Incandescent light bulb

2886: 2923: 1801:. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as 'double-coil bulbs'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 580 millimetres (22.8 in), and the filament diameter is 0.046 millimetres (0.0018 in). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source while lasting longer than a straight filament at the same temperature. 1706:, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs or envelopes are created. A typical machine of this sort can produce anywhere from 50,000 to 120,000 bulbs per hour, depending on the size of the bulb. By the 1970s, 15 ribbon machines installed in factories around the world produced the entire supply of incandescent bulbs. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is then fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested. The 2016 closing of 1218: 2870: 1260:

emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's

1845: 1818: 732:, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports. 638: 2022: 834: 2632: 654: 589: 2411: 646: 1433: 1287:, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. The European Commission has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO 1963:

in the thermal convection currents of the gas, and is deposited preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope, blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of

536:. Heating this platinum at high temperatures leaves behind thin filaments of platinum coated with pure graphite. By September 1881 he had achieved a successful version of this the first synthetic filament. The light bulb invented by Cruto lasted five hundred hours as opposed to the forty of Edison's original version. In 1882 Munich Electrical Exhibition in Bavaria, Germany Cruto's lamp was more efficient than the Edison's one and produced a better, white light. 2686: 10396: 1859: 1832: 465: 1664: 10420: 2694: 1916:. While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gases have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight and cross sectional area are higher. 325: 10408: 49: 33: 2909: 842: 65: 585:(1828–1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps had become available, and Swan returned to his experiments. 1054: 565: 2651: 1719: 1810: 1898:

lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency, but prior to the development of compact fluorescent and LED lamps they were useful in applications where the bulb was difficult to change.

1237:. Their light has bands of characteristic wavelengths, without the "tail" of invisible infrared emissions, instead of the continuous spectrum produced by a thermal source. By careful selection of fluorescent phosphor coatings or filters which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different 874:

shortened in use; the filaments were installed with large slack loops. Lamps used for several hundred hours became quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.

1066: 1699:, Pennsylvania, factory. The Ribbon Machine surpassed any previous attempts to automate bulb production and was used to produce incandescent bulbs into the 21st century. The inventor, William Woods, along with his colleague at Corning Glass Works, David E. Gray, had created a machine that by 1939 was turning out 1,000 bulbs per minute. 1307: 1779:, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million (so-called AKS tungsten) greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments. 701:. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company did not make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880, at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the 676:... to platina contact wires." Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways," Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the 1326:(HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient. The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress. US Department of Energy research at 1558:

is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). On the other hand, the

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The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent,

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Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15%

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and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected

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The Consolidated Company was the successor of the Electro-Dynamic Light Company of New York, the first company organized in the United States for the manufacture and sale of electric incandescent lamps, and the owner of a large number of patents of date prior to those upon which rival companies were

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increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are

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along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life. Since filament resistance is highly temperature-dependent, spots with higher temperature will have higher resistance, causing them to dissipate

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Early bulbs were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed, the cost of bulbs fell. Until 1910, when Libbey's Westlake machine went into production, bulbs were generally produced by a team of three workers (two gatherers and a master gaffer) blowing the bulbs into wooden

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clay blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. The powder layer diffuses the light from the filament. Pigments may be added to the clay to adjust the color of the light emitted. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively

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An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (1,730 to 3,030 °C; 3,140 to 5,480 °F), well below tungsten's melting point of 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn.

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is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small

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into a practical means of lighting. The carbon arc itself was dim and violet in color, emitting most of its energy in the ultraviolet, but the positive electrode was heated to just below the melting point of carbon and glowed very brightly with incandescence very close to that of sunlight. Arc lamps

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Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination

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Lamps of the same power rating but designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 1000 hour, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A similar lamp designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and one designed for

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used for photographic lighting favor light output over life, with some lasting only two hours. The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). A 50-hour-life projection

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A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for

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In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried

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on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities

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tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a

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can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and

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invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had

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A 5% reduction in voltage will double the life of the bulb, but reduce its light output by about 16%. Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off in applications such as traffic signal lamps. Since electric energy they use costs more than the cost of the bulb, general service lamps emphasize

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Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the

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During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of 1,000 to 2,000 hours for

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incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which some is re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in

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Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' in the early 1880s and obtained British Patent 4933 that same year. From this year he began installing light bulbs in

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accommodated by diffusional creep. During operation, the tungsten wire is stressed under the load of its own weight and because of the diffusion that can occur at high temperatures, grains begin to rotate and slide. This stress, because of variations in the filament, causes the filament to sag

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lamp filament that was more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments since they could operate at higher temperature. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament gradually

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US575002A patent on 01.Dec.1897 to Alexander Lodyguine (Lodygin, Russia) describes filament made of rare metals, amongst them was tungsten. Lodygin invented a process where rare metals such as tungsten can be chemically treated and heat-vaporized onto an electrically heated thread-like wire

5606: 1723: 1751:—as they get hotter, their electrical resistance decreases. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. 6147:

Corazza, Alessio & Giorgi, S. & Boffito, Claudio & Massaro, Vincenzo & Caccia, Debora. (2006). Characteristics of the getter materials used in High Intensity Discharge Lamps. Conference Record - IAS Annual Meeting (IEEE Industry Applications Society). 4. 1801-1807.

2340:, of standard 120 volt incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of similar 230 V bulbs is slightly less. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for the same life expectancy, which reduces 1721: 395:

burned up their carbon rods very rapidly, expelled dangerous carbon monoxide, and tended to produce outputs in the tens of kilowatts. Therefore, they were only practical for lighting large areas, so researchers continued to search for a way to make lamps suitable for home use.

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The filament in a tungsten light bulb is not easy to break when the bulb is cold, but filaments are more vulnerable when they are hot because the incandescent metal is less rigid. An impact on the outside of the bulb may cause the filament to break or experience a surge in

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system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.

268:, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel-distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of 600:

With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880. On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the

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Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 20,000–30,000 hours for lighting LEDs. Most incandescent bulbs can be replaced by

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Reflective coating inside the bulb directs light forward. Flood types (FL) spread light. Spot types (SP) concentrate the light. Reflector (R) bulbs put approximately double the amount of light (foot-candles) on the front central area as General Service (A) of same

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is used, incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system. While heat from lights will reduce the need to run a building's heating system, the latter can usually produce the same amount of heat at lower cost than incandescent lights.

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can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.

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Lamps intended for use in optical systems have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw-base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket.

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The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around standard rated conditions, but they indicate that a lamp operated at low voltage could last much longer than at rated voltage, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The

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Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century, many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.

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into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this

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Thermal image of an incandescent bulb. 22–175 °C (72–347 °F). Most of the mid and far-IR is absorbed by the glass, heating it to scorching temperatures. This heats the surrounding air, which rises, helping cool the bulb from the bottom

885:. The metal was so expensive that used lamps could be returned for partial credit. It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits. These were primarily sold in Europe. 626:, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, 2607:(PAR) bulbs control light more precisely. They produce about four times the concentrated light intensity of general service (A), and are used in recessed and track lighting. Weatherproof casings are available for outdoor spot and flood fixtures. 1094:

of a source is defined as the ratio of its luminous efficacy to the maximum possible luminous efficacy, which is 683 lm/W. An ideal white light source could produce about 250 lumens per watt, corresponding to a luminous efficiency of 37%.

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Bulb shape and size designations are given in national standards. Some designations are one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38, where the letters identify the shape and the numbers some characteristic size.

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The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general-service 120-volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for

1607:, which is more advantageous than argon due to its higher atomic weight and lower thermal conductivity (which also allows use of smaller bulbs), but its use is hindered by much higher cost, confining it mostly to smaller-size bulbs. 1754:

Carbon filaments were "flashed" by heating in a hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline), to improve their strength and uniformity. Metallized or "graphitized" filaments were first heated to high temperature to transform them into

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The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 °C (392 and 500 °F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or

743:). Edison was initially against this combination, but Edison was eventually forced to cooperate and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the 1034:

By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison's lighting system.

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and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp for connections. A

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30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.

