Indigenous peoples in Ecuador

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region they will be in partnership with by improving their land and their economic status as well. Reasons as to why they decided to obtain partnership with the Amazonian region was for multiple reasons. One of the reasons was that the location was ideal. Two of the most high quality rubber trees grew in that region; the Hevea tree and the Castilloa. tree the Hevea tree was only able to be used 6 month out of the year while the Castilloa was able to be used the whole year. To begin the trading system, the Western territories began to obtain discourse with the Mestizos of the land which were known to be the more prestigious of the different groups residing in Ecuador. They became highly tied into the trading system that was created. There was fast money involved in this system that attracted the Mestizos. Economic prosperity seemed promising. As the rubber industry flourished many other factors came to surface in the system of Rubber production. Because of the high demand for rubber at the time, the Mestizos who became known as the Caucheros (rubber barons) decided that they needed to obtain an abundant number of workers that would work for low wages. The indigenous population soon came to mind because of a couple of factors. One was due to the fact that they seemed the best fit to perform the labor. They knew the lands on which they would work because of their long history of living on the land. They were well adapted to the climate and familiar with means of survival like hunting and gathering. The enslavement of the Indigenous people soon became an epidemic. Natives were taken from their homes by a group called the Muchachos who were African men hired by the Caucheros to do their dirty work. They were in turn forced to work in the rubber industries by fear and intimidation and were put on a rubber quota with time constraints and were expected to meet the demands.

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an extended period of time. More extreme punishments included the shooting workers if they tried to escape or became too ill to work. The pay for their hard labor was minimal. They were put on what was called a debt-penoage where they had to work for a long period of time in order to gain funds to pay back debt they owned to the Caucheros for supplies that they were given for their daily tasks such as tools to work, clothes, and food. The low compensation for their labor often led to working their whole life for the rubber barons. They usually received a small item that they were able to keep, like a hammock, and the rest was given straight to the employer. There was very little Government intervention thanks to bribery that got local officials to overlook what was occurring and the fear of being attacked by the Amerindians. The end of the Rubber Boom was in 1920 when the prices of rubber dropped. The enslavement of the Indigenous people ceased with the end of the rubber boom.

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was conducted in 1994 by the Centre for Economic and Social Rights which found a rise in health concerns in the Ecuadorian region. it was found that there was a notably higher incidence of cancer in women and men in the countries where there was oil production present for over 20 years. Women also reported increased rates in a copious number of physical ailments such as skin mycosis, sore throat, headaches and gastritis. The primary argument against these findings were that they were weak and biased. Texaco decided on jurisdiction in Ecuador. The case put against Texaco remained in the works for some time. In 2001, Texaco was taken over by Chevron, another oil company, which assumed the liabilities left by the previous production. On February, 2011 Chevron was found guilty after inheriting the case left by Texaco and was said to be required to pay 9 billion dollars in damages. This is known to be one of the largest environmental lawsuits award recorded.

1062:“improve” the indigenous race. Ecuador’s historical background has left the country with a very stratified social environment. This is the nucleus of the stratification of different social classes in Ecuador. There have been many attempts to reduce such stratification such as making indigenous languages official in 1998. The Republic of Ecuador also self claimed itself plurinational and intercultural in 2008. It is essential to understand the causes of such racial inequality in a given society in order to be able to approach the problem. Understanding the root of the problems also allows us to understand the existence or lack of public policy initiatives. Structuralist explanations for such inequality is supported by both the minority and dominant groups. Although 19.5% of Ecuadorians believe the economic inequality between the races is due to insufficient work effort from minorities, 47.0% believe it arises from discrimination. 1073:” and “longo” which are threatening because they are not institutionalized to any official ethnic group. With such unhistorical and unstructured rise to the terminology, the terminology is more flexible when used and persistent. The paternalistic system of ethnic discrimination transitioned to a more democratization of racial relations. Although there are no more “hacienda’s” (working systems where indigenous peoples were exploited for labor) and Amerindians now have a right to vote, there is still an everyday discriminatory challenge. Amerindians often feel vulnerable and predisposed to physical and verbal attacks, which cause them to be more reserved and avoid contact with whites. An indigenous witness claimed he was told to leave a restaurant because “no Indians admitted to locale”. Racism can be seen such as travelling in public transportation, interactions in public spaces, and the yearning to be white from Amerindians. 1066:

and be discriminated against. The percent of indigenous population in Ecuador that lives in poverty differs by 4.5 times that of the non-indigenous population. Education is one of the greatest factors for such economical inequality in the country. The lack of education for many indigenous people makes it difficult for the ethnic group to overcome such poverty. Unfortunately, the probability of indigenous people to stay in school is very low. It is evident that there is an existing difference in education between the ethnic groups. The indigenous population only has an average of 4.5 years of formal education, while non-indigenous population’s average of years is 8. The minority group has a net secondary school enrollment rate of 14.0% and because of rural residence and work they have a much lower probability of staying in school.

