651: 5636: 5549: 5091: 4182: 4178: 4176: 3502: 3126: 3059: 3046: 1097:further progress on a national level. 971: 916:Infant mortality rates correlate with 611: 374:. They recommend against the use of a 12072:Professional degrees of public health 11979:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 11030: 10332: 9319:List of ways people dishonor the dead 8950: 8847:Journal of Health and Social Behavior 8549:Vital Statistics of the United States 8276: 8105: 7906: 6998: 6851: 6048:Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2774: 2765: 12169: 12062:Bachelor of Science in Public Health 10623:Infant respiratory distress syndrome 8546: 7731:Behrman RE, Butler AS, eds. (2007). 6942:Coale AJ, Banister J (August 1994). 5366: 5231: 4789:"Air Pollution and Infant Mortality" 4248: 3845: 3232: 2384:includes deaths before the age of 5. 1519: 1262:As mentioned in a previous section, 742:The American Journal of Epidemiology 441:Immunization Safety Review Committee 228:(PTB), is defined as birth before a 16:Death of children under the age of 1 12181: 11330:Workers' right to access the toilet 11171:Human right to water and sanitation 8895: 8385:"Great Beginnings for Black Babies" 8200:Sabin JA, Greenwald AG (May 2012). 8031:. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation 7069: 6509:Global Health: Science and Practice 6462:Shapiro D, Tenikue M (2017-09-13). 5370:World Report on Violence and Health 4173: 2657: 2109: 2066:in the US could be registered as a 1832:State of the World's Mothers report 1100:Increasing human resources such as 894:the poorer countries of the world. 854:drops by 15% or more increase IMR. 463:The New England Journal of Medicine 446: 341:Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 13: 10628:Transient tachypnea of the newborn 9324:List of ways people honor the dead 8302: 6802: 4197:from the original on Apr 10, 2023. 4131:National Healthy Start Association 4052:from the original on Dec 11, 2023. 2315:mortality rates during this time. 2244: 1643:creating accurate and sound data. 1113:University of California, Berkeley 736:greater mortality than nonsmokers. 631:premature rupture of the membranes 335:Gestational age-specific mortality 213: 97:, access to clean drinking water, 14: 12230: 11603:Commercial determinants of health 11056: 10406:Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome 9355:Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality 8935: 8765:10.1038/scientificamerican0785-31 8389:Great Beginnings for Black Babies 8206:American Journal of Public Health 7985:American Journal of Public Health 7936:American Journal of Public Health 7687:National Vital Statistics Reports 7603:Ingraham C (September 29, 2014). 7234:Population and Development Review 6130:Journal of Translational Medicine 5996:American Journal of Public Health 4722:Environmental Health Perspectives 4673:Environmental Health Perspectives 4072:MacDorman MF, Mathews TJ (2009). 2938:Biotechnology and Health Sciences 2518:National Vital Statistics Reports 2188:Great Beginnings For Black Babies 1998: 1128:Prenatal care and maternal health 728:American Journal of Public Health 435:(PCV). Research conducted by the 135: 12180: 12168: 12157: 12156: 11186:National public health institute 10924:Vertically transmitted infection 10312: 10303: 10302: 8889: 8838: 8787: 8736: 8695: 8652: 8609: 8591: 8558: 8540: 8505: 8466: 8437: 8401: 8377: 8359: 8340: 8322: 8296: 8270: 8193: 8165: 8137:American Journal of Epidemiology 8124: 8099: 8086:Southern California Public Radio 8042: 8021: 7972: 7923: 7900: 7840: 7798: 7747: 7724: 7705: 7671: 7649: 7617: 7596: 7572: 7560:. The Journal.ie. 4 October 2019 7550: 7520: 7463: 7414: 7385: 7371: 7320: 7295: 7260: 7225: 7152: 7127: 7106: 7063: 7037: 7020:European Perinatal Health Report 7011: 6992: 6935: 6906: 6875: 6845: 6821: 6796: 6770: 6743: 6692: 6586: 6545: 6496: 6455: 6431: 6398: 6322: 6269: 6228: 6168: 6061:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01281.x 5486:10.1111/j.1466-7657.2007.00580.x 5101:Explorations in Economic History 4839:Southern California Public Radio 3637:. National Academies Press (US). 3492:. National Academies Press (US). 3332:10.1046/j.1471-0528.2003.00021.x 3030:10.1016/B978-012370877-9.00084-0 2429: 2417: 2408: 2355:Related statistical categories: 2301:Rural Cooperative Medical System 2015: 1535:relies largely or entirely on a 1524: 1418: 1153:fetal alcohol spectrum disorders 992: 668: 11583:Open-source healthcare software 11325:Sociology of health and illness 11016:Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder 10966:Group B streptococcal infection 10534:Intrauterine growth restriction 10313: 8796:Journal of Public Health Policy 7633:Economics: Principles in Action 6117: 6076: 5983: 5944: 5920: 5861: 5850:from the original on 2023-05-28 5830: 5804:The Lancet. Infectious Diseases 5795: 5781:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.023 5760: 5630: 5543: 5500: 5465: 5424: 5377: 5308: 5294:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.12.009 5269: 5255:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.006 5209:10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.10.022 5157: 5135: 5047: 5025: 4976: 4927: 4892: 4827: 4803: 4780: 4758: 4709: 4660: 4493: 4471: 4420: 4379: 4344: 4318: 4267: 4242: 4201: 4158:. November 2012. Archived from 4144: 4116: 4007: 3966: 3917: 3888: 3797: 3750: 3641: 3570: 3551: 3496: 3443: 3166: 3110:"What causes infant mortality?" 3102: 2906: 2884: 2864: 2840: 2816: 2787: 2395: 1646: 1320:Infant mortality rate by region 1253:World Health Organization (WHO) 1183: 494: 476:New England Journal of Medicine 11944:Caribbean Public Health Agency 11756:Sexually transmitted infection 11653:Statistical hypothesis testing 11414:Occupational safety and health 11315:Sexual and reproductive health 11228:Occupational safety and health 10359:Conditions originating in the 8172:Villarosa L (April 11, 2018). 7663:. Jan 13, 2006. Archived from 7018:Euro-Peristat Network (2004). 6764:10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.11.013 6656:The World Bank Economic Review 5612:Medical Anthropology Quarterly 3583:Science Translational Medicine 3560:Prenatal and Neonatal Medicine 3503:Kramer, M. S. (October 1987). 3173:Saugstad LF (September 1981). 3024:. Elsevier. pp. 343–359. 2848:"Children: reducing mortality" 2735: 2676: 2599: 2575: 2554: 2502: 2478: 2115:IMR among white women is 5.1. 1345:physical quality of life index 1268:American Academy of Pediatrics 1249:Pneumococcal Conjugate vaccine 1173:American Academy of Pediatrics 1157:pre-existing health conditions 276:(a chronic lung disease), and 193: 1: 11598:Social determinants of health 10708:Vitamin K deficiency bleeding 9375:Maternal mortality in fiction 8526:10.1016/S0749-3797(18)30661-5 7907:Chung, Juliet (29 Aug 2006). 7712:Rosenthal E (June 30, 2013). 7680:"Births: final data for 2011" 7657:"Preventing Infant Mortality" 7439:10.1016/s2214-109x(19)30163-9 5816:10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00606-6 5769:Social Science & Medicine 5637:McNeil D (October 29, 2012). 5624:10.1525/maq.1991.5.3.02a00020 5282:Social Science & Medicine 5243:Social Science & Medicine 5197:Social Science & Medicine 5068:10.1016/S0022-3476(89)80580-3 3818:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.02.077 3454:. World Health Organization. 3421:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60820-4 2442: 2254:and the development of safer 2218:Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld 1661:UN, medium variant, 2008 rev. 1362:Although many countries have 1343:), and is a component of the 1202:Haemophilus Influenzae type B 790:adverse childhood experiences 270:respiratory distress syndrome 130:Sustainable Development Goals 11658:Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 11419:Human factors and ergonomics 10867:Periventricular leukomalacia 10685:Persistent fetal circulation 10633:Meconium aspiration syndrome 9289:Expressions related to death 9242:Medical declaration of death 8277:Salam M (January 11, 2018). 8252:Chalhoub T, Rimar K (2018). 7773:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001080 7399:. 2019-01-14. Archived from 7346:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030449 7072:Sozial- und Präventivmedizin 6858:U.S. News & World Report 5895:10.1371/journal.pone.0217614 5474:International Nursing Review 5402:10.1016/0140-6736(93)91013-C 5149:. 2009-06-01. Archived from 4913:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.08.014 4646:10.1016/j.soscij.2004.01.008 4600:10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.147 4519:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001502 4249:Reid, Kathryn (2012-09-26). 3596:10.1126/scitranslmed.3009871 2287:and the birth control pill. 1264:sudden infant death syndrome 1166: 633:(PROM) of the amniotic sac. 627:sexually transmitted disease 608:(low red blood cell count). 403:sudden infant death syndrome 347:Sudden infant death syndrome 166:sudden infant death syndrome 122:Millennium Development Goals 7: 11839:Good manufacturing practice 11643:Randomized controlled trial 10776:Intraventricular hemorrhage 9309:Preventable causes of death 8473:Brosco JP (February 1999). 7269:Population (French Edition) 5333:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029424 5143:"A recession breathes life" 4787:Benjamin DK (Winter 2006). 