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The United States Electric Lighting Company was organized in 1878 a few weeks after the Electro-Dynamic company, and was the successor of the oldest company in the United States for the manufacture of electric power

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began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement in Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with

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Metal filaments were tried in 1897 and started to displace carbon starting around 1904. Tungsten has the highest available melting point, but brittleness was a big obstacle. By 1910, a process was developed by

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and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid.

2836:, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an 2352:

The resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the resistance when operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of

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The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, with heat transfer occurring only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb's envelope.

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was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company. After the great success in the United States, the incandescent light bulb patented by Edison also began to gain widespread popularity in

525:) to Thomas Edison in 1879. (Edison needed ownership of the novel claim of lamps connected in a parallel circuit). The government of Canada maintains that it is Woodward and Evans who invented the lightbulb. 1935:

loop. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, permanently increasing the resistance at that point. The process ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament.

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bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 °C (122 °F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.

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Less than 5% of the power consumed by a typical incandescent light bulb is converted into visible light, with most of the rest being emitted as invisible infrared radiation. Light bulbs are rated by their

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of an inch. Therefore, a PAR 16 is 51 mm (2 in) in diameter, a PAR 20 is 64 mm (2.5 in) in diameter, PAR 30 is 95 mm (3.75 in) and a PAR 38 is 121 mm (4.75 in) in

4605: 1614:, where xenon improves the gas properties further due to its higher atomic weight. Its use is however limited by its very high cost. The improvements by using xenon are modest in comparison to its cost. 1570:

Early lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. The vacuum increases evaporation of the filament but eliminates two modes of heat loss. Some small modern lamps use vacuum as well.

551:, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiration of Edison's patent. A research work published in 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is fictitious. 4367:"2yr.net - Antique & Vintage Light Bulb Collection Museum - History of the Incandescent Lamp - by John W. Howell and Henry Schroeder (1927) Chapter 4: The Vacuum, Getters and the Gas Filled Lamp" 4744: 1743:

before reaching its melting point depending on pressure, which led to rapid blackening of vacuumed bulbs. The first commercially successful light bulb filaments were made from carbonized paper or

1720: 802:(1865–1939), who lacked these pumps, discovered that phosphorus vapours did the job of chemically binding the remaining amounts of water and oxygen. In 1896 he patented a process of introducing 383:. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years. Davy also demonstrated the 1787:

nonuniformly, which ultimately introduces further torque on the filament. It is this sagging that inevitably results in a rupture of the filament, rendering the incandescent lightbulb useless.

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built an electric incandescent light bulb using a platinum filament. Thomas Edison later saw one of these bulbs in a shop in Boston, and asked Farmer for advice on the electric light business.

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Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the

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of white light. When used for tasks sensitive to color, such as motion picture lighting, these sources may require particular techniques to duplicate the appearance of incandescent lighting.

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Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and

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The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g., a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.

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Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than other types of electric lighting. Less than 5% of the energy they consume is converted into visible light; the rest is lost as heat. The

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allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. The socket provides electrical connections and mechanical support, and allows changing the lamp when it burns out.

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and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas. Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments.

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created his first incandescent lamp. Cruto produced a filament by deposition of graphite on thin platinum filaments, by heating it with an electric current in the presence of gaseous

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found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly

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The gas reduces evaporation of the filament, but the fill must be chosen carefully to avoid introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high

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vapor. However, carbon filaments operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.

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are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts. Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals.

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filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at

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for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen-filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent (

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that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable, and the development of the associated components required for a large-scale lighting system.

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efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 the

1950:, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as 4713: 3796: 606: 5334: 5286: 1889:

or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron-emitting electrode. When used as a source of electrons, they may have a special coating that increases electron production.

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at the same temperature. The basis for light sources used as the standard for color perception is a tungsten incandescent lamp operating at a defined temperature.

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Nitrogen, used in some higher-power lamps, e.g. projection lamps, and where higher breakdown voltage is needed due to proximity of filament parts or lead-in wires

112:. Electric current is supplied to the filament by terminals or wires embedded in the glass. A bulb socket provides mechanical support and electrical connections. 2814:

agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.

2709:, with one or more contacts on the base. The shell may serve as an electrical contact or only as a mechanical support. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in 5730: 1640:

The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin-filament, low-power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated.

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For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb consumes more power and emits more heat than most other types of electric light. In buildings where

991:). At the time, machinery to mass-produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass-produce coiled coil filaments by 1936. 6385: 5249: 547:

filament of high resistance, platinum lead-in wires in an all-glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel

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been consumed. Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied for and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having

2859:" or "vibration service" may have as many as five. Low-voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires. 4539: 931:

slows down the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater

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of the filament but does not protect against its evaporation. Used also in larger lamps where the outer bulb surface temperature has to be limited.

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or cast-iron molds, coated with a paste. Around 150 bulbs per hour were produced by the hand-blowing process in the 1880s at Corning Glass Works.

7147: 6429: 5763: 5401: 5349: 980: 6411: 865:(platinum, carbon, gold) acting as a temporary base or skeletal form. (US patent 575,002). Lodygin later sold the patent rights to GE. In 1902, 10462: 3617: 4082: 2761:

Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance.

1995:. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as 7737: 135:. As a result, the incandescent bulb became widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car 4454: 4224: 301: 7828: 4191: 3669: 308: 306: 264:

The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo

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Briant and, C.L.; Bewlay, Bernard P. (1995). "The Coolidge Process for Making Tungsten Ductile: The Foundation of Incandescent Lighting".

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when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control

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designation for a lamp with an infrared reflective coating. Since less heat escapes, the filament burns hotter and more efficiently. The

410:. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet". However he did not develop the electric light any further. 6088: 5704: 4154: 4121: 1775:

for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering,

3057: 610:

of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours.

6492: 5532: 911:

filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the

5309: 5109: 768: 305: 5027: 4393: 4326:

Consol. Elec. Light Co v. McKeesport Light Co, 40 F. 21 (C.C.W.D. Pa. 1889) aff'd, 159 U.S. 465, 16 S. Ct. 75, 40 L. Ed. 221 (1895).

605:, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the 450:

publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the

17: 5518: 1920:

gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.

7843: 7590: 1759:, which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. These filaments have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic 736: 1687:

soon began developing competing automated bulb-blowing machines, the first of which to be used in production was the E-Machine.

7833: 7732: 6543: 5045: 4938: 4168:

depending. ... The United States Electric Lighting Company was organized in 1878, a few weeks after the Electro-Dynamic Company

1748: 677: 309: 307: 5979: 310: 296: 6281: 6120: 4599: 4260: 3728: 3686: 3237: 3051: 3034:

of possible lamp filament materials and worked extensively during the period 1878–1879 on devising an automatic regulator or

3031: 1274: 206: 7289: 2575:

Types: candle (B), twisted candle, bent-tip candle (CA & BA), flame (F), globe (G), lantern chimney (H), fancy round (P)

2383:

that causes part of it to melt or vaporize. In most modern incandescent bulbs, part of the wire inside the bulb acts like a

1795:

To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a

8074: 7848: 2736:

Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb.

2616:

Available in numerous spot and flood beam spreads. Like all light bulbs, the number represents the diameter of the bulb in

2604: 298: 237:

was the first practical implementation, able to outstrip the others because of a combination of four factors: an effective

5324: 4627: 2713:

to resist loosening by vibration. Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a

2046:

much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space.

1710:'s Wellsboro, Pennsylvania plant meant that one of the last remaining ribbon machines in the United States was shut down. 1598:

and low cost, and the nitrogen is added to increase the breakdown voltage and prevent arcing between parts of the filament

7257: 5430: 3114: 304: 6363: 4476: 810:

inside the bulb ), which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours; his patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.

300: 299: 7012: 6241: 5600: 3647: 3548: 3449: 3354: 1559:

presence of the gas leads to heat loss from the filament—and therefore efficiency loss due to reduced incandescence—by

41: 6312: 4204:

The United States Electric Lighting Company was organized in 1878, a few weeks after the Electro-Dynamic Light Company

2391:

inside the bulb, the fusible section of wire will melt and cut the current off to prevent damage to the supply lines.