524:, evidence of Regional Development period culture was discovered at the Upano Valley sites of Faldas de Sangay, also known as the Sangay Complex or Huapula, as well as at other nearby sites. These people created ceramics, farmed, and hunted and gathered. They also built large earthen mounds, the smallest of which were used for agriculture or housing, and the largest of which had ceremonial functions. The hundreds of mounds spread over a twelve square kilometer area at Sangay demonstrate that the Oriente was capable of supporting large populations. The lack of evidence of kings or "principal" chiefs and also challenges the notion that cultural creations such as monuments require centralized authority. 195: 931:, have insisted that the indigenous make up no more than two million people. Historian Enrique Ayala Mora, too, estimates that the indigenous population is no more than sixteen percent. Other organizations, such as CONAIE, while giving varying estimates in different years, tend to approximate closer to four million. Mexican professor Fernando Lizcano has estimated that indigenous peoples amount to as much as 39% of the population, based on cultural characteristics. This discrepancy arises from the ways in which they are counted: "oes one consider them such on the basis of physical characteristics or whether they live in the Andean Indian world?" 2373: 2865: 3588: 590: 3600: 897:

after the first contacts with Spanish explorers and their livestock. According to early Spanish chronicles the Inca Huayna Capac died of smallpox and then the territories of Collasuyo and central Peru so a period of civil war for the control of the royal household between two brothers each an heir to the dominions of their respective maternal feudal lands.

429:, an outgrowth of the Las Vegas culture, was an important early civilization. While archaeological finds in Brazil and elsewhere have supplanted those at Valdivia as the earliest-known ceramics in the Americas, the culture retains its importance due to its formative role in Amerindian civilization in South America, which is analogous to the role of the 357:, which date between 10,010 and 7,535 BP. Chobshi also provides evidence of the domestication of the dog. Another site, Cubilán, rests on the border between Azuay and Loja provinces. Scrapers, projectile points, and awls discovered there date between 9,060 and 9,100 BP, while vegetable remains are up to a thousand years older. 1045:

Texaco began to scout the Oriente in a joint business known as a consortium. Major shipments of oil were put into action in 1972 after the Trans-Ecuadorian Pipeline was finished. In the years of production business in oil production increased rapidly and Ecuador soon became the second largest producer of oil in South America.

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had been dumped into the natural environment with the absence of any monitoring or overseeing to prevent damages to the surrounding areas. In addition there was a report of 16.8 million gallons of crude that was dispersed into the environment in relation to spillage out of the Trans-Ecuadorian pipeline.

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Zambrano, Ana Karina; Gaviria, Aníbal; Cobos-Navarrete, Santiago; Gruezo, Carmen; Rodríguez-Pollit, Cristina; Armendáriz-Castillo, Isaac; García-Cárdenas, Jennyfer M.; Guerrero, Santiago; López-Cortés, Andrés; Leone, Paola E.; Pérez-Villa, Andy; Guevara-Ramírez, Patricia; Yumiceba, Verónica; Fiallos,

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The Archaic period is defined as "the stage of migratory hunting and gathering cultures continuing into the environmental conditions approximating those of the present." During this period, hunters began to subsist on a wider variety of smaller game and increased their gathering activities. They also

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If the quotas were not met they were punished. Punishments by the Muchachos were very severe and brutal. Common punishments including flogging, hanging, and being put into a cepo. When the workers were put into a cepo they were chained in pain inflicting positions and left without food and water for

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Unfortunately, the widest gap of income inequality in the world is in Latin America. The difference in economic division across ethnicities is a consequence of human capital and discrimination. It can be concluded through research that indigenous people in Ecuador are predisposed to live in poverty

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Ecuador has a history of Spanish colonization of indigenous people that were enslaved, abused, and exploited. Eventually the country adapted the French Neo-Lamarck ideology leading to “mestizaje.” This “mestizaje” began in the sixteenth century where white colonizers began to mix with indigenous to

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in the North. However, the Inca language and social structures came to predominate, particularly in the Sierra. To reduce the opposition to their rule, one of the Inca's tactics included uprooting groups of Quechua-speakers loyal to the empire and resettling them in areas that offered resistance, a

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In the early 1990s a lawsuit led by Ecuadorian government officials of 1.5 billion dollars was presented against the Texaco company with claims that there was an immense pollution epidemic that led to the demise of many natural environments as well as an increase in human illnesses. A cancer study

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Texaco's contract for oil production in Ecuador expired in 1992. PetroEcuador then took over 100% of the oil production management. 1.5 billion barrels of crude oil was reported to have been extracted while under the management of Texaco. There were also reports of 19 billion gallons of waste that

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The 19th century marked a time in history when the need for rubber came into high demand in the world. Many Western Territories including America wanted to produce Rubber Industries in desire to produce economic prosperity. They also expressed an alternative goal, which was to also make better the

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Huáscar was a prince born to a noble family of Cuzco and Atahualpa was a son from a noble family of the Quitus. The quitus were a tribe that formed an alliance with the Incas during the conquest of Huayna Capac. Most important in this civil war was the participation of Huayna Capac generals on the

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The year 1978 marked the beginning of petroleum production in Ecuador. Texaco is documented to be the primary international oil company that was given permission to export oil from the coast of Ecuador. This company managed the oil operation from 1971 to 1992. The Ecuadorian government along with

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Prior to the invasion of the Inca, the indigenous societies of Ecuador had complex and diverse social, cultural, and economic systems. The ethnic groups of the central Sierra were generally more advanced in organizing farming and commercial activities, and the peoples of the Coast and the Oriente