3140:Economics and Human Biology 2318: 2168:faced during her delivery. 2080:quality-adjusted life years 1862:(deaths/1,000 live births) 1057:universal primary education 1003:Population Reference Bureau 638:acute respiratory infection 623:pelvic inflammatory disease 407:neglected tropical diseases 144:Forms of infant mortality: 10: 12235: 11909:Theory of planned behavior 11834:Good agricultural practice 11739:Public health surveillance 11631:epidemiological statistics 11275:Public health intervention 10781:Germinal matrix hemorrhage 10771:Velamentous cord insertion 10662:Bronchopulmonary dysplasia 8898:Social Indicators Research 8673:10.1177/107937390803100302 8630:10.1177/000271623618800110 8347:Shammet T (19 June 2020). 7896:(1): 25. January 10, 2014. 7861:10.1016/j.ajog.2011.09.026 6409:. National Academy Press. 5928:"Best Babies Zone - ACPHD" 5738:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.11.012 5550:Fisher SK (October 1996). 5509:Studies in Family Planning 4952:10.6061/clinics/2012(09)20 4634:The Social Science Journal 4588:Annual Review of Sociology 4091:10.1177/003335490912400509 3992:10.1016/j.jacc.2011.08.025 3662:10.1016/j.ajog.2005.02.015 3379:10.1016/j.siny.2015.12.007 3313:Moutquin JM (April 2003). 3079:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.12.012 2564:. Women and Children First 2207: 1650: 1364:vital registration systems 1312:Differences in measurement 1308:for the entire community. 1272:Center for Disease Control 943: 501:Undernutrition in children 498: 450: 425:hepatitis B (HepB) vaccine 385: 344: 274:bronchopulmonary dysplasia 217: 48:under-five mortality rate, 12152: 12087: 12046: 12031:World Toilet Organization 12026:World Health Organization 11933: 11922: 11859: 11784: 11700: 11628: 11593:Public health informatics 11533: 11338: 11300:Right to rest and leisure 11129:Globalization and disease 11064: 10981: 10916: 10875: 10852: 10824: 10811:Necrotizing enterocolitis 10796: 10693: 10670: 10608: 10601: 10542: 10520:Large for gestational age 10516:Small for gestational age 10508: 10472: 10440: 10414: 10382: 10371: 10298: 10024: 9954: 9840: 9794: 9676:Consciousness after death 9656: 9599: 9544: 9486: 9435: 9424: 9417: 9332: 9269: 9163: 8984: 8976: 8910:10.1007/s11205-004-1542-y 8050:"U.S. Poverty Statistics" 7805:Starfield B (July 2000). 7635:. Pearson Prentice Hall. 7496:10.1038/s41586-019-1545-0 7427:The Lancet. Global Health 7134:Hendrick B (2009-11-04). 6481:10.4054/demres.2017.37.21 6143:10.1186/s12967-015-0690-y 5953:SSRN Working Paper Series 5113:10.1016/j.eeh.2011.05.009 5056:The Journal of Pediatrics 5001:10.1007/s13524-013-0262-9 4901:Child Abuse & Neglect 4446:10.1186/s12887-015-0496-3 3846:Moon RY (November 2016). 3152:10.1016/j.ehb.2006.10.003 2747:World Health Organization 2710:10.1186/s12940-015-0048-1 2160:after surgery instead of 2048:Economic expenditures on 2003:A study published in the 1515: 1353:World Health Organization 1042: 693:infections. Areas of low 429:inactivated polio vaccine 172: 12077:Schools of public health 11869:Diffusion of innovations 11568:Health impact assessment 11280:Public health laboratory 11176:Management of depression 10077:Personification of death 9299:People by cause of death 8859:10.1177/0022146511410886 8218:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300621 7532:CIA – The World Factbook 6008:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302902 4183:McNeil D (May 2, 2012). 2388: 2294: 2035:Smoking during pregnancy 1923:Central African Republic 1828:more developed countries 1824:less developed countries 920:, political unrest, and 838:GDP (nominal) per capita 750:institutionalized racism 382:Congenital malformations 83:congenital malformations 12140:Social hygiene movement 12067:Doctor of Public Health 11899:Social cognitive theory 11701:Infectious and epidemic 11483:Fecal–oral transmission 10973:Neonatal conjunctivitis 10464:Single umbilical artery 10454:Umbilical cord prolapse 10401:Placental insufficiency 10374:complicating pregnancy, 10154:Death-positive movement 9999:Post-mortem photography 9279:Causes of death by rate 9207:Death by natural causes 7948:10.2105/AJPH.94.12.2125 7528:"Infant Mortality Rate" 7202:2027/uc1.31210022969875 7159:Stobbe M (2009-11-03). 6914:"Millennium Indicators" 6854:"Behind the Baby Count" 6558:Health and Human Rights 6521:10.9745/GHSP-D-14-00080 5688:10.1073/pnas.0800221105 3060:Norton M (April 2005). 2952:(inactive 2024-04-26). 2795:"WHO | Child mortality" 2612:Journal of Perinatology 2072:Neonatal intensive care 2005:British Medical Journal 1175:recommends exclusively 1034:Prevention and outcomes 874:special interest groups 388:Congenital malformation 282:gastrointestinal system 87:umbilical cord prolapse 12135:Germ theory of disease 11914:Transtheoretical model 10949:ureaplasma urealyticum 10657:Wilson–Mikity syndrome 10581:Brachial plexus injury 10189:Fascination with death 9827:Reincarnation research 9822:Out-of-body experience 9284:Notable deaths by year 9125:Immunogenic cell death 9041:Temporal lobe necrosis 8491:10.1542/peds.103.2.478 8353:The Commonwealth Times 7997:10.2105/AJPH.94.8.1358 7826:10.1001/jama.284.4.483 6999:Brown D (2011-02-28). 6852:Healy B (2006-09-24). 6833:Gesetze-im-internet.de 6254:10.1542/peds.2011-3552 4405:10.1001/jama.292.5.648 4361:. 2015. Archived from 4133:. 2000. Archived from 3865:10.1542/peds.2016-2940 3707:10.20851/j.ctv2n7f0v.6 2872:"Under-five mortality" 2775:Roser M (2013-05-10). 2749:. 2020. Archived from 2530:10.1037/e558952006-001 2486:"Under-Five Mortality" 2374:Postneonatal mortality 2225: 2204:throughout pregnancy. 2090: 2025: 1860:Infant mortality rate 1429:Reporting requirement 1380: 1332: 1321: 1278:Socio-economic factors 1210:Inactivated Poliovirus 1206:Pneumococcal Conjugate 1005: 911: 906:gross national product 840: 809: 796:Socio-economic factors 766:Early childhood trauma 761:Early childhood trauma 746: 732: 557: 489:in vitro fertilisation 419:Haemophilus influenzae 162:Postneonatal mortality 24: 12019:Public Health Service 11904:Social norms approach 11894:PRECEDE–PROCEED model 11340:Preventive healthcare 11233:Pharmaceutical policy 11082:Chief Medical Officer 10897:Congenital hypertonia 10788:Anemia of prematurity 10496:Shoulder presentation 9994:Post-mortem chemistry 9807:Near-death experience 9703:Desecration of graves 9639:Postmortem caloricity 9604:Beating heart cadaver 9048:Programmed cell death 9016:Liquefactive necrosis 8452:. New York: Picador. 8112:National Public Radio 7051:(Report). p. 193 5373:. Geneva: Geneva WHO. 4556:Creating Capabilities 4293:10.3390/ijerph8061817 4078:Public Health Reports 3942:10.1136/jech.54.9.660 3775:10.1542/peds.93.5.814 3521:10.1542/peds.80.4.502 3273:10.1542/peds.86.2.176 3191:10.1136/jech.35.3.185 2216:This 1860 woodcut by 2215: 2088: 2023: 1633:food supplementations 1375: 1327: 1319: 1306:sewer infrastructures 1000: 922:government corruption 835: 803: 733: 719: 508: 437:Institute of Medicine 372:immunization schedule 290:cardiovascular system 36:infant mortality rate 22: 12095:Sara Josephine Baker 11994:Public Health Agency 11879:Health communication 11744:Disease surveillance 11710:Asymptomatic carrier 11692:Statistical software 11380:Preventive nutrition 11208:Medical anthropology 11097:Environmental health 10902:Congenital hypotonia 10816:Meconium peritonitis 10618:Intrauterine hypoxia 10574:Subgaleal hemorrhage 10184:Festival of the Dead 10082:Dying-and-rising god 10037:Chinese burial money 9926:Prohibition of dying 9878:Death-qualified jury 9644:Post-mortem interval 9304:Premature obituaries 9011:Coagulative necrosis 7538:on November 19, 2012 7025:(Report). p. 40 6784:on December 21, 2011 6713:10.1353/wp.2001.0018 6614:10.1162/REST_a_00084 6468:Demographic Research 6405:Stratton KR (2001). 6387:on February 27, 2008 6054:(Suppl 1): 285–301. 5961:10.2139/ssrn.3449460 2689:Environmental Health 2267:early 20th century. 1544:improve this article 1257:multi drug resistant 1161:gestational diabetes 1117:life course approach 695:socioeconomic status 685:including a host of 511:World Food Programme 480:mental modification, 433:pneumococcal vaccine 421:type b (Hib) vaccine 397:Medicine and biology 266:pulmonary hypoplasia 204:congenital anomalies 46:, also known as the 44:child mortality rate 12105:Carl Rogers Darnall 12100:Samuel Jay Crumbine 11874:Health belief model 11727:Notifiable diseases 11663:Regression analysis 11498:Waterborne diseases 11087:Cultural competence 11011:Neonatal withdrawal 10994:Perinatal mortality 10844:Sclerema neonatorum 10700:hematologic disease 10244:Philosophy of death 10109:Death from laughter 9409:Perinatal mortality 9150:Mitotic catastrophe 9130:Ischemic cell death 9073:Intrinsic apoptosis 9021:Gangrenous necrosis 8757:1985SciAm.253a..31M 8745:Scientific American 7855:(1): 49.e1–49.e10. 7610:The Washington Post 7488:2019Natur.574..353B 7163:. Associated Press. 7121:Europa (web portal) 7005:The Washington Post 6829:"PStV – Einzelnorm" 6668:10.1093/wber/lhg012 5886:2019PLoSO..1417614R 5679:2008PNAS..105.5016D 4776:on 12 October 2011. 4554:Nussbaum M (2011). 4325:Mahgoud SE (2006). 3656:(5 Suppl): S36-46. 2922:. January 20, 2022. 