1739:

it had been demonstrated to produce incandescence fairly close to that of sunlight. However, carbon has a tendency to

1620:, in special flashing lamps where rapid filament cooling is required; its high thermal conductivity is exploited here. 303: 10447: 10221: 6536: 6478: 6183: 6166: 6013: 5957: 5930: 5906: 5879: 5722: 4869: 4533: 4315: 4115: 4059: 4031: 3983: 3673: 3572: 3533: 3404: 3293: 3266: 2007:

tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.

1626:, a small amount mixed with inert gas. This is used in halogen lamps, which are a distinct type of incandescent lamp. 1106:

The chart below lists the luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of incandescent bulb. A longer chart in

1039:

with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).

1009:

the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them. In 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with

7311: 5132: 4505: 10457: 8980: 8089: 8049: 7294: 6697: 6305: 2344:. The lumen values for "soft white" bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power. 1410: 618:, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the 6393: 5242: 3458: 2922: 436:

for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.

10209: 8115: 7909: 7555: 7452: 7427: 7190: 7057: 4672: 3747: 2895:. Upper left: fluorescent lamp, upper right: incandescent bulb, lower left: white LED, lower right: candle flame. 302: 6512: 3863:

R.C. Chirnside. Sir Joseph Wilson Swan FRS – The Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne 1979.

3486: 1217: 10184: 7853: 7787: 7772: 7762: 7282: 7067: 5680: 5642: 5192:"Frequently asked questions about the regulation on ecodesign requirements for non-directional household lamps" 5096: 5075: 4437: 2824: 2395: 2037:

reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a

1740: 1405:

gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs",

1107: 615: 593: 476: 5371: 5220: 1986:

A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly increase lamp darkening. Water vapor

1954:

built into the light bulb. More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.

1695:

Corning continued developing automated bulb-production machines, installing the Ribbon Machine in 1926 in its

8002: 7813: 7277: 7077: 6984: 6027: 5415:

Energy Efficient Incandescent Lamp: Final Report (Report). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. April 1982.

4407: 2431: 1254: 1226: 694: 686:, became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a 198: 120: 5567: 5302:"GE Announces Advancement in Incandescent Technology; New High-Efficiency Lamps Targeted for Market by 2010" 4809: 3708: 1367:

Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of

7978: 7951: 7752: 7447: 6608: 5375: 1849: 1822: 1327: 1295: 443:

patented an incandescent light bulb using carbon filaments. His invention was never produced commercially.

53: 6515:

60 W-100 W Incandescent light bulb spectra, from Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics

6425: 3188: 3038:

to stabilize current. It was not until 1879 that it was realized a self-limiting lamp could be built. See

447: 10467: 10452: 10233: 7959: 7742: 7625: 7583: 7339: 7107: 3621: 3140: 2966: 260:

has attributed Edison's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting.

9230: 6741: 4308:

Black Inventors in the Age of Segregation: Granville T. Woods, Lewis H. Latimer, and Shelby J. Davidson.

2333:

of the filament. For two bulbs of the same voltage, and type, the higher-powered bulb gives more light.

1511:

If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown

8108: 7823: 7797: 7757: 3346: 7316: 5755: 5393: 4366: 1318:

Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007,

10367: 10226: 10167: 9349: 7459: 7020: 7007: 6603: 5278: 3320:

by Robert Friedel, Paul Israel, Bernard S. Finn – Johns Hopkins University Press 2010 Page 6--7

2394:

A hot glass bulb may fracture on contact with cold objects. When the glass envelope breaks, the bulb

1630:

The gas fill must be free of traces of water, which greatly accelerates bulb blackening (see below).

919:

in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an

548: 512: 5191: 3625: 10362: 10216: 10192: 10157: 10050: 8465: 7994: 7520: 6735: 6709: 6273: 4591:

The Fundamentals and Applications of Light-Emitting Diodes: The Revolution in the Lighting Industry

4076: 1972: 1280: 155: 3942: 953:. By 1911 General Electric had begun selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire. 10085: 10067: 10032: 10000: 9888: 9826: 9000: 8970: 8428: 8084: 7818: 7701: 7681: 7380: 5169: 4450: 4216: 3013: 1696: 1425:(green). Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light. 375:

of Great Britain, to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of

218: 5165:

Banning the bulb: Institutional evolution and the phased ban of incandescent lighting in Germany

4183: 3965: 2840:

where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.

10472: 10150: 10117: 10008: 8889: 7875: 7727: 7615: 7576: 7137: 7062: 5672: 5666: 4908: 3842: 3514:, Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 34 (Summer 1976): 102–120. Retrieved 16 February 2010. 2643: 2590:

Types: Standard reflector (R), bulged reflector (BR), elliptical reflector (ER), crown-silvered

2519: 2398:, exposing the filament to ambient air. The air then usually destroys the hot filament through 1927: 1783: 1760: 1350:

1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W. More advanced reflectors based on

882: 744: 576: 6066: 5590: 4767: 4023: 3562: 3329: 3283: 2067:. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start 1763:, which stabilized the lamps operating properties against minor variations in supply voltage. 833: 44:

base. The filament is visible as the mostly horizontal line between the vertical supply wires.

10411: 10204: 10122: 10107: 10090: 9871: 8694: 8487: 8010: 7550: 6322: 5708: 4523: 4146: 4105: 3468: 3041: 2961: 2833: 2710: 2330: 2075:

but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and

440: 368: 250: 3496: 1844: 10372: 10162: 10137: 9920: 9593: 9467: 8817: 8775: 8729: 8059: 7986: 7747: 7655: 7262: 6765: 6496: 6452: 5829: 5634: 5628: 5445: 4979: 4703: 3938: 2725:

In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases.

2341: 1817: 1595: 1551: 1245:

describes the effect of different light spectrum distributions on the perception of color.

1182:

Photographic and projection lamps with very high filament temperatures and short lifetimes

1057:

Spectrum of an incandescent lamp at 2200 K, showing most of its emission as invisible

983:

created the first double-coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for

784: 403: 344:. However such wires tended to melt or oxidize very rapidly (burn) in the presence of air. 265: 998:

attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America.

543:

claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized

8: 10399: 10197: 9670: 9339: 9334: 8948: 8921: 8069: 8054: 7706: 7676: 7390: 7249: 6714: 6692: 5372:"Revolutionary tungsten photonic crystal could provide more power for electrical devices" 5031: 4381: 3082: 2976: 2941: 2892: 2544: 2470: 1964: 1768: 1684: 1351: 1211: 1065: 964:

instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduced bulb blackening.

939: 797: 788: 719: 627: 623: 337: 128: 5833: 5785: 5510: 5449: 5248:. Director-General for Health and Consumers, European Commission. 2008. pp. 26–27. 4983: 3932: 3007: 1334:

filament. However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.

451: 10062: 9866: 9796: 9695: 9665: 9620: 9576: 9509: 9482: 9115: 9061: 8958: 8953: 8672: 8359: 8033: 7540: 7212: 6997: 6940: 6932: 5853: 5243:"Light Sensitivity, Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks" 4995: 4969: 4570: 4341: 3958: 3788: 2730: 2051: 1581: 1520: 1242: 845: 740: 681: 657: 124: 5431:"Tailoring high-temperature radiation and the resurrection of the incandescent source" 1671:

filament light bulb was the first one to have a metal filament. This one is from 1908.

1210:

The spectrum of light produced by an incandescent lamp closely approximates that of a

417:

invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.

10423: 10419: 10357: 9945: 9831: 9690: 9324: 8985: 8859: 8741: 7924: 7838: 7620: 7082: 7030: 7002: 6922: 6760: 6748: 6704: 6632: 6578: 6277: 6237: 6162: 6116: 6052:

IEC 60064 Tungsten filament lamps for domestic and similar general lighting purposes.