536:, an island in the estuary of the Santiago River, made alloys of platinum and gold, fashioning the material into miniatures and masks. The Jama-Coaque, Bahía, Guangala, and Jambalí also practiced metalwork in other areas of the Ecuadorian coast. These goods were traded though mercantile networks. 896:

In 1534, at the time of the arrival of the first columns of Spanish conquistadores, the population of the present day territories of Ecuador is believed to border the figure of one million inhabitants. This might have been a result of epidemics of smallpox and diphtheria that spread in the Andes

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in Mexico. Most of the ceramic shards from the Early Valdivia date to about 4,450 BP (although some may be from up to 6,250 BP), with artifacts from the later period of the civilization dating from about 3,750 BP. Ceramics were utilitarian, but also produced pieces of very original art, like the

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The Formative Period is characterized by "the presence of agriculture, or any other subsistence economy of comparable effectiveness, and by the successful integration of such an economy into well-established, sedentary village life." In Ecuador, this period is also marked by the establishment of

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Los seres humanos parecen haber ocupado rápidamente el callejón interandino. La Costa, en cambio habría permanecido largamente deshabitada, a juzgar por la relativa escasez de asentamiento precerámicos descubiertos (excepto los numerosos sitios de la península de Santa Elena) en una región que,

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Using the system of multicyclic agriculture, which allowed them to have year-long harvests of a wide variety of crops by planting at a variety of altitudes and at different times, the Sierra people flourished. Generally, an ethnic group farmed the mountainside nearest to it. Cities began to

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were also cultivated. They also consumed substantial amounts of fish. Archaeological evidence from the Late Valdivia shows a decline in life expectancy to approximately 21 years. This decline is attributed to an increase in infectious disease, accumulation of waste, water pollution, and a

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In the coastal lowlands, the Esmeralda, the Manta, the Huancavilca, and the Puná were the four major groups. They were seafarers, but also practiced agriculture and trade, both with each other and with peoples of the Sierra. The most important commodity they provided, however, were

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The Integration Period (1450 BP—450 BP) "is characterized by great cultural uniformity, the development of urban centres, class-based social stratification, and intensive agriculture." The Integration Period ends and the historic era begins with the Inca conquest.

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Similarly, cultural elaboration does not turn out to have been linked to social organization as predicted by earlier theories. Elaboration in the form of art and technology and monument building was found in both areas, without evidence of centralized, controlling

396:. Humans adapted to the new conditions by relying more heavily on farming. The adoption of agriculture as the primary mode of subsistence was gradual, taking up most of the Archaic period. It was accompanied by cultural changes in burial practices, art, and tools. 268:

is the period, dating roughly 2200–1300 BP, of the civilizations of the Sierra, described as "localized but interacting states with complex ideologies, symbol systems, and social forms." The people of this period practiced metallurgy, weaving, and ceramics.

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Local beliefs and practices co-existed those practiced regionally, which allowed each ethnic group to maintain its own religious identity while interacting, especially commercially, with neighboring groups. Some regional commonalities were the

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The initial cultivation of corn probably took place around 6000 B.C. on the Santa Elena peninsula and at around 4300 B.C. at Lake Ayauchi in the southeastern Oriente of Ecuador (Pearsall 1995: 127–128; Piperno 1988: 203–224, 1990,

1345:. 109–110 (South America: Long and Winding Roads for the First Americans at the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition). San Antonio, Texas, USA: Center for Archaeological Research, The University of Texas at San Antonio: 23–43. 343:

flows are located. Due to agricultural disturbances of archaeological remains, it has been difficult to establish a consistent timeline for this site. The oldest artifacts there discovered, however, date to 9,750 BP.

634:, that regulated the planting and harvesting of multiple cycles of crops. While some historians have referred to this system as the "Kingdom of Quito", it did not approach the level of political organization of the 659:, and fruits could be grown and where salt could be produced, gained economic importance. Sometimes, tribes farmed lands outside their immediate purview. These goods were then traded in a two-tiered market system. 3553: 553:

The coastal peoples continued the traditions of their predecessors on the Santa Elena peninsula. They include the Machalilla, and later the Chorrera, who refined the ceramicism of the Valdivia culture.

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epoch, or about 11,000 years ago. These Paleo-Indians subsisted on the megafauna that inhabited the Americas at the time, which they hunted and processed with stone tools of their own manufacture.

1718: 231:, Regional Development, and Integration. These time periods are determined by the cultural development of groups being studied, and are not directly linked to specific dates, e.g. through 574:

poisons for blowgun darts from various other plants. Complex religious systems developed, many of which incorporated (or perhaps originated from) the use of hallucinogenic plants such as

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Also following the lead of the Sierra peoples, the people of the Oriente began congregating around sites where cotton, coca, salt, and beads could be more easily produced for trade.

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Puntas de lanza de varios tamaños han sido encontradas en diferentes lugares del país, particularmente, en las provincias del Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Azuay y Loja.