2701:2015EnvHe..14...61G 2625:10.1038/jp.2016.119 2361:Perinatal mortality 1850: 1663: 1629:structural violence 1425: 1392:perinatal mortality 1357:perinatal mortality 1242:acellular pertussis 1212:(IPV < 18 yrs), 1115:. The BBZ uses the 972:Male sex favoritism 889:, and distorts the 806:economic inequality 612:Infectious diseases 250:periodontal disease 246:bacterial vaginosis 149:Perinatal mortality 103:infectious diseases 30:is the death of an 11703:disease prevention 11638:Case–control study 11310:Security of person 11159:Health care reform 10944:mycoplasma hominis 10929:Neonatal infection 10885:Gray baby syndrome 10862:Perinatal asphyxia 10752:Hyperbilirubinemia 10529:Postterm pregnancy 10376:labour or delivery 10290:Thanatosensitivity 10194:Hierarchy of death 10134:Death notification 10042:Coins for the dead 9974:Forensic pathology 9858:Capital punishment 9812:Near-death studies 9404:Mortality salience 9036:Fibrinoid necrosis 9006:Avascular necrosis 8565:Meckel RA (1998). 8520:(6 Suppl): 17–26. 8283:The New York Times 8180:The New York Times 8150:10.1093/aje/kwn291 8054:Federal Safety Net 7718:The New York Times 7084:10.1007/BF01325417 6864:on August 24, 2007 6803:Allmer, Gertrude. 6336:. 4 February 2021. 6102:10.1111/acer.12214 5732:(Suppl 1): S7-24. 5645:The New York Times 5092:Haines MR (2011). 4880:on 16 October 2020 4815:dworakpeck.usc.edu 4191:The New York Times 3325:(Suppl 20): 30–3. 2950:10.17795/bhs-35330 2828:data.worldbank.org 2743:"Infant Mortality" 2658:CDC (2020-06-03). 2368:Neonatal mortality 2340:Maternal mortality 2256:blood transfusions 2226: 2179:Black Lives Matter 2091: 2050:labor and delivery 2026: 1848: 1657: 1559:"Infant mortality" 1497:month of gestation 1423: 1333: 1331:at birth by region 1322: 1083:behavioral changes 1072:solar disinfection 1070:, filter, and use 1011:maternal mortality 1006: 891:domestic economies 841: 836:Countries by 2019 810: 703:particulate matter 558: 302:C-reactive protein 294:hematologic system 155:Neonatal mortality 63:neonatal infection 25: 12196: 12195: 12148: 12147: 12058:Higher education 11889:Positive deviance 11884:Health psychology 11860:Health behavioral 11787:safety management 11761:Social distancing 11535:Population health 11515:Smoking cessation 11463:Pharmacovigilance 11434:Injury prevention 11402:Infection control 11320:Social psychology 11270:Prisoners' rights 11213:Medical sociology 11181:Public health law 11077:Biological hazard 11024: 11023: 10912: 10911: 10762:Neonatal jaundice 10680:Pneumopericardium 10650:Pneumomediastinum 10591:Klumpke paralysis 10569:Caput succedaneum 10504: 10503: 10372:Maternal factors 10326: 10325: 10062:Death anniversary 10057:Death and culture 9901:Dying declaration 9883:Death certificate 9790: 9789: 9652: 9651: 9504:Neuropreservation 9294:Natural disasters 9265: 9264: 8730:10.7312/gros17812 8712:10.7312/gros17812 8576:978-0-472-08556-9 8459:978-1-250-04463-1 8444:Tweedy D (2015). 7913:The Seattle Times 7642:978-0-13-063085-8 7482:(7778): 353–358. 7313:978-0-415-10194-3 7193:10.2190/HS.40.4.a 6752:World Development 6290:10.1111/apa.13147 6196:10.1111/obr.12288 4685:10.1289/ehp.10370 4565:978-0-674-05054-9 4037:978-0-309-08886-2 3461:978-92-4-150343-3 3415:(9832): 2162–72. 3114:www.nichd.nih.gov 3072:(Suppl 1): S1-6. 2805:on March 14, 2011 2781:Our World in Data 2777:"Child Mortality" 2753:on March 24, 2014 2039:low birth weights 1996: 1995: 1836:Save the Children 1820: 1819: 1662: 1609: 1608: 1594: 1492: 1491: 1022:to achieve this. 954:teenage pregnancy 887:division of labor 485:teenage pregnancy 474:According to the 12226: 12209:Infant mortality 12184: 12183: 12172: 12171: 12160: 12159: 12054:Health education 11931: 11930: 11785:Food hygiene and 11766:Tropical disease 11578:Infant mortality 11553:Community health 11429:Controlled Drugs 11365:Health promotion 11295:Right to housing 11139:Health economics 11051: 11044: 11037: 11028: 11027: 11004:Infant mortality 10839:Erythema toxicum 10831:thermoregulation 10798:Gastrointestinal 10606: 10605: 10602:Affected systems 10479: 10447: 10432:Chorioamnionitis 10425: 10396:Placenta praevia 10389: 10380: 10379: 10353: 10346: 10339: 10330: 10329: 10316: 10315: 10306: 10305: 10286: 10271:Assisted suicide 10169:Death trajectory 9984:Mortuary science 9979:Funeral director 9970: 9936:Suspicious death 9708:Eternal oblivion 9494:Cryopreservation 9433: 9432: 9422: 9421: 9360:Infant mortality 9350:Excess mortality 9252:Terminal illness 9237:Lazarus syndrome 9222:End-of-life care 9173:Accidental death 9026:Caseous necrosis 8989: 8988: 8971: 8964: 8957: 8948: 8947: 8930: 8929: 8893: 8887: 8886: 8842: 8836: 8835: 8791: 8785: 8784: 8740: 8734: 8733: 8699: 8693: 8692: 8656: 8650: 8649: 8613: 8607: 8606: 8595: 8589: 8588: 8562: 8556: 8555: 8553: 8547:Dunn HL (1954). 8544: 8538: 8537: 8509: 8503: 8502: 8470: 8464: 8463: 8451: 8441: 8435: 8434: 8432: 8431: 8425: 8419:. Archived from 8414: 8405: 8399: 8398: 8396: 8395: 8381: 8375: 8374: 8373:. 5 August 2020. 8371:milwaukeenns.org 8363: 8357: 8356: 8344: 8338: 8337: 8336:. 18 April 2019. 8326: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8315: 8309:newsobserver.com 8300: 8294: 8293: 8291: 8289: 8274: 8268: 8267: 8265: 8263: 8249: 8240: 8239: 8229: 8197: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8186: 8177: 8169: 8163: 8162: 8152: 8128: 8122: 8121: 8119: 8118: 8103: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8093: 8078: 8069: 8068: 8066: 8065: 8056:. Archived from 8046: 8040: 8039: 8037: 8036: 8025: 8019: 8018: 8008: 7976: 7970: 7969: 7959: 7927: 7921: 7920: 7915:. Archived from 7904: 7898: 7897: 7882: 7873: 7872: 7844: 7838: 7837: 7811: 7802: 7796: 7795: 7785: 7775: 7751: 7745: 7744: 7728: 7722: 7721: 7709: 7703: 7702: 7684: 7675: 7669: 7668: 7653: 7647: 7646: 7621: 7615: 7614: 7600: 7594: 7593: 7591: 7590: 7576: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7565: 7554: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7543: 7534:. Archived from 7524: 7518: 7517: 7507: 7467: 7461: 7460: 7450: 7433:(6): e710–e720. 7418: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7408: 7389: 7383: 7382: 7375: 7369: 7368: 7358: 7348: 7324: 7318: 7317: 7299: 7293: 7292: 7264: 7258: 7257: 7229: 7223: 7222: 7204: 7176: 7165: 7164: 7156: 7150: 7149: 7147: 7146: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7118: 7110: 7104: 7103: 7067: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7056: 7050: 7041: 7035: 7034: 7032: 7030: 7024: 7015: 7009: 7008: 6996: 6990: 6989: 6963: 6939: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6920:. Archived from 6910: 6904: 6903: 6901: 6900: 6894: 6888:. Archived from 6887: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6869: 6860:. Archived from 6849: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6825: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6810:. Archived from 6809: 6800: 6794: 6792: 6790: 6789: 6780:. Archived from 6774: 6768: 6767: 6747: 6741: 6740: 6696: 6690: 6689: 6679: 6651: 6642: 6641: 6599: 6590: 6584: 6583: 6573: 6549: 6543: 6542: 6532: 6500: 6494: 6493: 6483: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6449: 6435: 6429: 6428: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6383:. Archived from 6373: 6362: 6361: 6355: 6347: 6338: 6337: 6326: 6320: 6319: 6301: 6278:Acta Paediatrica 6273: 6267: 6266: 6256: 6247:(3): e827–e841. 6232: 6226: 6225: 6207: 6181: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6155: 6145: 6121: 6115: 6114: 6104: 6080: 6074: 6073: 6063: 6039: 6030: 6029: 6019: 5987: 5981: 5980: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5938: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5907: 5897: 5865: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5855: 5849: 5842: 5834: 5828: 5827: 5799: 5793: 5792: 5764: 5758: 5757: 5720: 5711: 5710: 5700: 5690: 5658: 5649: 5648: 5642: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5607: 5580: 5579: 5556:Duke Law Journal 5547: 5541: 5540: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5452: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5396:(8854): 1193–6. 5381: 5375: 5374: 5364: 5355: 5354: 5344: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5238: 5229: 5228: 5188: 5177: 5176: 5170: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5098: 5089: 5080: 5079: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5043:on 6 March 2010. 5039:. Archived from 5029: 5023: 5022: 5012: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4963: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4879: 4872: 4861: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4846: 4831: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4821: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4772:. Archived from 4762: 4756: 4755: 4745: 4734:10.1289/ehp.6857 4713: 4707: 4706: 4696: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4629: 4612: 4611: 4583: 4570: 4569: 4551: 4542: 4541: 4531: 4521: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4489:on 14 July 2010. 4475: 4469: 4468: 4458: 4448: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4407: 4383: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4367: 4356: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4331: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4305: 4295: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4261: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4229: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4188: 4180: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4167: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4128: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4103: 4093: 4069: 4054: 4053: 4029: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3994: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3953: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3902:. Archived from 3892: 3886: 3885: 3867: 3858:(5): e20162940. 