6009: 5926: 5902: 5875: 5857: 5845: 5686: 5676: 5648: 5638: 5596: 5479: 5471: 5092: 5071: 5013: 4865: 4775: 4595: 4574: 4529: 4311: 4111: 4055: 4027: 4016: 3780: 3724: 3682: 3568: 3529: 3445: 3400: 3350: 3289: 3262: 3233: 3173: 3047: 2971: 2384: 1951: 1932: 1652: 1524: 1238: 1076: 1048: 932: 772: 698: 468: 372: 357: 234: 147: 6105: 5053: 3255: 2572:

lamps used in chandeliers, etc. Smaller candle-sized bulbs may use a smaller socket.

2021: 2003:

to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.

1804:

Manufacturers designate different forms of lamp filament with an alphanumeric code.

540: 10294: 10055: 9950: 9883: 9717: 9556: 9519: 9149: 9098: 9091: 8844: 8790: 8677: 8554: 7893: 7782: 7365: 7299: 7229: 7180: 6912: 6731: 6620: 6615: 6335: 6217: 6201: 6078: 5837: 5461: 5453: 5174: 4999: 4987: 4562: 3792: 3770: 3762: 3508: 3178: 3164: 3017: 2876: 2819: 2744: 2726: 2680: 2654:

Left to right: MR16 with GU10 base, MR16 with GU5.3 base, MR11 with GU4 or GZ4 base

2523: 2388: 2380: 1980: 1878: 1772: 1516: 1512: 1372: 1355: 1331: 1319: 1261: 1099: 950: 783:

when the lamp was lit, with resulting oxygen attacking the filament. In the 1880s,

771:

gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison's patents were based on the prior art of

723: 715: 529: 421: 414: 407: 257: 230: 194: 8100: 1337:

Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency,

779:

The main difficulty with evacuating the lamps was moisture inside the bulb, which

429:

workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.

10266: 10145: 9685: 9675: 9361: 9344: 9074: 9069: 8943: 8904: 8829: 8800: 8780: 8763: 8684: 8215: 7916: 7901: 7525: 7484: 7442: 7437: 7272: 7092: 6869: 6598: 6573: 3198: 2981: 2631: 2427: 1901: 1736: 1644: 1564: 1560: 957: 780: 458: 391: 186: 170: 5178: 1306: 637: 115:

Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and

10112: 10013: 9965: 9913: 9856: 9808: 9712: 9680: 9561: 9487: 9299: 9277: 9125: 9103: 9086: 8916: 8894: 8716: 8403: 8188: 8176: 8079: 7943: 7869: 7777: 7767: 7413: 7304: 7195: 7159: 7132: 7102: 6969: 6588: 6583: 6062: 5894: 4960:

Murphy, Thomas W. (2012). "Maximum spectral luminous efficacy of white light".

4635: 3370: 2956: 2928: 2811: 2326: 2318: 2076: 1853: 1826: 1707: 1555: 1406: 995: 904: 814: 803: 706: 653: 631: 349: 182: 132: 85: 6523: 6518: 6179: 4658: 4566: 4310:) (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, 2003, pp. 115–116. 3118: 2646:

bulbs are usually smaller in size and run at a lower voltage, often 12 V.

2317:

of 1. Unlike discharge lamps or LED lamps, the power consumed is equal to the

1330:

initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a

897: 852:-bulb from 1906. This was the first light bulb that used a filament made from 588: 10441: 10172: 10127: 10042: 9786: 9771: 9749: 9732: 9571: 9527: 9460: 9319: 9311: 9282: 9252: 9210: 9166: 9144: 9120: 9049: 8689: 8649: 8610: 8578: 8460: 8166: 8064: 7635: 7599: 7494: 7224: 7127: 7122: 7044: 6945: 6852: 6830: 6656: 6637: 6593: 6357: 6200:, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd. London, 1920 pp. 73–74, available from the 5849: 5305: 4779: 4708: 4484: 4290: 4000: 3917: 3784: 3766: 3600: 3418:

by Herman Goodman - American Journal of Clinical Medicine, 1928, Page 159-161

2914: 2856: 2756: 2706: 2047: 2042: 1703: 1385: 1080: 1006: 1002: 760: 755: 729: 663: 645: 619: 533: 521: 380: 353: 341: 329: 246: 226: 178: 97: 93: 5690: 5652: 3668: 3655: 2540:

Light emitted in (nearly) all directions. Available either clear or frosted.

1400:

Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. Coated glass bulbs have

1376:

wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.

1020: 975:, in which a coiled filament is then itself wrapped into a coil by use of a 10284: 10279: 10100: 9908: 9903: 9781: 9625: 9537: 9504: 9492: 9267: 9154: 9132: 8734: 8699: 8494: 8420: 8337: 8332: 8227: 7696: 7630: 7504: 7400: 7395: 7370: 7360: 7321: 7142: 7097: 6974: 6825: 6790: 6726: 6684: 6669: 6625: 6083: 5483: 5457: 5329: 3182: 2986: 2829: 2702: 2474: 2410: 2337: 2314: 2117: 2107: 2034: 2026: 2016: 1947: 1680: 1505: 1311: 1234: 1084: 984: 516: 384: 364: 238: 151: 37: 5953: 3979: 2490:⌀35 mm (~⌀11/8 in) candle-flame shape, ⌀12 mm Edison screw 1813:

Coiled coil filament of a 200-watt incandescent lightbulb highly magnified

1432: 1027:

in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian-born physicist

371:

of immense size", consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the

245:

higher than other implementations which was achieved through the use of a

189:

are used for industrial processes such as paint curing and space heating.

10289: 10025: 9960: 9955: 9876: 9851: 9764: 9739: 9705: 9657: 9598: 9240: 9161: 9044: 9032: 8657: 8470: 8315: 8161: 7711: 7686: 7640: 7545: 7499: 7375: 7234: 6962: 6957: 6917: 6889: 6884: 6815: 6810: 6795: 6753: 6674: 6474: 6112: 6067:"On a peculiar behaviour of glow lamps when raised to high incandescence" 5466: 5139: 3775: 3709:

https://ilglobo.com/news/alessandro-crutos-incandescent-light-bulb-33135/

3141:"High Efficiency Incandescent Lighting | MIT Technology Licensing Office" 2837: 1987: 1968: 1882: 1874: 1863: 1836: 1702:

The Ribbon Machine works by passing a continuous ribbon of glass along a

1683:, was based on an adaptation of the Owens-Libbey bottle-blowing machine. 1540: 1279:

Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as

1028: 841: 818: 582: 222: 7154: 6297: 3046:(Revised ed.). The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 29–31. 2685: 2071:

within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an

1782:

The predominant mechanism for failure in tungsten filaments even now is

10334: 10319: 9801: 9776: 9645: 9581: 9549: 9497: 9455: 9383: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9225: 9022: 9017: 9012: 8931: 8899: 8622: 8615: 8600: 8566: 8438: 8408: 8381: 8364: 8310: 8239: 8131: 7792: 7650: 7645: 7489: 7355: 7350: 7239: 7202: 7185: 7117: 7112: 7087: 6782: 5841: 2951: 2936: 2843: 2714: 2068: 2064: 1381: 501: 140: 5568:"Argon (Ar) Properties, Uses, Applications Argon Gas and Liquid Argon" 5475: 4991: 4415: 4107:

A Long, Dangerous Coastline: Shipwreck Tales from Alaska to California

3211:

Hughes, Thomas P. (1977). "Edison's method". In Pickett, W. B. (ed.).

2365:

the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.

2029:. The two ring-shaped structures left and right are filament supports. 1858: 1831: 1663: 1527:

that then gets deposited on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.