339:, which was quickly populated. One such settlement, remains of which were found at the archaeological site El Inga, was centered at the eastern base of Mount Ilaló, where two 962:. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may be the descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador in a mitma, or forced migration. 3141: 2806: 666:", and was the means by which ordinary individuals fulfilled their need for tubers, maize, and cotton. Directed commerce, however, was undertaken by specialists called 238:

The Lithic period encompasses the earliest stages of development, beginning with the culture that migrated into the American continents and continuing until the Late

2849: 2839: 977:, make up 0.24% percent of the indigenous population, while the remaining 3.35 percent live in the Oriente and consist of the Oriente Quichua (the Canelo and the 1516:

Preceramic and aceramic settlements, as well as later pottery-using societies, likely were already established at some places in the Oriente well before 500 B.C.

1928:"Ecuador: Racism and Ethnic Discrimination in the ups and downs of Public Policy (Ecuador: racismo y discriminación étnica en el vaivén de la política pública)" 1480: 1248: 532:

The period from 2450 BP—1450 BP is known as the "Regional Development" period, and is marked by the development of metalworking skills. The artisans of

3102: 3097: 2879: 678:, but specialized in products that had ceremonial purposes, such as coca, salt, gold, and beads. Seashells were sometimes used as currency in places such as 300:

Evidence of Paleoindian hunter-gatherer material culture in other parts of coastal Ecuador is isolated and scattered. Such artifacts have been found in the

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While archaeologists have proposed different temporal models at different times, the schematic currently in use divides prehistoric Ecuador into five major

1014: 282: 1608:. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. III. Stuart B. Schwartz (third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1450:. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. III. Stuart B. Schwartz (third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1576:. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. III (third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 264–349 . 1462:

In fact, this region somewhat resembles the African highland zone, in which our species evolved, so it is no wonder it was swiftly and solidly colonized.

1017:(CONAIE) has been the primary political organization ever since, and has been influential in national politics, including the ouster of the presidents 1713: 1150:"The three-hybrid genetic composition of an Ecuadorian population using AIMs-InDels compared with autosomes, mitochondrial DNA and y chromosome data" 360:

In the Oriente, human settlements have since at least 2450 BP. Settlements that probably date from this period have been found in the provinces of

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s power depended on his ability to mobilize manual labor, and was sustained by his ability to distribute highly-valued goods to the members of his

2105:"Remarks on on Racial and Ethnic Inequalities in the Struggle for Social and Environmental Justice | Initiative on Race, Gender and Globalization" 1069:

There is also a drastic social impact on Indigenous people mainly through exclusion. This racism raised the use of certain terminology such as “

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began domesticating plants such as maize and squash, probably at "dooryard gardens." In the Andean highlands, this period lasted from 7000-3500

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There is debate about the quantities of indigenous currently inhabiting Ecuador. Some elements of society, most famously the former President

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The end of the Ice Age brought changes to the flora and fauna, which led to the extinction of the large game hunted by Paleo-Indians, such as

3450: 3365: 770:, unlike in the Southern Andes, were small, made up of only about 200 people, although the larger ones could reach up to 1,200 members. Each 17: 3625: 1678: 1373: 183:

to the present. Their history, which encompasses the last 11,000 years, reaches into the present; 7 percent of Ecuador's population is of

3409: 3254: 2792: 2257: 2242: 2104: 1411: 1215:. Classics in Southeastern Archaeology. Michael J. O'Brien (second ed.). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. pp. 104–139. 3114: 3109: 3592: 3416: 3167: 2131:

de la Torre, Carlos (January 1999). "Everyday Forms of Racism in Contemporary Ecuador: The Experiences of the Middle-Class Indians".

1663: 744:", although this type of organization predates the arrival of Quechua speakers. Two political systems were built on the basis of the 191:

of mixed indigenous and European heritage. Genetic analysis indicates that Ecuadorian Mestizos are of three-hybrid genetic ancestry.

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In the South, archaeological discoveries include stone artifacts and animal remains found in the Cave of Chobshi, located in the

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García-Aracil, Adela (2006). "Gender and Ethnicity Differentials in School Attainment and Labor Market Earnings in Ecuador".

376:. However, most of the evidence recovered in the Oriente suggest a date of settlement later than in the Sierra or the Coast. 1863: 3375: 3370: 2507: 176: 1604:

Shimada, Izumi (2000). "Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E-C.E. 600)". In Frank Salomon (ed.).

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specialize in the production of goods, agricultural and otherwise. For this reason, the dry valleys, where cotton, coca,

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of the Santa Elena Peninsula/, who, in addition to making use of the abundant piscine resources, also contributed to the

184: 180: 1913: 3635: 3235: 3064: 2815: 2308: 2303: 2291: 2274: 2264: 2247: 194: 3630: 3443: 3092: 2759: 2433: 2313: 2201: 1613: 1581: 1495: 1455: 1263: 1220: 1033: 521: 246:. The people of this culture are known as Paleo-Indians, and the end of their era is marked by the extinction of the 2350: 1501: 1269: 3185: 1544: 682:

in the far North. Salt was used in other parts of the Sierra, and in other places where salt was abundant, such as

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Despite the existence of these early coastal settlements, the majority of human settlement occurred in the Sierra (

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trade networks and the spread of different styles of pottery. It began in about 3500 and ended around 2200 BP.