3843: 3830: 3829: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3745: 3744: 3729: 3720: 3719: 3709: 3683: 3674: 3673: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3628: 3617: 3616: 3598: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3483: 3474: 3473: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3400: 3391: 3390: 3362: 3353: 3352: 3334: 3310: 3301: 3300: 3252: 3243: 3242: 3230: 3213: 3212: 3202: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3135: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3120: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3081: 3057: 3044: 3043: 3017: 2984: 2983: 2977: 2969: 2933: 2924: 2923: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2858: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2834: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2810: 2801:. Archived from 2791: 2785: 2784: 2772: 2763: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2722: 2712: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2671: 2670: 2655: 2646: 2645: 2627: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2594: 2593: 2579: 2573: 2572: 2570: 2569: 2558: 2552: 2551: 2541: 2515: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2497: 2496: 2482: 2476: 2475: 2473: 2472: 2457: 2436: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2399: 2308:one-child policy 2110:African American 2100:Hispanic paradox 2064:non-viable birth 1851: 1847: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1604: 1601: 1595: 1593: 1552: 1528: 1520: 1507: 1426: 1422: 1053:physical capital 870:social movements 744: 730: 554: 549: > 35,0% 548: 543: 25,0–34,9% 542: 537: 15,0–24,9% 536: 530: 524: 518: 481: 458:Low birth weight 453:Low birth weight 447:Low birth weight 284:, the skin, the 184:premature births 28:Infant mortality 12234: 12233: 12229: 12228: 12227: 12225: 12224: 12223: 12199: 12198: 12197: 12192: 12144: 12115:Margaret Sanger 12083: 12042: 11926: 11924: 11918: 11861: 11855: 11827:Safety scandals 11786: 11780: 11702: 11696: 11630: 11624: 11620:Social medicine 11613:Race and health 11548:Child mortality 11529: 11488:Open defecation 11370:Human nutrition 11360:Family planning 11348:Behavior change 11334: 11290:Right to health 11203:Maternal health 11193:Health politics 11144:Health literacy 11060: 11055: 11025: 11020: 10977: 10961:Neonatal sepsis 10908: 10877:Musculoskeletal 10871: 10848: 10829: 10820: 10792: 10747:Hydrops fetalis 10698: 10689: 10666: 10639:Pleural disease 10597: 10559:Cephalohematoma 10538: 10500: 10473: 10468: 10441: 10436: 10415: 10410: 10383: 10375: 10373: 10367: 10357: 10327: 10322: 10294: 10280: 10224:Museum of Death 10174:Dignified death 10129:Death messenger 10104:Death education 10020: 9964: 9950: 9888:Declared death 9836: 9786: 9743:Online mourning 9648: 9614:Cadaveric spasm 9595: 9540: 9482: 9473:Skeletonization 9413: 9345:Child mortality 9340:Birthday effect 9328: 9261: 9257:Unnatural death 9188:Brainstem death 9159: 9098:Pseudoapoptosis 8980: 8975: 8938: 8933: 8894: 8890: 8843: 8839: 8808:10.2307/3342538 8792: 8788: 8741: 8737: 8722: 8700: 8696: 8657: 8653: 8614: 8610: 8597: 8596: 8592: 8577: 8563: 8559: 8551: 8545: 8541: 8510: 8506: 8471: 8467: 8460: 8442: 8438: 8429: 8427: 8423: 8412: 8406: 8402: 8393: 8391: 8383: 8382: 8378: 8365: 8364: 8360: 8345: 8341: 8328: 8327: 8323: 8313: 8311: 8301: 8297: 8287: 8285: 8275: 8271: 8261: 8259: 8250: 8243: 8198: 8194: 8184: 8182: 8170: 8166: 8143:(11): 1247–54. 8129: 8125: 8116: 8114: 8104: 8100: 8091: 8089: 8080: 8079: 8072: 8063: 8061: 8048: 8047: 8043: 8034: 8032: 8027: 8026: 8022: 7977: 7973: 7942:(12): 2125–31. 7928: 7924: 7905: 7901: 7884: 7883: 7876: 7845: 7841: 7809: 7803: 7799: 7766:(8): e1001080. 7752: 7748: 7729: 7725: 7710: 7706: 7693:(1): 1–69, 72. 7682: 7676: 7672: 7655: 7654: 7650: 7643: 7622: 7618: 7601: 7597: 7588: 7586: 7578: 7577: 7573: 7563: 7561: 7556: 7555: 7551: 7541: 7539: 7526: 7525: 7521: 7468: 7464: 7419: 7415: 7406: 7404: 7391: 7390: 7386: 7377: 7376: 7372: 7325: 7321: 7314: 7300: 7296: 7281:10.2307/1532733 7265: 7261: 7246:10.2307/1973432 7230: 7226: 7177: 7168: 7157: 7153: 7144: 7142: 7132: 7128: 7116: 7112: 7111: 7107: 7068: 7064: 7054: 7052: 7048: 7042: 7038: 7028: 7026: 7022: 7016: 7012: 6997: 6993: 6961:10.2307/2061752 6940: 6936: 6927: 6925: 6912: 6911: 6907: 6898: 6896: 6892: 6885: 6881: 6880: 6876: 6867: 6865: 6850: 6846: 6837: 6835: 6827: 6826: 6822: 6814: 6807: 6801: 6797: 6787: 6785: 6776: 6775: 6771: 6748: 6744: 6697: 6693: 6652: 6645: 6597: 6591: 6587: 6550: 6546: 6501: 6497: 6460: 6456: 6447: 6445: 6439:"Immunizations" 6437: 6436: 6432: 6417: 6403: 6399: 6390: 6388: 6375: 6374: 6365: 6353: 6349: 6348: 6341: 6328: 6327: 6323: 6274: 6270: 6233: 6229: 6184:Obesity Reviews 6179: 6173: 6169: 6122: 6118: 6081: 6077: 6040: 6033: 5988: 5984: 5949: 5945: 5936: 5934: 5926: 5925: 5921: 5880:(5): e0217614. 5866: 5862: 5853: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5836: 5835: 5831: 5800: 5796: 5775:(11): 1918–25. 5765: 5761: 5721: 5714: 5673:(13): 5016–21. 5659: 5652: 5635: 5631: 5608: 5583: 5568:10.2307/1372967 5548: 5544: 5505: 5501: 5470: 5466: 5429: 5425: 5382: 5378: 5367:Krug E (2002). 5365: 5358: 5327:(10): e029424. 5313: 5309: 5274: 5270: 5239: 5232: 5189: 5180: 5168: 5162: 5158: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5096: 5090: 5083: 5052: 5048: 5031: 5030: 5026: 4981: 4977: 4932: 4928: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4881: 4877: 4870: 4862: 4853: 4844: 4842: 4833: 4832: 4828: 4819: 4817: 4809: 4808: 4804: 4785: 4781: 4764: 4763: 4759: 4728:(14): 1365–71. 4714: 4710: 4665: 4661: 4630: 4615: 4584: 4573: 4566: 4552: 4545: 4512:(8): e1001502. 4498: 4494: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4425: 4421: 4384: 4380: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4354: 4350: 4349: 4345: 4329: 4323: 4319: 4272: 4268: 4259: 4257: 4247: 4243: 4206: 4202: 4181: 4174: 4165: 4163: 4152:"Preterm birth" 4150: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4117: 4070: 4057: 4038: 4012: 4008: 3971: 3967: 3922: 3918: 3909: 3907: 3900:MedicineNet.com 3894: 3893: 3889: 3844: 3833: 3802: 3798: 3755: 3751: 3742: 3740: 3731: 3730: 3723: 3698: 3684: 3677: 3646: 3642: 3629: 3620: 3589:(262): 262sr5. 3575: 3571: 3556: 3552: 3501: 3497: 3484: 3477: 3462: 3448: 3444: 3401: 3394: 3363: 3356: 3311: 3304: 3253: 3246: 3231: 3216: 3171: 3167: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3116: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3058: 3047: 3040: 3018: 2987: 2971: 2970: 2934: 2927: 2912: 2911: 2907: 2897: 2895: 2890: 2889: 2885: 2880:. January 2023. 2870: 2869: 2865: 2856: 2854: 2846: 2845: 2841: 2832: 2830: 2822: 2821: 2817: 2808: 2806: 2793: 2792: 2788: 2773: 2766: 2756: 2754: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2681: 2677: 2668: 2666: 2656: 2649: 2618:(11): 948–953. 2604: 2600: 2591: 2589: 2581: 2580: 2576: 2567: 2565: 2560: 2559: 2555: 2513: 2507: 2503: 2494: 2492: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2470: 2468: 2459: 2458: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2413: 2409: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2381:Child mortality 2321: 2297: 2273:southern states 2247: 2210: 2166:Serena Williams 2125:premature birth 2112: 2018: 2001: 1861: 1659: 1655: 1649: 1605: 1599: 1596: 1553: 1551: 1541: 1529: 1518: 1506:perhaps because 1505: 1456:Czech Republic 1437:All live births 1421: 1412:vital statistic 1329:Life expectancy 1314: 1288:First 1000 days 1284:family planning 1280: 1186: 1169: 1146:salt iodization 1130: 1045: 1036: 1020:family planning 995: 974: 946: 914: 899:health policies 798: 763: 753:arrangements." 