464: 10352: 10347: 10324: 10304: 9744: 9640: 9635: 9586: 9472: 9443: 9438: 9428: 9411: 9329: 9272: 9108: 9027: 8995: 8881: 8822: 8662: 8637: 8605: 8595: 8514: 8260: 8028: 7660: 7535: 7432: 7385: 6950: 6879: 6859: 5817: 5350:"The Incandescent Bulb Heads Offstage After Century-Long Performance" 3874: 3230:

American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm

2946: 2693: 2399: 2322: 1996: 1544: 1536: 1083:) to the electrical power consumed. Luminous efficacy is measured in 961: 920: 572: 493: 345: 324: 174: 166: 165:

The heat produced by filaments is used in some applications, such as

119:

ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external

109: 105: 6161:, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981 6008:, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981 5925:, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981 4382:"The Nernst Lamp. Electrical Conductivity in Non-Metallic Materials" 2689:

40-watt light bulbs with standard E10, E14 and E27 Edison screw base

837:

Hanaman (left) and Just (right), the inventors of the tungsten bulbs

634:. It was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879. 48: 32: 10309: 10299: 10274: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9898: 9818: 9759: 9754: 9433: 9403: 9356: 9191: 9178: 9137: 9039: 8936: 8849: 8807: 8758: 8583: 8549: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8455: 8347: 8325: 8244: 8183: 8171: 7267: 7207: 6904: 6874: 6835: 6800: 6770: 6559: 6216:, McMillan and Co., Ltd., London 1920, pp. 97–98, available at the 5113: 3826:

Sir Joseph Swan and the Invention of the Incandescent Electric Lamp

3819: 3817: 3421: 3285:

Copper Wire and Electrical Conductors – The Shaping of a Technology

2504:⌀95 mm (~⌀30/8 in) flood light, ⌀26 mm Edison screw 2072: 1909: 1886: 1756: 1668: 1648: 1617: 1591: 1464: 1450: 1422: 1389: 1368: 1284: 1230: 1221:

Spectral power distribution of a 25 W incandescent light bulb.

1058: 946: 943: 928: 916: 908: 870: 853: 849: 672: 505: 481: 376: 269: 202: 159: 136: 57: 6336:"IS 14897 (2000): Glass Bulb Designation System for Lamps — Guide" 4974: 4862:

Revolution in lamps: a chronicle of 50 years of progress (2nd ed.)

3330:

APS News - November 9, 1825: Public Demonstration of the Limelight

1926:

is due to uneven evaporation of the filament. Small variations in

64: 10020: 9477: 9393: 9388: 9289: 9262: 9220: 9198: 8926: 8768: 8706: 8667: 8627: 8559: 8544: 8388: 8232: 8195: 7219: 7164: 6864: 6842: 5575: 5133:"Benchmarking Home Energy Savings from Energy-Efficient Lighting" 4935:"The Energy Efficiency of Light Bulbs Today Compared to the Past" 4846:, General Electric Company, Nela Park, Cleveland, OH (1964) pg. 3 4249:

The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol VI 1896, p. 34

3648:"Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans Lamp retrieved 2010 February 16" 3588:

Edison Electric Light Co. vs. United States Electric Lighting Co.

2908: 2038: 1940: 1913: 1776: 1623: 1604: 1489: 1454: 1342: 1053: 1017: 988: 976: 912: 894: 866: 714:

as well; among other places, the first Edison light bulbs in the

564: 489: 485: 116: 7568: 3814: 2650: 1547:. The gas is at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm). 1233:

have higher luminous efficiency. These devices produce light by

10342: 10314: 10095: 9700: 9603: 9566: 9235: 9186: 8990: 8911: 8864: 8795: 8785: 8571: 8504: 8450: 8320: 8287: 8275: 8270: 8249: 8210: 6847: 6805: 3891:. Newcastle University Library. 23 October 2013. Archived from 3675:

Discover Canada: The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship

2361: 2000: 1976: 1744: 1732: 1577: 1418: 1414: 1401: 1010: 901: 878: 822: 807: 711: 687: 668: 544: 497: 433: 432:

In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first

425: 242: 101: 1193:

Theoretical maximum for a tungsten filament incandescent bulb

406:

demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in

295: 150:

of a typical incandescent bulb for 120 V operation is 16

9893: 9846: 9791: 9630: 9615: 9532: 9257: 9245: 9215: 9203: 8975: 8839: 8834: 8812: 8753: 8746: 8588: 8475: 8433: 8342: 8280: 8265: 8205: 7530: 6894: 6820: 6475:"Tests shine light on the secret of the Livermore light bulb" 5818:"Life Prediction of Tungsten Filaments in Incandescent Lamps" 3721:

Die Göbel-Legende – Der Kampf um die Erfindung der Glühlampe.

3399:

Davis, L.J. "Fleet Fire." Arcade Publishing, New York, 2003.

2719: 2667: 2466: 2414:

Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes.

2358: 1917: 1905: 1821:

Filament of a burnt-out 50-watt incandescent lightbulb in an

1611: 1587: 1458: 1446: 1079:, which is the ratio of the amount of visible light emitted ( 924: 750: 528:

On 4 March 1880, just five months after Edison's light bulb,

390:

For the next 40 years much research was given to turning the

5899:

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition

5872:

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition

5671:. Corning, New York: Corning Museum of Glass. 1999. p. 4223:. Electrician Publishing Company. 19 July 1890. p. 36. 3906:

Sir Joseph William Swan FRS (RSC National Chemical Landmark)

3474: 1476:

Support wires (one end embedded in stem; conduct no current)

9608: 9544: 9416: 9294: 9079: 9007: 8963: 8871: 8854: 8724: 8632: 8499: 8445: 8393: 8376: 8352: 8256: 8220: 8200: 6528: 5012:

Peter Lund, Helsinki University of Technology, on p. C5 in

3343:

The Royal Institution: Its Founder and Its First Professors

2423: 1946:

Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an

1809: 1409:

lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by

1024: 994:

Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the

27:

Electric light bulb with a resistively heated wire filament

2313:

Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a

1149:

100 W tungsten incandescent (120 V, general service)

739:(later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into 735:

In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the

387:, by passing high current between two pieces of charcoal. 100:. The filament is enclosed in a glass bulb that is either 9940: 9861: 9841: 9836: 9727: 9448: 9423: 8482: 8398: 8371: 8292: 5511:"New development could lead to more effective lightbulbs" 5138:. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Archived from 3444:. Hauppauge NY: Barrons Educational Series. p. 305. 3004:

Many of the above lamps are illustrated and described in

2354: 1138:

60 W tungsten incandescent (120 V, general service)

1127:

40 W tungsten incandescent (120 V, general service)

607:

Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne

5942:

Burgin. Lighting Research and Technology 1984 16.2 61–72

4673:"Trial Production of the World's First Double-Coil Bulb" 2547:(A), elliptical (E), mushroom (M), sign (S), tubular (T) 2434:

C 7710:1988 cover a common terminology for bulb shapes.

6519:

Slow-motion video of an incandescent lightbulb filament

3030:

Edison's research team was aware of the large negative

2733:" standard base sizes were soon adopted across the US. 2663: 36:

A 230-volt incandescent light bulb with a medium-sized

6338:. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards. pp. 1, 4 6093:

Preece coins the term the "Edison effect" on page 229.

3232:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2697:

The double-contact bayonet cap on an incandescent bulb

1314:

with an E27 base, which can replace a non-halogen bulb

6524:

Ribbon machine in operation at Osram-Sylvania in 2016

5533:"Lamp Material Information Sheet – Incandescent Lamp" 3980:"Thomas Edison: Original Letters and Primary Sources" 2321:

in the circuit. Incandescent light bulbs are usually

1866:

glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.

1839:

glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.