224: 152: 1900: 369: 3525: 3480: 3313: 3268: 3215: 2703: 2589: 2517: 2323: 2284: 630:. Their political organization was a dual system: one of chieftains, the other, a land-holding system called 156: 3505: 3485: 3436: 3293: 3273: 3230: 3220: 3180: 2562: 2484: 2474: 2448: 2428: 2181: 1753:

Gerlach, Allen. Indians, Oil and Politics: A Recent History of Ecuador. SR Books, Wilmington Delaware. 2003

853:, however, was able to subsequently conquer these peoples, consolidating Ecuador into "Tawantinsuyu", the 3490: 3338: 3278: 3027: 2971: 2844: 2623: 2572: 2499: 2494: 2296: 740:

was common, was the basic unit of society. The extended family group is referred to by the Kichwa word "

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generally followed their lead, coming to specialize in processing local materials into goods for trade.

3578: 3515: 3303: 2718: 2423: 2418: 2269: 2252: 373: 148: 31: 2892: 2524: 2443: 2398: 1767:[Ethnic Composition of Three Cultural Areas of the Americas at Beginning of the XXI Century] 1490:. Richard L. Burger. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. p. 541. 365: 1833: 1765:"Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" 938:

living in the valleys of the Sierra region. They are Quichua speakers and include the Caranqui, the

693:, the Puruhá in the Chanchán riverbasin, and the Panzaleos in the Patate and Guayallabamba valleys. 3467: 2966: 2393: 2360: 199: 1298: 1028:

In 1998, Ecuador signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples,

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In the Oriente, evidence of maize cultivation discovered at Lake Ayauchi dates from 6250 BP. In

2413: 1421: 361: 928: 3390: 3069: 2976: 2733: 2217: 393: 286: 485:. They also farmed crops that originated in the coastal regions and in the North, including 3348: 3343: 3059: 2854: 2650: 2604: 2512: 2479: 2438: 2381: 1984:

Telles, Edward (May 2013). "Understanding Latin American Beliefs about Racial Inequality".

1864:"Epidemiology vs epidemiology: The case of oil exploitation in the Amazon basin of Ecuador" 1346: 1161: 582: 301: 265: 30:

This article is about the indigenous peoples of Ecuador. For other indigenous peoples, see

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La Primera Revolución Ecuatoriana: El desarrollo de la Vida Agrícola en el Antiguo Ecuador

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In 1986, indigenous people formed the first "truly" national political organization. The

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during this period laid the basis for the pastoral tradition that continues to this day.

1944: 1788: 1350: 1258:. Richard L. Burger. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. 1165: 809:, which marked the solstices and equinoxes, and veneration of the sun, moon, and maize. 3353: 3146: 2752: 2728: 2688: 2675: 2594: 2550: 2538: 2403: 2209: 2039: 2001: 1871: 1679:"Arqueología Ecuatoriana | Revistas | Si Quieren Ser Inkas… Que Sean Felices" 1182: 1149: 349: 336: 313: 3428: 1358: 119: 3200: 3084: 2864: 2834: 2784: 2683: 2655: 2584: 2279: 2043: 1959: 1780: 1645: 1609: 1577: 1491: 1451: 1446:

Lynch, Thomas F. (2000). "Earliest South American Lifeways". In Frank Salomon (ed.).

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kept pace with agricultural development, with the domestication of the local animals

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may have their origin from mitmas relocated from other parts of the Inca Empire.

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The oldest artifacts discovered in Ecuador are stone implements discovered at 32

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and continued coastward. Upon arriving, he undertook a sea voyage to either the

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http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/SSU/TC-SSU-05202006230338.pdf

1173: 978: 806: 635: 419: 255: 115: 111: 87: 1374:"Los primeros habitantes del Ecuador I: Los primeros habitantes del Ecuador-2" 842: 473:

In the Sierra, people cultivated locally developed crops, including tree bean

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Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities (2013), p. 422. Edited by Carl Skutsch

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deterioration in diet, all of which are associated with agriculture itself.

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Some scholars dispute the Inca heritage of indigenous people of Ecuador.

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In this manner, the Pasto and the Caras undertook their existence in the

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Mundos Plurales - Revista Latinoamericana de Políticas y Acción Pública

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Background on Texaco Petroleum Company's Former Operations in Ecuador

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side of Athaulpa's faction, probably due to the late sovereign wish.

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Approximately 96.4% of Ecuador's Indigenous population are Highland

861: 607: 566:, although horticulture was practiced. They extracted dyes from the 3190: 2166: 1997: 1102: 986: 959: 947: 821:

empire expanded into what later became Ecuador during the reign of

737: 404: 317: 243: 99: 1412:"Los primeros habitantes del Ecuador I: Los primeros habitantes-1" 860:

Many tribes resisted the imperial encroachment, in particular the

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Roosevelt, Anna C. (2000). "Maritime, Highland, Forest Dynamic".

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Stothert, Karen E.; Dolores R. Piperno; Thomas C. Andres (2003).

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Salazar, Ernesto (1996). "Les premiers habitants de l'Equateur".

935: 780: 567: 514: 389: 188: 172: 62: 1649: 179:. The term also includes their descendants from the time of the 1715:

The Upper Amazonian Rubber Boom and Indigenous Rights 1900-1925

1002: 656: 623: 619: 576: 571: 502: 490: 478: 466: 446: 430: 407:(10,000 years ago) to the Atlantic Holocene (6,000 years ago). 340: 332: 305: 2161:

Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Ecuador (CONAIE)

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Roitman, Karem (December 2017). "Mestizo Racism in Ecuador".