745: 740: 731: 726: 715:carbon monoxide 679:water pollution 671: 614: 556: 552: 550: 546: 544: 540: 538: 534: 532: 531: 5,0–14,9% 528: 526: 522: 520: 519: < 2,5% 516: 514: 503: 497: 479: 455: 449: 399: 390: 384: 349: 343: 230:gestational age 222: 216: 214:Premature birth 196: 175: 138: 91:prolonged labor 17: 12: 11: 5: 12232: 12222: 12221: 12216: 12211: 12194: 12193: 12191: 12190: 12178: 12166: 12153: 12150: 12149: 12146: 12145: 12143: 12142: 12137: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12102: 12097: 12091: 12089: 12085: 12084: 12082: 12081: 12080: 12079: 12074: 12069: 12064: 12056: 12050: 12048: 12044: 12043: 12041: 12040: 12033: 12028: 12023: 12022: 12021: 12016: 12011: 12006: 11998: 11997: 11996: 11991: 11983: 11982: 11981: 11973: 11972: 11971: 11966: 11958: 11957: 11956: 11948: 11947: 11946: 11937: 11935: 11928: 11923:Organizations, 11920: 11919: 11917: 11916: 11911: 11906: 11901: 11896: 11891: 11886: 11881: 11876: 11871: 11865: 11863: 11857: 11856: 11854: 11853: 11852: 11851: 11846: 11836: 11831: 11830: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11814: 11809: 11804: 11799: 11790: 11788: 11782: 11781: 11779: 11778: 11773: 11768: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11747: 11746: 11736: 11735: 11734: 11724: 11723: 11722: 11712: 11706: 11704: 11698: 11697: 11695: 11694: 11689: 11688: 11687: 11679: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11634: 11632: 11629:Biological and 11626: 11625: 11623: 11622: 11617: 11616: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11595: 11590: 11588:Multimorbidity 11585: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11565: 11560: 11555: 11550: 11545: 11539: 11537: 11531: 11530: 11528: 11527: 11525:Vector control 11522: 11517: 11512: 11510:School hygiene 11507: 11506: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11493:Sanitary sewer 11490: 11485: 11480: 11470: 11465: 11460: 11459: 11458: 11451:Patient safety 11448: 11447: 11446: 11441: 11436: 11431: 11426: 11421: 11411: 11410: 11409: 11404: 11399: 11394: 11384: 11383: 11382: 11377: 11367: 11362: 11357: 11356: 11355: 11344: 11342: 11336: 11335: 11333: 11332: 11327: 11322: 11317: 11312: 11307: 11302: 11297: 11292: 11287: 11282: 11277: 11272: 11267: 11266: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11250: 11245: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11215: 11210: 11205: 11200: 11195: 11190: 11189: 11188: 11183: 11173: 11168: 11163: 11162: 11161: 11156: 11146: 11141: 11136: 11134:Harm reduction 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11115: 11114: 11109: 11099: 11094: 11089: 11084: 11079: 11074: 11068: 11066: 11062: 11061: 11054: 11053: 11046: 11039: 11031: 11022: 11021: 11019: 11018: 11013: 11008: 11007: 11006: 11001: 10991: 10985: 10983: 10979: 10978: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10969: 10968: 10958: 10953: 10952: 10951: 10946: 10941: 10939:herpes simplex 10936: 10926: 10920: 10918: 10914: 10913: 10910: 10909: 10907: 10906: 10905: 10904: 10899: 10887: 10881: 10879: 10873: 10872: 10870: 10869: 10864: 10858: 10856: 10854:Nervous system 10850: 10849: 10847: 10846: 10841: 10835: 10833: 10822: 10821: 10819: 10818: 10813: 10808: 10802: 10800: 10794: 10793: 10791: 10790: 10785: 10784: 10783: 10773: 10767: 10766: 10765: 10764: 10759: 10749: 10744: 10743: 10742: 10737: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10711: 10710: 10704: 10702: 10691: 10690: 10688: 10687: 10682: 10676: 10674: 10672:Cardiovascular 10668: 10667: 10665: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10653: 10652: 10647: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10614: 10612: 10603: 10599: 10598: 10596: 10595: 10594: 10593: 10588: 10578: 10577: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10561: 10548: 10546: 10540: 10539: 10537: 10536: 10531: 10522: 10512: 10510: 10506: 10505: 10502: 10501: 10499: 10498: 10493: 10488: 10482: 10480: 10470: 10469: 10467: 10466: 10461: 10456: 10450: 10448: 10444:umbilical cord 10438: 10437: 10435: 10434: 10428: 10426: 10412: 10411: 10409: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10392: 10390: 10377: 10369: 10368: 10356: 10355: 10348: 10341: 10333: 10324: 10323: 10321: 10320: 10310: 10299: 10296: 10295: 10293: 10292: 10287: 10275: 10274: 10273: 10263: 10262: 10261: 10251: 10246: 10241: 10236: 10231: 10226: 10221: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10176: 10171: 10166: 10161: 10156: 10151: 10146: 10141: 10136: 10131: 10126: 10121: 10116: 10111: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10090: 10089: 10084: 10079: 10069: 10064: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10032:Apparent death 10028: 10026: 10022: 10021: 10019: 10018: 10013: 10012: 10011: 10001: 9996: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9958: 9956: 9952: 9951: 9949: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9903: 9898: 9893: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9870: 9865: 9863:Cause of death 9860: 9855: 9853:Administration 9850: 9844: 9842: 9838: 9837: 9835: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9814: 9809: 9804: 9798: 9796: 9792: 9791: 9788: 9787: 9785: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9762: 9752: 9747: 9746: 9745: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9710: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9689: 9688: 9683: 9673: 9668: 9662: 9660: 9654: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9647: 9646: 9641: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9624:Death erection 9621: 9616: 9611: 9606: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9594: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9578: 9573: 9568: 9567: 9566: 9561: 9559:Natural burial 9550: 9548: 9542: 9541: 9539: 9538: 9533: 9528: 9523: 9518: 9513: 9508: 9507: 9506: 9501: 9490: 9488: 9484: 9483: 9481: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9439: 9437: 9430: 9419: 9415: 9414: 9412: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9400: 9399: 9392:Mortality rate 9389: 9384: 9377: 9372: 9370:Maternal death 9367: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9336: 9334: 9330: 9329: 9327: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9314:Unusual deaths 9311: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9275: 9273: 9267: 9266: 9263: 9262: 9260: 9259: 9254: 9249: 9247:Organ donation 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9204: 9203: 9202: 9195:Clinical death 9192: 9191: 9190: 9180: 9175: 9170: 9164: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9106: 9105: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9075: 9070: 9065: 9060: 9055: 9045: 9044: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 8997: 8995: 8986: 8982: 8981: 8974: 8973: 8966: 8959: 8951: 8945: 8944: 8937: 8936:External links 8934: 8932: 8931: 8904:(3): 313–326. 8888: 8837: 8786: 8735: 8720: 8694: 8667:(3): 385–402. 8651: 8608: 8590: 8575: 8557: 8539: 8504: 8465: 8458: 8436: 8400: 8376: 8358: 8339: 8321: 8295: 8269: 8241: 8212:(5): 988–995. 8192: 8164: 8123: 8098: 8070: 8041: 8020: 7991:(8): 1358–65. 7971: 7922: 7919:on 2013-11-05. 7899: 7874: 7839: 7797: 7746: 7743:on 2023-06-06. 7723: 7704: 7670: 7667:on 2012-04-18. 7648: 7641: 7616: 7595: 7571: 7549: 7519: 7462: 7413: 7384: 7370: 7319: 7312: 7294: 7275:(6): 843–862. 7259: 7224: 7166: 7151: 7126: 7105: 7062: 7036: 7010: 6991: 6934: 6918:United Nations 6905: 6874: 6844: 6820: 6817:on 2013-10-02. 6795: 6769: 6742: 6701:World Politics 6691: 6662:(1): 107–131. 6643: 6608:(3): 847–856. 6585: 6564:(1): 295–301. 6544: 6495: 6454: 6430: 6415: 6397: 6363: 6339: 6321: 6268: 6227: 6167: 6116: 6075: 6031: 5982: 5943: 5919: 5860: 5829: 5794: 5759: 5712: 5650: 5629: 5618:(3): 204–220. 5581: 5542: 5521:10.2307/172276 5499: 5464: 5423: 5376: 5356: 5307: 5268: 5230: 5203:(2): 321–333. 5178: 5173:The World Bank 5156: 5153:on 2009-07-25. 5134: 5081: 5046: 5024: 4975: 4946:(9): 1107–16. 4926: 4891: 4851: 4826: 4802: 4779: 4757: 4708: 4659: 4640:(2): 279–288. 4613: 4571: 4564: 4543: 4492: 4470: 4433:BMC Pediatrics 4419: 4378: 4343: 4317: 4286:(6): 1817–46. 4266: 4241: 4200: 4172: 4162:on Oct 2, 2013 4143: 4140:on 2019-12-30. 4115: 4055: 4036: 4027:10.17226/10649 4006: 3985:(21): 2241–7. 3965: 3916: 3887: 3831: 3812:(26): 4875–9. 3796: 3749: 3721: 3696: 3675: 3640: 3618: 3569: 3550: 3515:(4): 502–511. 3495: 3475: 3460: 3442: 3392: 3354: 3302: 3267:(2): 176–183. 3244: 3214: 3185:(3): 185–191. 3165: 3125: 3101: 3045: 3038: 2985: 2925: 2905: 2883: 2863: 2839: 2815: 2786: 2764: 2734: 2675: 2647: 2598: 2574: 2553: 2501: 2477: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2428: 2416: 2407: 2403:United Nations 2401:Data from the 2393: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2386: 2385: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2320: 2317: 2296: 2293: 2264:Pasteurization 2246: 2243: 2222:2 Samuel 12:23 2209: 2206: 2111: 2108: 2056:World Factbook 2043:New York Times 2017: 2014: 2000: 1999:United Kingdom 1997: 1994: 1993: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1980: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1959: 1955: 1954: 1951: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1933: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1889: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1876: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1855: 1818: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1776: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1762: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1748: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1648: 1645: 1607: 1606: 1532: 1530: 1523: 1517: 1514: 1510:catchment area 1490: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1420: 1417: 1313: 1310: 1299:A decrease in 1279: 1276: 1270:(AAP) and the 1185: 1182: 1168: 1165: 1129: 1126: 1044: 1041: 1035: 1032: 994: 991: 973: 970: 945: 942: 913: 910: 877:institutions. 