1735:

has the highest melting point of any element, and in

949:

which could be made into filaments while working for

942:

developed a method of making "ductile tungsten" from

5800:

The Potassium Secret Behind Tungsten Wire Production

5110:"Efficient lighting equals higher heat bills: study" 5025: 4937:. kse-lights.co.uk. 13 February 2017. Archived from 4295:

by Lewis H. Latimer. Application on 19 February 1881

3843:"Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light" 3217:. San Francisco: San Francisco Press. pp. 5–22. 2904: 1380:

The heated filament emits light that approximates a

8130: 5723:"Running the ribbon machine: Stories from the team" 5627:Graham, Margaret B. W.; Shuldiner, Alec T. (2001). 5218: 5038: 4953: 3618:"Patent no. 3738. Filing year 1874: Electric Light" 2722:base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps. 2336:The table shows the approximate typical output, in 1848:Filament of a 50-watt incandescent lightbulb in an 1388:, but most energy is given off as heat in the near- 6104: 4895:IEEE Standard 100: definition of luminous efficacy 4743:. New York City: Bonnier Corporation. p. 24. 4588:Nair, Govind B.; Dhoble, Sanjay J. (9 July 2020). 4015: 3957: 3748:"Switching the Light: From Chemical to Electrical" 3254: 2041:gas at low pressure, along with an inert gas. The 1643:Early light bulbs with carbon filaments also used 907:were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a 821:, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic 289:Timeline of the early evolution of the light bulb 154:per watt (lm/W), compared with 60 lm/W for a 6028:"Glass Blowing for Vacuum Devices – Lamp Autopsy" 5982:. Toshiba Lighting & Technology Corporation. 5574:. Universal Industrial Gases, Inc. Archived from 4153:. Electrical Engineer. 16 July 1890. p. 72. 4110:. Heritage House Publishing Company. p. 63. 3605:by A. de Lodyguine. Application on 4 January 1893 3012:. New York: The W. J. Johnston Company. pp. 1594:(7%), where argon is used for its inertness, low 641:Comparison of Edison, Maxim, and Swan bulbs, 1885 379:, chosen because the metal had an extremely high 352:in the early 19th century, by heating a piece of 10439: 6350: 4701: 4552: 4436:I. C. S. Reference Library Volume 4B, Scranton, 3741: 3739: 3737: 2828:as having been burning almost continuously at a 1892: 568:Carbon filament lamps, showing darkening of bulb 511:On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by 319: 6220:, good schematic diagram of the Pointolite lamp 5792: 5626: 5221:"Incandescent Bulbs Return to the Cutting Edge" 4261:"A history of continuous change and innovation" 3006:Houston, Edwin J. & Kennely, A. E. (1896). 2879:is the longest-lasting light bulb in the world. 2613:230 V sizes: PAR 16, 20, 30, 38, 56 and 64 2610:120 V sizes: PAR 16, 20, 30, 38, 56 and 64 2329:consumed. This depends mainly on the operating 143:, and for decorative and advertising lighting. 6328: 6229: 4528:. New Delhi: I. K. International. p. 25. 3590:, Federal Reporter, F1, Vol. 47, 1891, p. 457. 3480: 3427: 3282:Blake-Coleman, B. C. (Barrie Charles) (1992). 3199:https://books.google.com/books?id=8U-Naf4DuzMC 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3005: 2537:General Service/General Lighting Service (GLS) 1301: 1005:, an American chemist, patented a process for 763:for an improved electric lamp, 27 January 1880 596:, the first house to be lit by electric lights 221:list inventors of incandescent lamps prior to 8116: 7738:Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe 7584: 6544: 6318: 6138:By D. M. Mattox – Springer 2004 Page 37 5890: 5888: 5633:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 5582: 4884:by Vincent Pegoraro - CRC Press 2017 Page 690 4844:Incandescent Lamps, Publication Number TP-110 4451:"GE Tantalum Filament 25W of American Design" 4018:Really useful: the origins of everyday things 3734: 3567:. New York: Seaview Books. pp. 120–121. 3523: 3492: 3464: 3318:Edison's Electric Light: The Art of Invention 3281: 3194: 3077: 3075: 3043:Edison's Electric Light: The Art of Invention 3039: 2784:consumption is approximately proportional to 2082: 881:was also used as a filament in lamps made by 559: 6182:. Museum of Electric Lamp Technology. 2004. 6136:The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology 5592:The Chemistry of Artificial Lighting Devices 5285:. Timeless Communications Corp. p. 46. 5028:"The Great Internet Light Bulb Book, Part I" 4765: 3995: 3993: 3670:Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada 3313: 3311: 3309: 3288:. Harwood Academic Publishers. p. 127. 2750: 1431: 1110:compares a broader array of light sources. 858:wire lamp with a drawn wire – indestructible 828: 697:in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of 6159:IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume 6006:IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume 5923:IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume 5917: 5915: 5272: 5270: 5235: 5130: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4839: 4728: 4336: 4334: 4332: 3169:Light: A Very Peculiar Reactant and Product 3097: 3040:Friedel, Robert & Israel, Paul (2010). 2670:designation for a similar coating is "IRC". 2368: 1384:. The useful part of the emitted energy is 1341:incandescent bulbs have been introduced by 614:homes and landmarks in England. His house, 8123: 8109: 7591: 7577: 6551: 6537: 6223: 6096: 6071:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 5885: 5562: 5560: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4831: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4587: 4521: 3072: 2822:" is a light bulb that is accepted by the 1291:emission reductions of 15 million tonnes. 1042: 856:instead of carbon. The inscription reads: 718:were installed at the weaving hall of the 6450: 6272:(in German) (25 ed.). Haan-Gruiten: 6102: 6082: 6025: 5465: 5196:European Commission - European Commission 5068:Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System 5019: 4973: 4695: 4361: 4359: 4178: 4176: 4141: 4139: 3990: 3828:. Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 21–25. 3774: 3745: 3512:J.W. Starr: Cincinnati's Forgotten Genius 3439: 3433: 3306: 3252: 2347: 2057: 2025:Close-up of a tungsten filament inside a 1225:Light sources such as fluorescent lamps, 649:Edison carbon filament lamps, early 1880s 424:enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a 6493:"Watts Up? – A parting look at lighting" 6268:Häberle, Gregor D.; et al. (2013). 6214:An Introduction to Technical Electricity 5980:"Miniature Lamps: Technical Information" 5912: 5325:"Why the brightest idea needs tinkering" 5322: 5267: 4849: 4329: 4258: 3837: 3835: 3371:"Popular Science Monthly (Mar-Apr 1879)" 2891:Various lighting spectra as viewed in a 2775:output is approximately proportional to 2692: 2684: 2649: 2630: 2409: 2020: 1843: 1816: 1808: 1717: 1662: 1305: 1216: 1064: 1052: 840: 832: 791:. However, about 1893, Italian inventor 749: 652: 644: 636: 587: 571: 563: 463: 323: 158:bulb or 100 lm/W for typical white 63: 47: 31: 7052: 6451:Krajewski, Markus (24 September 2014). 6267: 5815: 5557: 5508: 5424: 5422: 5299: 4816: 3416:Clinical Medicine and Surgery Volume 35 3174:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 3081:Size measured in millimetres. See also 1790: 1371:wire inside the bulb, through which an 787:was used in combination with expensive 737:Edison and Swan United Electric Company 14: 10440: 8144: 7733:Edison and Swan Electric Light Company 6432:from the original on 19 September 2013 6061: 5811: 5809: 5807: 5750: 5748: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5404:from the original on 23 December 2015. 5398:Smithsonian Museum of American History 5382:from the original on 21 February 2013. 