1070: 874: 869: 830: 602:

In the Sierra, the most important groups were the Pasto, the

498: 438: 321: 825:, who began the northward conquest in 1463. He gave his son 818: 462: 171:, are the groups of people who were present in what became 1733: 1731: 701:

shells, which was a symbol of fertility. In areas such as

562:

The economy of the peoples of the Oriente was essentially

2160: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1848: 841:. Upon his return, he was unable to subdue the people of 422:. They engaged in ritual burial and intensive gardening. 1434:

comparativamente, es una de las más estudiadas del país.

3458: 1728: 2814: 1845: 1532:. Quito: Instituto de historia y antropología andinas. 3576: 1207: 593:

Map showing settlements at prior to the Inca conquest

1148:

Gisella; Vela, Margarita; Paz-y-Miño, César (2019).

1015:

Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador

720:

developed in the Amazon forest, and were visited by

1895: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1105:. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. 1762: 1481:"Formative Period Chronology for Eastern Ecuador" 434:small feminine figures referred to as "Venuses." 3612: 1886: 1914:Ecuador Judge Orders Chevron to Pay $ 9 Billion 1211:; Philip Phillips (2001) . R. Lee Lyman (ed.). 418:of several beneficial plant species, including 202:at the Old Military Hospital are these antique 1708: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1030:Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 950:, the Tungurahua, the Tugua, the Waranka, the 922: 410:Some of the first farmers in Ecuador were the 3444: 2800: 2182: 2065: 1925: 1829: 1827: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1114: 1112: 1056: 3565:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 1365: 1316:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology 1249:"A Reassessment of the Ecuadorian Formative" 829:control of the army, and Topa conquered the 662:Free commerce took place in markets called " 527: 2163:- Indigenous rights organization of Ecuador 2130: 1901:Ecuador Vs. Chevron-Tesaco: A Brief History 1545:"Lomas de ocupación en los Llanos de Moxos" 1474: 1472: 1470: 1398: 3451: 3437: 2807: 2793: 2189: 2175: 1824: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1685: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1599: 1597: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1109: 285:(Paleolithic) archaeological sites in the 2102: 2087: 1953: 1943: 1644:. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. 1571: 1565: 1213:Method and theory in American archaeology 1181: 727: 379: 210: 1542: 1536: 1478: 1467: 1303:. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files. 1242: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1203: 1201: 588: 193: 65:; Mainly: Sierra (Andean highlands) and 2243:Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute 2021: 1821:International Labour Organization (ILO) 1756: 1742: 1633: 1622: 1603: 1594: 1409: 1371: 1322: 1118: 1085:, Ecuadorian indigenous rights activist 1039: 187:heritage, while another 70 percent are 14: 3613: 1983: 1246: 3432: 2788: 2170: 2126: 2124: 2061: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2053: 2017: 2015: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1763:Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (2005). 1527: 1445: 1439: 1296: 1229: 1198: 774:had its own authority, although each 626:and squash, and developed systems of 3460:Indigenous peoples in South America 2196: 1926:Oviedo Oviedo, Alexis (2023-05-31). 1300:Outline of Archaeological Traditions 177:Spanish colonization of the Americas 57:Regions with significant populations 3626:Indigenous peoples of South America 2356:2010 coup d'état attempt and crisis 2258:Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860) 1945:10.17141/mundosplurales.2.2022.5483 1642:Library of Congress Country Studies 891: 674:. They also exchanged goods at the 457:). Indirect evidence suggests that 24: 3593:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 3083: 2816:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 2121: 2050: 2012: 1970: 1912:SIMON ROMERO and CLIFFORD KRAUSS, 942:, the Cayambi, the Pichincha, the 403:dates anywhere from the Preboreal 25: 3647: 2578:1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis 2154: 1665:Tomebamba, Pumapungo, Hatun Cañar 1034:International Labour Organization 441:, a large bean (now rare) of the 3598: 3586: 2863: 2371: 1552:Arqueología de las Tierras Bajas 1488:Archaeology of Formative Ecuador 1318:. Oxford University Press. 2003. 1256:Archaeology of Formative Ecuador 1032:. It was adopted in 1989 as the 812: 784:), who exercised power over the 606:, the Panzaleo, the Puruhá, the 586:. They also made coil ceramics. 