852:per capita GDP 797: 794: 762: 759: 738: 724: 670: 667: 613: 610: 568:stunted growth 551: 545: 539: 533: 527: 525: 2,5–5,0% 521: 515: 499:Main article: 496: 493: 451:Main article: 448: 445: 398: 395: 386:Main article: 383: 380: 345:Main article: 342: 339: 258:fetal distress 224:Premature, or 218:Main article: 215: 212: 195: 192: 174: 171: 170: 169: 159: 152: 137: 136:Classification 134: 126:United Nations 55:birth asphyxia 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12231: 12220: 12219:Public health 12217: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12206: 12204: 12189: 12188: 12179: 12177: 12176: 12167: 12165: 12164: 12155: 12154: 12151: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12110:Joseph Lister 12108: 12106: 12103: 12101: 12098: 12096: 12093: 12092: 12090: 12086: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12059: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12051: 12049: 12045: 12038: 12034: 12032: 12029: 12027: 12024: 12020: 12017: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12007: 12005: 12002: 12001: 11999: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11989:Health Canada 11987: 11986: 11984: 11980: 11977: 11976: 11974: 11970: 11967: 11965: 11962: 11961: 11959: 11955: 11952: 11951: 11949: 11945: 11942: 11941: 11939: 11938: 11936: 11934:Organizations 11932: 11929: 11921: 11915: 11912: 11910: 11907: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11897: 11895: 11892: 11890: 11887: 11885: 11882: 11880: 11877: 11875: 11872: 11870: 11867: 11866: 11864: 11858: 11850: 11847: 11845: 11842: 11841: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11832: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11798: 11795: 11794: 11792: 11791: 11789: 11783: 11777: 11774: 11772: 11771:Vaccine trial 11769: 11767: 11764: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11745: 11742: 11741: 11740: 11737: 11733: 11730: 11729: 11728: 11725: 11721: 11718: 11717: 11716: 11713: 11711: 11708: 11707: 11705: 11699: 11693: 11690: 11686: 11684: 11680: 11678: 11676: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11648:Relative risk 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11635: 11633: 11627: 11621: 11618: 11614: 11611: 11609: 11608:Health equity 11606: 11604: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11596: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11573:Health system 11571: 11569: 11566: 11564: 11563:Global health 11561: 11559: 11556: 11554: 11551: 11549: 11546: 11544: 11543:Biostatistics 11541: 11540: 11538: 11536: 11532: 11526: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11511: 11508: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11496: 11494: 11491: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11475: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11457: 11454: 11453: 11452: 11449: 11445: 11442: 11440: 11437: 11435: 11432: 11430: 11427: 11425: 11422: 11420: 11417: 11416: 11415: 11412: 11408: 11405: 11403: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11389: 11388: 11385: 11381: 11378: 11376: 11373: 11372: 11371: 11368: 11366: 11363: 11361: 11358: 11354: 11351: 11350: 11349: 11346: 11345: 11343: 11341: 11337: 11331: 11328: 11326: 11323: 11321: 11318: 11316: 11313: 11311: 11308: 11306: 11303: 11301: 11298: 11296: 11293: 11291: 11288: 11286: 11285:Right to food 11283: 11281: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11240: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11223: 11219: 11218:Mental health 11216: 11214: 11211: 11209: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11178: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11166:Housing First 11164: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11154:Health system 11152: 11151: 11150: 11149:Health policy 11147: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11137: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11104: 11103: 11100: 11098: 11095: 11093: 11090: 11088: 11085: 11083: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11073: 11070: 11069: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11058:Public health 11052: 11047: 11045: 11040: 11038: 11033: 11032: 11029: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10996: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10986: 10984: 10980: 10974: 10971: 10967: 10964: 10963: 10962: 10959: 10957: 10954: 10950: 10947: 10945: 10942: 10940: 10937: 10935: 10932: 10931: 10930: 10927: 10925: 10922: 10921: 10919: 10915: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10894: 10893: 10892: 10888: 10886: 10883: 10882: 10880: 10878: 10874: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10859: 10857: 10855: 10851: 10845: 10842: 10840: 10837: 10836: 10834: 10832: 10827: 10823: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10803: 10801: 10799: 10795: 10789: 10786: 10782: 10779: 10778: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10768: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10754: 10753: 10750: 10748: 10745: 10741: 10738: 10736: 10733: 10731: 10728: 10726: 10723: 10721: 10718: 10717: 10716: 10713: 10712: 10709: 10706: 10705: 10703: 10701: 10696: 10692: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10678: 10677: 10675: 10673: 10669: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10642: 10641: 10640: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10611: 10607: 10604: 10600: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10583: 10582: 10579: 10575: 10572: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10556: 10555: 10554: 10550: 10549: 10547: 10545: 10541: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10526: 10525:Preterm birth 10523: 10521: 10517: 10514: 10513: 10511: 10507: 10497: 10494: 10492: 10489: 10487: 10484: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10477: 10471: 10465: 10462: 10460: 10457: 10455: 10452: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10445: 10439: 10433: 10430: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10423: 10419: 10413: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10387: 10381: 10378: 10370: 10366: 10365:fetal disease 10362: 10354: 10349: 10347: 10342: 10340: 10335: 10334: 10331: 10319: 10311: 10309: 10301: 10300: 10297: 10291: 10288: 10284: 10279: 10276: 10272: 10269: 10268: 10267: 10264: 10260: 10257: 10256: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10235: 10232: 10230: 10227: 10225: 10222: 10220: 10217: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10170: 10167: 10165: 10162: 10160: 10157: 10155: 10152: 10150: 10147: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10120: 10117: 10115: 10112: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10102: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10073: 10070: 10068: 10067:Death anxiety 10065: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10052:Darwin Awards 10050: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10029: 10027: 10023: 10017: 10014: 10010: 10009:Biostratinomy 10007: 10006: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9968: 9963: 9960: 9959: 9957: 9953: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9921:Necropolitics 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9907: 9904: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9891: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9845: 9843: 9839: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9799: 9797: 9793: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9757: 9756: 9755:Reincarnation 9753: 9751: 9748: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9659: 9658:Other aspects 9655: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9609:Body donation 9607: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9598: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9584: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9576:Dismemberment 9574: 9572: 9569: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9556: 9555: 9552: 9551: 9549: 9547: 9543: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9529: 9527: 9524: 9522: 9521:Mummification 9519: 9517: 9514: 9512: 9509: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9496: 9495: 9492: 9491: 9489: 9485: 9479: 9478:Fossilization 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9468:Decomposition 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9443:Pallor mortis 9441: 9440: 9438: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9428: 9423: 9420: 9416: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9402: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9382: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9337: 9335: 9331: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9276: 9274: 9272: 9268: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9201: 9198: 9197: 9196: 9193: 9189: 9186: 9185: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9165: 9162: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9050: 9049: 9046: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8994: 8990: 8987: 8983: 8979: 8972: 8967: 8965: 8960: 8958: 8953: 8952: 8949: 8943: 8940: 8939: 8927: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8892: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8872: 8868: 8864: 8860: 8856: 8853:(3): 349–64. 8852: 8848: 8841: 8833: 8829: 8825: 8821: 8817: 8813: 8809: 8805: 8802:(4): 501–11. 8801: 8797: 8790: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8750: 8746: 8739: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8721:9780231544511 8717: 8713: 8709: 8705: 8698: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8666: 8662: 8655: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8631: 8627: 8623: 8619: 8612: 8604: 8600: 8594: 8586: 8582: 8578: 8572: 8568: 8561: 8550: 8543: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8519: 8515: 8508: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8485:(2): 478–85. 