5214: 5212: 5120:from the original on 14 February 2011. 4959: 4806:"Ganz and Tungsram – the 20th century" 4702:Markus Krajewski (24 September 2014). 4453:. Museum of Electric Lamp Technology. 4356: 4300: 4209: 4173: 4136: 4103: 4097: 3955: 3524:Derry, T.K.; Williams, Trevor (1960). 3442:1001 Inventions That Changed The World 3381:from the original on 10 September 2015 3227: 3210: 1943:can be used to counteract the effect. 1873:Electrical filaments are also used in 1852:in stereoscopic mode, presented as an 1825:in stereoscopic mode, presented as an 1268: 935:with less reduction in filament life. 813:In 1897, German physicist and chemist 693:Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started 678:Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company 60:filament of an incandescent light bulb 10463:Discovery and invention controversies 10254: 9988: 8143: 8104: 7572: 6532: 6463:from the original on 6 November 2014. 6366:from the original on 11 November 2016 5986:from the original on 26 February 2019 5609:from the original on 6 December 2017. 5521:from the original on 13 January 2016. 5490:from the original on 14 February 2022 5394:"Prototype Heat-Mirror Tungsten Lamp" 5347: 5283:Projection, Lights & Staging News 5276: 5255:from the original on 12 November 2008 4734: 4683:from the original on 19 February 2017 4457:from the original on 13 November 2012 4379: 4052:Great Shipwrecks of the Pacific Coast 4049: 3986:from the original on 19 January 2012. 3930: 3866: 3853:from the original on 21 October 2016. 3832: 3802:from the original on 14 February 2022 3560: 3440:Challoner, Jack; et al. (2009). 3393: 3340: 3302:from the original on 6 December 2017. 3112: 3032:temperature coefficient of resistance 2635:A package of four 60-watt light bulbs 2531: 1749:temperature coefficient of resistance 1580:, used in small lamps. Provides best 1535:Most modern bulbs are filled with an 1275:Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs 207:phase-out of incandescent light bulbs 205:(LED). Some governments have begun a 10255: 7849:General Electric Research Laboratory 5960:from the original on 11 October 2011 5951: 5816:Raj, R.; King, G. W. (1 July 1978). 5733:from the original on 8 February 2019 5589:Ropp, Richard C. (22 October 2013). 5588: 5428: 5419: 5163:Nicholas A. A.Howarth, Jan Rosenow: 5124: 4786:from the original on 4 February 2021 4747:from the original on 4 February 2021 4716:from the original on 29 October 2017 4542:from the original on 2 January 2016. 4271:from the original on 9 December 2021 4227:from the original on 27 January 2017 4194:from the original on 27 January 2017 4157:from the original on 26 January 2017 4074: 4013: 3823: 3755:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 3060:from the original on 6 December 2017 2992: 2768:near the rated voltage of the lamp: 2601:Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) 2596:230 V sizes: R50, 63, 80 and 95 2593:120 V sizes: R16, 20, 25 and 30 1931:more energy, making them hotter – a 888: 554: 6481:from the original on 10 March 2012. 6250:from the original on 17 August 2021 6186:from the original on 1 August 2013. 5804: 5766:from the original on 1 January 2018 5756:"The machine that lit up the world" 5745: 5705:"Light Bulb: How Products are Made" 5630:Corning and the craft of innovation 5613: 5219:Leora Broydo Vestel (6 July 2009). 5209: 4911:. yuvaengineers.com. 23 June 2012. 4882:Handbook of Digital Image Synthesis 4608:from the original on 17 August 2021 4594:. Woodhead Publishing. p. 22. 4259:Kautonen, Mika (18 November 2015). 4217:"The Westinghouse Electric Company" 4190:. Delano. 19 July 1890. p. 9. 4085:from the original on 3 January 2021 4081:. Edison's institute. p. 564. 4038:bamboo filament edison patent 1200. 4022:. New York: Firefly Books. p. 3177:54, Issue 39, (2015), 11320–11337, 3167:, Giacomo Bergamini, Paola Ceroni, 2387:: if a broken filament produces an 1747:. Carbon filaments have a negative 1679:The Westlake machine, developed by 1248: 328:Original carbon-filament bulb from 68:Elaborate light in Denver, Colorado 24: 6308:from the original on 20 July 2013. 6091:from the original on 26 June 2014. 6034:from the original on 11 March 2007 5572:Gas Properties, Uses, Applications 5337:from the original on 20 June 2013. 5289:from the original on 6 March 2014. 5279:"Incandescent's Not-So-Dim Future" 4396:from the original on 17 July 2013. 4078:Menlo Park reminiscences, Volume 2 1957: 1573:The most commonly used fills are: 1205: 127:, and work equally well on either 25: 10484: 10222:Social construction of technology 7598: 6506: 6236:, Cengage Learning, p. 163, 5870:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty, 5509:McGrath, Matt (12 January 2016). 5360:from the original on 18 May 2013. 5323:Hamilton, Tyler (22 April 2009). 5300:Freeman, Kim (23 February 2007). 5231:from the original on 12 May 2011. 5089:Motion Picture and Video Lighting 4915:from the original on 7 March 2017 4293:Process OF Manufacturing Carbons. 3982:. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. 3603:Illuminant for Incandescent Lamps 2802:is approximately proportional to 2793:is approximately proportional to 1690: 1122:Overall luminous efficacy (lm/W) 671:in the early 1880s and then with 10418: 10406: 10395: 10394: 9989: 8090:Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar 8050:Thomas Edison in popular culture 7844:Storage Battery Company Building 6485: 6467: 6453:"The Great Lightbulb Conspiracy" 6444: 6418: 6400: 6378: 6290: 6261: 6206: 6190: 6172: 6151: 6141: 6129: 6055: 6046: 6019: 5998: 5972: 5945: 5936: 5864: 5778: 5715: 5697: 5659: 5545:from the original on 21 May 2013 5525: 5502: 4909:"End of Incandescent Light Bulb" 4864:, The Fairmont Press, Inc. 2001 4704:"The Great Lightbulb Conspiracy" 4124:from the original on 22 May 2020 3024: 2921: 2907: 2884: 2868: 2550:120 V sizes: A17, 19 and 21 2522:, 5.33 mm-spaced 12 V 2088:Comparison of efficacy by power 2010: 1999:are placed within the lamp as a 1857: 1830: 1658: 1543:of the filament and prevent its 10407: 10210:Timeline of historic inventions 7910:The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace 7068:Parabolic aluminized reflector 6359:JIS C 7710:1988 電球類ガラス管球の形式の表し方 5901:, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, 5408: 5386: 5364: 5341: 5316: 5293: 5277:Daley, Dan (27 February 2008). 5184: 5157: 5102: 5081: 5060: 5006: 4927: 4901: 4887: 4875: 4798: 4759: 4665: 4650: 4620: 4581: 4546: 4515: 4491: 4469: 4443: 4430: 4400: 4373: 4320: 4283: 4252: 4243: 4068: 4043: 4007: 3972: 3949: 3931:Burns, Elmer Ellsworth (1910). 3924: 3910: 3899: 3881: 3857: 3713: 3702: 3662: 3640: 3610: 3593: 3581: 3554: 3542: 3517: 3502: 3409: 3363: 3334: 3323: 3214:Technology at the Turning Point 2998: 2063:scientific instruments such as 1728:How a tungsten filament is made 1482:Contact wire (goes out of stem) 1473:Contact wire (goes out of stem) 1362: 960:found that filling a lamp with 340:demonstrated heating a wire to 279:Technology at the Turning Point 7788:Motion Picture Patents Company 7773:Edison Storage Battery Company 7763:Edison Portland Cement Company 7013:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide 6298:"Light and Lighting Fun Facts" 5070:, John Wiley & Sons, 2007 4735:Payne, Kenneth Wilcox (1927). 4438:International Textbook Company 4151:Electrical Engineer, Volume 10 3275: 3246: 3221: 3204: 3158: 3133: 3009:Electric Incandescent Lighting 2825:Guinness Book of World Records 2605:Parabolic aluminized reflector 2405: 1417:; which is often a metal like 1227:high-intensity discharge lamps 616:Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead 413:In 1838, Belgian lithographer 217:Historians Robert Friedel and 209:to reduce energy consumption. 