276: 2096: 1919: 1906: 1812: 1800: 1671: 1656: 1521: 1103:"Indigenous peoples in Ecuador" 917: 539: 2080:10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.10.001 1307: 1290: 1140: 1131: 1095: 965:Coastal groups, including the 904: 864:in the south, near modern-day 153:Indigenous peoples in Colombia 13: 1: 3621:Indigenous peoples in Ecuador 2324:Supreme Council of Government 2036:10.1080/01419870.2016.1260749 1986:American Journal of Sociology 1725:Florida Gulf Coast University 1486:. In J. Scott Raymond (ed.). 1359:10.1016/S1040-6182(02)00200-8 1254:. In J. Scott Raymond (ed.). 1089: 165:Indigenous peoples in Ecuador 157:Indigenous peoples in Bolivia 41:Indigenous peoples in Ecuador 27:Indigenous peoples of Ecuador 18:Indigenous peoples of Ecuador 1668:Arqueología Ecuatoriana 2010 1420:(in Spanish). Archived from 1380:(in Spanish). Archived from 7: 2610:Water supply and sanitation 2133:Ethnic & Racial Studies 2024:Ethnic & Racial Studies 1076: 1008: 923:Population and demographics 799: 614:. They lived on hillsides, 437:The Valdivia people farmed 293:economy, and date from the 10: 3652: 2270:Liberal Revolution of 1895 1634:Rudolph, James D. (1991). 1174:10.1038/s41598-019-45723-w 1121:Les Dossiers d'Archéologie 1057:Ethnic Wage Gap in Ecuador 778:also answered to a chief ( 762:is made up of one or more 641: 570:plant for face paint, and 557: 149:Indigenous peoples of Peru 32:List of indigenous peoples 29: 3636:Social history of Ecuador 3539: 3466: 3404: 3331: 3249: 3166: 3157: 3127: 3050: 3020: 2990: 2959: 2952: 2901: 2872: 2861: 2822: 2746: 2674: 2631: 2622: 2546: 2537: 2470: 2461: 2389: 2380: 2369: 2208: 1528:Lippi, Ronald D. (1996). 1479:Rostoker, Arthur (2003). 1410:Salazar, Ernesto (2003). 1372:Salazar, Ernesto (2003). 1247:Marcos, Jorge G. (2003). 597: 528:Development of metallurgy 509:, as well as the coastal 147: 142: 134: 129: 78: 73: 61: 56: 50: 45: 3631:Ethnic groups in Ecuador 2361:2024 Ecuadorian conflict 1916:NYTimesFebruary 14, 2011 1839:August 16, 2011, at the 1637:Ecuador: A Country Study 1543:Erickson, Clark (2000). 1343:Quaternary International 868:, and the Caras and the 670:under the auspices of a 548: 522:Morona-Santiago province 200:Historic Center of Quito 2341:War on drugs in Ecuador 2297:Ecuadorian–Peruvian War 2223:Real Audiencia of Quito 2145:10.1080/014198799329602 1779:(May–August): 185–232. 1662:José Luis Espinoza E., 823:Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui 713:were used as currency. 513:. The domestication of 2314:Military Junta of 1963 1868:ije.oxfordjournals.org 1794:on September 20, 2008. 1314:"Integration Period". 728:Political organization 594: 399:The first evidence of 380:Origins of agriculture 211:Archaeological periods 207: 135:Traditional religion, 3137:European colonization 2218:Pre-Columbian Ecuador 2103:Antón Sánchez, Jhon. 1809:, cited in Gerlach, 7 1797:See table on page 218 1554:. Montevideo: 207–226 1127:. Dijon: Faton: 3–85. 946:, the Chimbuelo, the 709:, small beads called 592: 394:Pleistocene megafauna 291:hunting and gathering 287:Santa Elena Peninsula 197: 143:Related ethnic groups 2855:Solutrean hypothesis 1040:Petroleum operations 493:, beans, and maize. 266:Regional Development 198:Photographed in the 3236:Trinidad and Tobago 2285:1922 general strike 2228:War of Independence 1351:2003QuInt.109...23S 1166:2019NatSR...9.9247Z 929:León Febres Cordero 42: 3396:In popular culture 3147:Columbian exchange 3142:Population history 2873:Mythology/Religion 2699:Indigenous peoples 2590:Telecommunications 2500:National Congress 1721:2014-06-05 at the 1712:Ingrid Fernandez, 1297:Peregrine, Peter. 1154:Scientific Reports 595: 289:. They indicate a 283:Cotton Pre-ceramic 208: 169:Native Ecuadorians 40: 3574: 3573: 3546:other territories 3426: 3425: 3327: 3326: 3123: 3122: 3046: 3045: 3016: 3015: 2835:Pre-Columbian era 2782: 2781: 2742: 2741: 2618: 2617: 2563:Coffee production 2533: 2532: 2508:Political parties 2495:National Assembly 2485:Foreign relations 2457: 2456: 2280:Concha Revolution 2068:World Development 2030:(15): 2768–2786. 1209:Willey, Gordon R. 839:Marquesas Islands 766:. The Ecuadorian 724:from the Sierra. 412:Las Vegas culture 162: 161: 16:(Redirected from 3643: 3603: 3602: 3601: 3591: 3590: 3589: 3582: 3566: 3554:Falkland Islands 3468:Sovereign states 3453: 3446: 3439: 3430: 3429: 3164: 3163: 3081: 3080: 2957: 2956: 2899: 2898: 2867: 2809: 2802: 2795: 2786: 2785: 2762: 2755: 2629: 2628: 2573:Economic history 2544: 2543: 2503: 2468: 2467: 2387: 2386: 2375: 2351:2000 coup d'état 2253:March Revolution 2191: 2184: 2177: 2168: 2167: 2149: 2148: 2128: 2119: 2118: 2116: 2115: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2063: 2048: 2047: 2019: 2010: 2009: 1992:(6): 1559–1595. 1981: 1968: 1967: 1957: 1947: 1923: 1917: 1910: 1904: 1897: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1870:. Archived from 1860: 1843: 1831: 1822: 1816: 1810: 1804: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1787:. Archived from 1770: 1760: 1754: 1751: 1740: 1735: 1726: 1710: 1683: 1682: 1675: 1669: 1660: 1654: 1653: 1631: 1620: 1619: 1601: 1592: 1591: 1589:administrations. 