8484: 8480: 8476: 8469: 8461: 8455: 8450: 8449: 8440: 8426:on 2018-09-25 8422: 8418: 8411: 8404: 8390: 8386: 8380: 8372: 8368: 8362: 8354: 8350: 8343: 8335: 8331: 8325: 8310: 8306: 8299: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8257: 8256: 8248: 8246: 8237: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8196: 8181: 8176: 8168: 8160: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8127: 8113: 8109: 8106:Geronimus A. 8102: 8087: 8083: 8077: 8075: 8060:on 2017-03-08 8059: 8055: 8051: 8045: 8030: 8024: 8016: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7975: 7967: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7903: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7881: 7879: 7870: 7866: 7862: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7843: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7808: 7801: 7793: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7760:PLOS Medicine 7757: 7750: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7727: 7719: 7715: 7708: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7681: 7674: 7666: 7662: 7658: 7652: 7644: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7620: 7612: 7611: 7606: 7599: 7585: 7581: 7575: 7559: 7553: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7523: 7515: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7466: 7458: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7417: 7403:on 2019-01-14 7402: 7398: 7394: 7388: 7380: 7374: 7366: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7333:PLOS Medicine 7330: 7323: 7315: 7309: 7305: 7298: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7263: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7240:(4): 705–38. 7239: 7235: 7228: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7187:(4): 577–88. 7186: 7182: 7175: 7173: 7171: 7162: 7155: 7141: 7137: 7130: 7122: 7115: 7109: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7078:(6): 357–60. 7077: 7073: 7066: 7047: 7040: 7021: 7014: 7006: 7002: 6995: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6954:(3): 459–79. 6953: 6949: 6945: 6938: 6924:on 2011-05-03 6923: 6919: 6915: 6909: 6895:on 2013-12-13 6891: 6884: 6878: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6834: 6830: 6824: 6813: 6806: 6799: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6765: 6761: 6758:(4): 467–81. 6757: 6753: 6746: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6707:(4): 623–58. 6706: 6702: 6695: 6687: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6650: 6648: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6596: 6589: 6581: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6548: 6540: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6515:(3): 328–41. 6514: 6510: 6506: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6458: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6416:0-309-07447-9 6412: 6408: 6401: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6372: 6370: 6368: 6359: 6352: 6346: 6344: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6284:(467): 3–13. 6283: 6279: 6272: 6264: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6231: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6190:(8): 621–38. 6189: 6185: 6178: 6171: 6163: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6120: 6112: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6095:(1): 214–26. 6094: 6090: 6086: 6079: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6038: 6036: 6027: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6002:(1): e24-34. 6001: 5997: 5993: 5986: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5947: 5933: 5932:www.acphd.org 5929: 5923: 5915: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5864: 5846: 5839: 5833: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5810:(5): 275–81. 5809: 5805: 5798: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5763: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5719: 5717: 5708: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5657: 5655: 5646: 5641: 5633: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5562:(1): 91–133. 5561: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5480:(1): 97–102. 5479: 5475: 5468: 5460: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5427: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5372: 5371: 5363: 5361: 5352: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5288:(1): 165–78. 5287: 5283: 5279: 5272: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5249:(2): 360–74. 5248: 5244: 5237: 5235: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5174: 5167: 5160: 5152: 5148: 5147:The Economist 5144: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5107:(3): 418–28. 5106: 5102: 5095: 5088: 5086: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5050: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4995:(2): 341–66. 4994: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4971: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4876: 4869: 4868: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4712: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4567: 4561: 4557: 4550: 4548: 4539: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4506:PLOS Medicine 4503: 4496: 4488: 4484: 4483:PubMed Health 4480: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4382: 4368:on 2021-05-25 4364: 4360: 4353: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4321: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4220:(6): 703–12. 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4179: 4177: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4084:(5): 670–81. 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3906:on 2020-04-01 3905: 3901: 3897: 3891: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3738: 3734: 3728: 3726: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3697:9781925261677 3693: 3689: 3682: 3680: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3644: 3636: 3635: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3499: 3491: 3490: 3482: 3480: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3457: 3453: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3397: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3359: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3309: 3307: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3249: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3115: 3111: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3041: 3039:9780123708779 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2981: 2975: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2932: 2930: 2921: 2920: 2915: 2909: 2893: 2887: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2867: 2853: 2849: 2843: 2829: 2825: 2819: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2790: 2782: 2778: 2771: 2769: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2652: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2588: 2584: 2578: 2563: 2557: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2512: 2505: 2491: 2487: 2481: 2466: 2462: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2447: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2411: 2404: 2398: 2394: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2357: 2356: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2316: 2313: 2312:social stigma 2309: 2304: 2302: 2292: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2274: 2268: 2265: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2245:United States 2242: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2205: 2203: 2198: 2192: 2189: 2183: 2180: 2175: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2153: 2151: 2147: 2146:pre-eclampsia 2142: 2137: 2135: 2129: 2126: 2120: 2116: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2095: 2087: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2057: 2051: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2022: 2016:United States 2013: 2011: 2010:child poverty 2006: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1939: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1930: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1891: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1865: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1735: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1654: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1613: 1603: 1592: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1561: – 1560: 1556: 1555:Find sources: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1537:single source 1533:This section 1531: 1527: 1522: 1521: 1513: 1511: 1501: 1498: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1419:Europe and US 1416: 1413: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1337:state failure 1330: 1326: 1318: 1309: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1294: 1289: 1285: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1181: 1178: 1177:breastfeeding 1174: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1134:prenatal care 1125: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1040: 1031: 1029: 1023: 1021: 1016: 1012: 1004: 999: 993:Birth spacing 990: 988: 987:heterogeneous 984: 978: 969: 967: 963: 959: 955: 950: 941: 937: 933: 931: 930:Yugoslav Wars 925: 923: 919: 909: 907: 902: 900: 895: 892: 888: 884: 878: 875: 871: 866: 864: 860: 859:socioeconomic 855: 853: 848: 847: 846:The Economist 839: 834: 830: 827: 823: 819: 814: 807: 802: 793: 791: 787: 782: 779: 776: 771: 767: 758: 754: 751: 743: 737: 729: 723: 718: 716: 711: 