1569: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1559: 1549: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1525: 1519: 1518: 1513: 1512: 1506: 1500:. Archived from 1485: 1476: 1465: 1464: 1443: 1437: 1436: 1430: 1429: 1407: 1396: 1395: 1390: 1389: 1369: 1363: 1362: 1340: 1331: 1320: 1319: 1311: 1305: 1304: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1281: 1280: 1274: 1268:. Archived from 1253: 1244: 1227: 1226: 1205: 1196: 1195: 1185: 1144: 1138: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1116: 1107: 1106: 1099: 1083:Dolores Cacuango 1036:Convention 169. 892:Spanish conquest 495:Animal husbandry 475:Erythrina edulis 427:Valdivia culture 295:Late Pleistocene 206:in the courtyard 181:Spanish conquest 46:Total population 43: 39: 21: 3651: 3650: 3646: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3641: 3640: 3611: 3610: 3609: 3599: 3597: 3587: 3585: 3577: 3575: 3570: 3564: 3547: 3545: 3535: 3462: 3457: 3427: 3422: 3400: 3323: 3245: 3159: 3153: 3129: 3119: 3079: 3042: 3012: 2986: 2948: 2897: 2886:List of deities 2868: 2859: 2818: 2813: 2783: 2778: 2765: 2758: 2751: 2738: 2719:Public holidays 2670: 2614: 2529: 2501: 2453: 2376: 2367: 2204: 2195: 2157: 2152: 2129: 2122: 2113: 2111: 2101: 2097: 2064: 2051: 2020: 2013: 1982: 1971: 1924: 1920: 1911: 1907: 1898: 1887: 1877: 1875: 1874:on 17 July 2012 1862: 1861: 1846: 1841:Wayback Machine 1832: 1825: 1817: 1813: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1768: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1743: 1736: 1729: 1723:Wayback Machine 1711: 1686: 1677: 1676: 1672: 1661: 1657: 1632: 1623: 1616: 1602: 1595: 1584: 1570: 1566: 1557: 1555: 1547: 1541: 1537: 1526: 1522: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1498: 1483: 1477: 1468: 1458: 1444: 1440: 1427: 1425: 1408: 1399: 1387: 1385: 1370: 1366: 1338: 1332: 1323: 1313: 1312: 1308: 1295: 1291: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1266: 1251: 1245: 1230: 1223: 1206: 1199: 1145: 1141: 1136: 1132: 1117: 1110: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1079: 1059: 1042: 1011: 925: 920: 907: 894: 849:coast. His son 815: 802: 734:extended family 730: 644: 616:terrace farming 600: 560: 551: 542: 530: 382: 279: 213: 80:Kichwa language 52: 38: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3649: 3639: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3608: 3607: 3595: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3568: 3561: 3556: 3550: 3548: 3540: 3537: 3536: 3534: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3472: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3456: 3455: 3448: 3441: 3433: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3420: 3413: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3335: 3333: 3332:Related topics 3329: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3260: 3258: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3172: 3170: 3161: 3155: 3154: 3152: 3151: 3150: 3149: 3144: 3133: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3089: 3087: 3078: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3056: 3054: 3048: 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2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2434:National parks 2431: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2365: 2364: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2333: 2332: 2331: 2326: 2321: 2319:El Carnavalazo 2316: 2306: 2301: 2300: 2299: 2289: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2255: 2245: 2240: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2214: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2194: 2193: 2186: 2179: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2156: 2155:External links 2153: 2151: 2150: 2120: 2095: 2074:(2): 289–307. 2049: 2011: 1998:10.1086/670268 1969: 1938:(2): 111–133. 1918: 1905: 1903:April 27, 2011 1899:Carly Gillis, 1885: 1844: 1823: 1811: 1799: 1775:(in Spanish). 1755: 1741: 1727: 1684: 1670: 1655: 1621: 1614: 1593: 1582: 1564: 1535: 1520: 1496: 1466: 1456: 1438: 1397: 1364: 1321: 1306: 1289: 1264: 1228: 1221: 1197: 1139: 1130: 1108: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1078: 1075: 1058: 1055: 1041: 1038: 1019:Abdalá Bucaram 1010: 1007: 924: 921: 919: 916: 906: 903: 893: 890: 873:system called 814: 811: 807:solar calendar 801: 798: 729: 726: 643: 640: 599: 596: 583:Banisteriopsis 559: 556: 550: 547: 541: 538: 529: 526: 381: 378: 278: 275: 212: 209: 204:dug out canoes 160: 159: 145: 144: 140: 139: 132: 131: 127: 126: 88:Achuar-Shiwiar 76: 75: 71: 70: 59: 58: 54: 53: 48: 47: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3648: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3606: 3596: 3594: 3584: 3583: 3580: 3567: 3562: 3560: 3559:French Guiana 3557: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3543: 3538: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3449: 3447: 3442: 3440: 3435: 3434: 3431: 3419: 3418: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3407: 3406: 3403: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3340: 3337: 3336: 3334: 3330: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 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