708: 707:air pollution 704: 699: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 675: 669:Environmental 666: 663: 662:bronchiolitis 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 634: 632: 628: 624: 620: 609: 607: 602: 601:public health 598: 594: 592: 588: 584: 580: 575: 573: 572:breastfeeding 569: 564: 563:immune system 555: No data 512: 507: 502: 492: 490: 486: 477: 472: 470: 469:prenatal care 465: 464: 459: 454: 444: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 420: 415: 410: 408: 404: 394: 389: 379: 377: 373: 367: 365: 360: 359:Back to Sleep 355: 348: 338: 336: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 297: 295: 291: 287: 286:immune system 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 261: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 238: 234: 231: 227: 226:preterm birth 221: 220:Preterm birth 211: 209: 205: 201: 200:preterm birth 191: 189: 185: 181: 167: 163: 160: 156: 153: 150: 147: 146: 145: 142: 133: 131: 127: 123: 118: 116: 115:breastfeeding 110: 108: 107:public health 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 51: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 29: 21: 12185: 12173: 12161: 12130:Radium Girls 12125:Typhoid Mary 11812:Microbiology 11682: 11674: 11577: 11558:Epidemiology 11456:Organization 11407:Oral hygiene 11397:Hand washing 11375:Healthy diet 11305:Right to sit 11198:Labor rights 11003: 10889: 10645:Pneumothorax 10637: 10551: 10544:Birth trauma 10486:Breech birth 10476:presentation 10474: 10442: 10416: 10384: 10164:Death threat 10047:Dark tourism 9989:Necrobiology 9931:Right to die 9889: 9848:Abortion law 9772:Resurrection 9760:Palingenesis 9657: 9619:Coffin birth 9526:Plastination 9487:Preservation 9463:Putrefaction 9458:Rigor mortis 9453:Algor mortis 9448:Livor mortis 9425: 9381:Memento mori 9379: 9359: 9232:Lazarus sign 9212:Death rattle 9155:Suicide gene 9140:Karyorrhexis 9031:Fat necrosis 8901: 8897: 8891: 8850: 8846: 8840: 8799: 8795: 8789: 8748: 8744: 8738: 8703: 8697: 8664: 8660: 8654: 8621: 8617: 8611: 8602: 8593: 8566: 8560: 8542: 8517: 8513: 8507: 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WHO. 2011 6677:10419/81795 6474:: 669–708. 5443:(1): 10–6. 3737:www.cdc.gov 3566:(1): 13–15. 3373:(2): 74–9. 2852:www.who.int 2799:www.who.int 2524:(4): 1–28. 2465:www.cdc.gov 2345:Miscarriage 2141:segregation 1871:Afghanistan 1826:(LDCs) and 1388:stillbirths 1341:development 1232:(MMR), and 1194:Hepatitis B 1028:underweight 983:homogeneous 788:, parental 585:, fatigue, 431:(IPV), and 364:co-sleeping 330:fibronectin 194:Main causes 12214:Population 12203:Categories 11940:Caribbean 11817:Processing 11751:Quarantine 11673:Student's 11473:Sanitation 11107:History of 10999:Stillbirth 10956:Omphalitis 10917:Infections 10826:Integument 10209:Last rites 10179:Extinction 10149:Death pose 10144:Death poem 10114:Death hoax 10094:Death camp 10087:Psychopomp 9962:Death tech 9817:Necromancy 9795:Paranormal 9777:Underworld 9629:Dissection 9591:Resomation 9586:Promession 9564:Sky burial 9531:Prosection 9516:Maceration 9227:Euthanasia 9145:Karyolysis 9103:Pyroptosis 9083:Paraptosis 8993:Cell death 8624:: 94–106. 8479:Pediatrics 8430:2018-05-13 8394:2017-03-07 8303:Bonnor L. 8262:22 October 8117:2017-03-07 8092:2017-03-16 8064:2017-03-07 8035:2017-03-07 7589:2019-12-18 7564:1 December 7407:2013-09-29 7397:Unicef.org 7145:2009-11-04 6948:Demography 6928:2013-09-29 6899:2013-09-29 6868:2014-03-24 6838:2013-09-29 6788:2013-08-26 6622:10986/4916 6448:2020-07-30 6391:2020-07-30 6299:1956/11852 6241:Pediatrics 6205:2262/75578 5937:2020-08-03 5854:2023-08-15 4989:Demography 4884:22 October 4845:2017-02-07 4820:2024-03-16 4594:: 147–70. 4439:(1): 189. 4398:(5): 648. 4372:2018-07-27 4260:2018-07-27 4166:2013-09-29 3910:2018-07-25 3852:Pediatrics 3763:Pediatrics 3743:2020-07-30 3509:Pediatrics 3470:1027675119 3261:Pediatrics 3119:2017-03-07 2857:2020-07-31 2833:2019-03-24 2809:2017-03-16 2757:22 October 2669:2020-07-30 2592:2017-03-16 2568:2017-04-25 2539:1903/24216 2495:2017-03-07 2471:2023-04-07 2443:References 2350:Stillbirth 2252:penicillin 2239:pediatrics 2174:Misogynoir 2134:weathering 2082:by 329.3. 2068:stillbirth 1651:See also: 1570:newspapers 1293:sanitation 1234:Diphtheria 1138:folic acid 1102:physicians 1085:, such as 1081:Promoting 1076:sanitation 1068:chlorinate 863:technology 820:tended to 658:bronchitis 619:meningitis 597:Folic acid 314:chemokines 308:, various 292:, and the 180:infections 158:countries. 95:sanitation 12120:John Snow 12047:Education 12037:Full list 11925:education 11849:ISO 22000 11802:Chemistry 11715:Epidemics 11668:ROC curve 11478:Emergency 11258:Radiation 11238:Pollution 11222:Ministers 11119:Euthenics 10725:Anti-Kell 10363:period / 10361:perinatal 10254:Sacrifice 10249:Predation 10214:Longevity 10004:Taphonomy 9941:Trust law 9896:Death row 9681:Afterlife 9634:Gibbeting 9571:Cremation 9536:Taxidermy 9511:Embalming 9387:Micromort 9333:Mortality 9110:Autolysis 9068:Autophagy 9063:Apoptosis 8926:143548315 8646:144927978 6686:0258-6770 6490:1435-9871 6425:928430099 6222:206228471 5977:219379303 5969:1556-5068 5121:154583453 4654:154147986 3791:245121375 3529:0031-4005 3281:0031-4005 2958:2383-0271 2894:. UN-DESA 2695:(1): 61. 2325:Baby boom 2197:diversity 2162:oxycodone 2158:ibuprofen 1949:Singapore 1813:2045–2050 1807:1995–2000 1799:2040–2045 1793:1990–1995 1785:2035–2040 1779:1985–1990 1771:2030–2035 1765:1980–1985 1757:2025–2030 1751:1975–1980 1743:2020–2025 1737:1970–1975 1729:2015–2020 1723:1965–1970 1715:2010–2015 1709:1960–1965 1701:2005–2010 1695:1955–1960 1687:2000–2005 1681:1950–1955 1600:July 2023 1218:Varicella 1214:Influenza 1208:(PCV13), 1198:Rotavirus 1167:Nutrition 822:correlate 691:microbial 687:parasitic 683:pathogens 654:pneumonia 587:blindness 322:defensins 318:cytokines 59:pneumonia 12163:Category 11862:sciences 11797:Additive 11468:Safe sex 11439:Medicine 11353:Theories 11124:Genomics 11102:Eugenics 11092:Deviance 11072:Auxology 10695:Bleeding 10386:placenta 10308:Category 10278:Thanabot 10229:Necronym 10199:Homicide 9750:Obituary 9738:Mourning 9728:Internet 9671:Cemetery 9546:Disposal 9499:Cryonics 9168:Abortion 9135:Pyknosis 9001:Necrosis 8918:27522168 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7957:1448602 7783:3168874 7505:6800389 7484:Bibcode 7448:6527519 7356:1621099 7289:1532733 7254:1973432 7219:3190009 7092:8578873 6978:7828766 6970:2061752 6737:1082922 6571:6039738 6530:4168626 6443:AAP.org 6358:CDC.gov 6334:CDC.gov 6153:4608184 6136:: 327. 6017:4695937 5905:6544253 5882:Bibcode 5698:2278210 5675:Bibcode 5576:1372967 5537:9789323 5450:2572309 5418:7743798 5410:8098086 5342:6954495 5129:1630138 5076:2921696 5010:3974908 4961:3438254 4940:Clinics 4743:1247561 4694:2199284 4529:3747995 4456:4653928 4303:3137999 4236:8313488 4227:2393544 4101:2728659 3951:1731756 3882:5744617 3806:Vaccine 3783:8165085 3613:8162848 3537:3658568 3289:2371093 3239:2173553 3209:7199074 3200:1052154 2720:4508882 2697:Bibcode 2208:History 1962:Bermuda 1914:103.72 1910:Somalia 1901:109.08 1888:109.98 1875:121.63 1857:Country 1584:scholar 1488:Poland 1464:France 1448:Norway 1238:tetanus 1230:Rubella 1222:Measles 1204:(HIB), 1064:hygiene 1015:chronic 966:smoking 958:obesity 944:Culture 818:incomes 786:poverty 650:malaria 646:measles 579:wasting 124:of the 75:measles 71:malaria 11975:India 11950:China 11822:Safety 11503:Worker 10509:Growth 10422:amnion 10219:Martyr 9955:Fields 9916:Murder 9832:Séance 9802:Ghosts 9686:Tukdam 9554:Burial 9436:Stages 9120:Eschar 8924: 8916: 8881: 8873: 8865: 8830: 8822: 8814: 8779: 8771: 8728: 8718: 8687: 8679: 8644: 8636: 8583: 8573: 8532: 8497: 8456: 8234: 8224: 8157: 8013: 8003: 7964: 7954: 7890:Weekly 7867: 7832: 7790: 7780: 7697: 7639: 7512: 7502: 7476:Nature 7455: 7445: 7363: 7353: 7310: 7287: 7252: 7217: 7209: 7098: 7090: 6984: 6976: 6968: 6735: 6727: 6719: 6684: 6636: 6628: 6578: 6568: 6537: 6527: 6488: 6423: 6413: 6314: 6306: 6261: 6220: 6212: 6160: 6150: 6109: 6068: 6024: 6014: 5975: 5967: 5912: 5902: 5822: 5787: 5752: 5744: 5705: 5695: 5574: 5535: 5529:172276 5527: 5492: 5457: 5447: 5416: 5408: 5390:Lancet 5349: 5339: 5300: 5261: 5225:616916 5223: 5215: 5127: 5119: 5074: 5017: 5007: 4968: 4958: 4919: 4750: 4740: 4701: 4691: 4652: 4606: 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8828:S2CID 8812:JSTOR 8769:JSTOR 8726:JSTOR 8677:JSTOR 8642:S2CID 8634:JSTOR 8552:(PDF) 8424:(PDF) 8413:(PDF) 7810:(PDF) 7683:(PDF) 7285:JSTOR 7250:JSTOR 7215:S2CID 7140:WebMD 7117:(PDF) 7096:S2CID 7049:(PDF) 7023:(PDF) 6982:S2CID 6966:JSTOR 6893:(PDF) 6886:(PDF) 6815:(PDF) 6808:(PDF) 6725:S2CID 6717:JSTOR 6634:S2CID 6626:JSTOR 6598:(PDF) 6354:(PDF) 6312:S2CID 6218:S2CID 6180:(PDF) 5973:S2CID 5848:(PDF) 5841:(PDF) 5750:S2CID 5572:JSTOR 5525:JSTOR 5414:S2CID 5221:S2CID 5169:(PDF) 5117:S2CID 5097:(PDF) 4878:(PDF) 4871:(PDF) 4650:S2CID 4366:(PDF) 4355:(PDF) 4330:(PDF) 4138:(PDF) 4127:(PDF) 3878:S2CID 3787:S2CID 3702:JSTOR 3609:S2CID 3541:S2CID 3433:S2CID 3345:S2CID 3293:S2CID 3092:S2CID 2962:S2CID 2944:(1). 2638:S2CID 2587:WebMD 2514:(PDF) 2389:Notes 2295:China 1992:1.80 1979:2.21 1975:Japan 1966:2.47 1953:2.65 1940:2.74 1884:Niger 1676:Rate 1673:Years 1667:Years 1591:JSTOR 1577:books 1226:Mumps 883:trade 826:races 625:or a 278:apnea 89:, or 11776:WASH 11732:List 11720:List 11253:Soil 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