199:high-intensity discharge lamps 13: 1: 5348:Rahim, Saqib (28 June 2010). 5026:Klipstein, Donald L. (1996). 4659:US patent 1247068: "Filament" 3934:The story of great inventions 3551:. Retrieved 16 February 2010. 3526:A Short History of Technology 3091: 2674: 2561:Lamps greater than 200 watts. 2518:⌀50 mm (~⌀16/8 in) 1893:Reducing filament evaporation 1470:Contact wire (goes into stem) 1255:Architectural lighting design 971:was granted a patent for the 695:Electro-Dynamic Light Company 367:used what he described as "a 320:Early pre-commercial research 185:toy. Quartz envelope halogen 108:to protect the filament from 89: 7979:The Execution of Mary Stuart 7753:Edison Manufacturing Company 6558: 6426:"Single-Ended Halogen Bases" 5822:Metallurgical Transactions A 5376:Sandia National Laboratories 5131:Anil Parekh (January 2008). 4774:. Bonnier Corporation: 125. 4188:Electrical Review, Volume 16 3481:Houston & Kennely (1896) 3428:Houston & Kennely (1896) 2558:High Wattage General Service 2553:230 V sizes: A55 and 60 2469:60 mm (~⌀19/8 in) 2054:is one typical application. 1328:Sandia National Laboratories 1324:high efficiency incandescent 54:scanning electron microscope 7: 10234:Technology acceptance model 7960:Tales from the Bully Pulpit 7743:Edison Illuminating Company 7258:Automotive light bulb types 7108:Intelligent street lighting 6319:Friedel & Israel (2010) 6270:Tabellenbuch Elektrotechnik 5179:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.11.060 4772:The Popular Science Monthly 4766:Bonnier Corp (March 1949). 4408:"Walther Nernst Chronology" 3960:Edison: a Life of Invention 3622:Library and Archives Canada 3528:. Oxford University Press. 3493:Friedel & Israel (2010) 3465:Friedel & Israel (2010) 3253:Josephson, Matthew (1959). 3195:Friedel & Israel (2010) 2967:Longest-lasting light bulbs 2900: 2640:Multifaceted reflector (MR) 2422:National standards such as 1713: 1530: 1427: 1302:Efforts to improve efficacy 1119:Overall luminous efficiency 769:United States Patent Office 471:on 1951 Soviet postal stamp 420:In 1840, British scientist 10: 10489: 7798:Oriental Telephone Company 7758:Edison Ore-Milling Company 7021:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide 6198:The Electric Lamp Industry 6026:Hunt, Robert (2001–2006). 4962:Journal of Applied Physics 4522:Giridharan, M. K. (2010). 4477:"The Osmium Filament Lamp" 4380:Mills, Allan (June 2013). 3723:Zu Klampen, Springe 2007, 3347:Cambridge University Press 3228:Hughes, Thomas P. (2004). 2754: 2678: 2578:230 V sizes: P45, G95 2083:Electrical characteristics 2014: 1272: 1252: 1046: 877:From 1898 to around 1905, 603:Newcastle Chemical Society 560:Carbon filament and vacuum 212: 203:light-emitting diode lamps 10389: 10368:Technological convergence 10333: 10265: 10261: 10250: 10227:Technological determinism 10183: 10168:Technological singularity 10136: 10078: 10041: 9999: 9995: 9984: 9817: 9656: 9518: 9402: 9310: 9177: 9060: 8880: 8715: 8648: 8513: 8419: 8303: 8154: 8150: 8139: 8042: 8021: 7970: 7952:Edison's Conquest of Mars 7935: 7885: 7862: 7829:Memorial Tower and Museum 7806: 7720: 7669: 7606: 7513: 7468: 7460:Stage lighting instrument 7409: 7332: 7248: 7173: 7043: 6983: 6931: 6903: 6781: 6683: 6655: 6646: 6566: 6390:GE Lighting North America 4860:Raymond Kane, Heinz Sell 4567:10.1557/S0883769400045164 4525:Electrical Systems Design 4499:"The History of Tungsram" 4050:Belyk, Robert C. (2001). 2751:Light output and lifetime 2373: 2097: 2094: 829:Metal filament, inert gas 448:Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin 356:to incandescence with an 348:became a popular form of 281:, edited by W. B. Pickett 10448:Incandescent light bulbs 10363:Research and development 10193:Diffusion of innovations 10158:Technological utopianism 10051:Environmental technology 7834:National Historical Park 7626:Edison's Phonograph Doll 7521:Battlefield illumination 7278:high-intensity discharge 6710:Electrochemiluminescence 6358: 6274:Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel 6180:"Incandescent Arc Lamps" 6148:10.1109/IAS.2006.256780. 4104:Dalton, Anthony (2011). 3767:10.1109/MIE.2015.2454038 2509:Halogen track-light bulb 2369:Physical characteristics 2308: 1445:Low pressure inert gas ( 1395: 951:General Electric Company 82:incandescent light globe 18:Incandescent light bulbs 10458:19th-century inventions 10086:Government by algorithm 10068:Sustainable engineering 10033:Precautionary principle 9827:Artificial intelligence 8085:Statue of Thomas Edison 7692:Incandescent light bulb 7381:Electroluminescent wire 6410:. Osram. Archived from 6230:Wells, Quentin (2012), 6196:G. Arncliffe Percival, 5786:"Tungsten Wire History" 4968:(10): 104909–104909–6. 4265:Smart Tampere Ecosystem 4004:granted 27 January 1880 3549:"John Wellington Starr" 2701:Large lamps may have a 2564:Types: Pear-shaped (PS) 1967:, the invention of the 1043:Efficacy and efficiency 74:incandescent light bulb 10151:Technology forecasting 10118:Strategy of Technology 10009:Appropriate technology 8890:Agricultural machinery 7876:Theodore Miller Edison 7793:Mine Safety Appliances 7728:Thomas A. Edison, Inc. 7616:List of Edison patents 7063:Multifaceted reflector 6408:"IRC Saver calculator" 6103:Josephson, M. (1959). 6084:10.1098/rspl.1884.0093 5458:10.1038/nnano.2015.309 4662:, filed 4 October 1913 4147:"Reports of Companies" 4075:Jehl, Francis (1936). 3746:Guarnieri, M. (2015). 3731:(german, dissertation) 3719:Hans-Christian Rohde: 3561:Conot, Robert (1979). 3183:10.1002/anie.201502325 2698: 2690: 2655: 2644:Multifaceted reflector 2636: 2520:multifaceted reflector 2415: 2348:Current and resistance 2058:Incandescent arc lamps 2030: 1973:evaporation deposition 1868: 1841: 1814: 1784:grain boundary sliding 1729: 1672: 1436: 1315: 1298:of fluorescent lamps. 1222: 1071: 1062: 883:Carl Auer von Welsbach 861: 838: 764: 745:Brush Electric Company 722:'s textile factory in 660: 650: 642: 597: 579: 577:Sir Joseph Wilson Swan 569: 472: 333: 284: 69: 61: 45: 10123:Technology assessment 10108:Persuasive technology 10091:Intellectual property 10079:Policy & politics 8695:Interchangeable parts 7453:ellipsoidal reflector 7058:Ellipsoidal reflector 6742:Fluorescent induction 6720:field-induced polymer 6063:Preece, William Henry 5954:"Premium Fill Gasses" 5711:on 14 September 2010. 5438:Nature Nanotechnology 5429:Ilic, Ognjen (2016). 5173:67, (2014), 737–746, 4737:"A $ 10,000 Accident" 4291:U.S. Patent 252, 386 4184:"Electric Light News" 4001:U.S. patent 0,223,898 3956:Israel, Paul (1998). 3939:Harper & Brothers 3918:U.S. patent 0,214,636 3872:"The Savoy Theatre", 3341:Jones, Bence (2011). 3115:"The Nature of Light" 2962:List of light sources 2834:Livermore, California 2764:For a supply voltage 2696: 2688: 2653: 2634: 2413: 2024: 1847: 1820: 1812: 1727: 1666: 1442:Outline of Glass bulb 1435: 1347:Halogena Energy Saver 1309: 1220: 1068: 1056: 1047:Further information: 893:On 13 December 1904, 844: 836: 756:U.S. patent 0,223,898 753: 656: 648: 640: 592:Historical plaque at 591: 575: 567: 467: 332:'s shop in Menlo Park 327: 277:Thomas P. Hughes, in 262: 233:. They conclude that 67: 51: 35: 10373:Technology lifecycle 10163:Technocracy movement 9921:Programming language 9594:Particle accelerator 9468:Laboratory glassware 8134:and related concepts 8060:Pearl Street Station 7748:Edison Machine Works 7656:Quadruplex telegraph 7290:Rear position lights 7263:Daytime running lamp 7191:Mechanically powered 7078:Aviation obstruction 6513:Light Source Spectra 6414:on 23 December 2008. 6386:"Lighting Resources" 6157:John Kaufman (ed.), 6077:(235–238): 219–230. 6004:John Kaufman (ed.), 5921:John Kaufman (ed.), 5897:and H. Wayne Beaty, 5874:, McGraw Hill, 1978 5668:Innovations in glass 5595:. Elsevier Science. 5066:Janos Schanda (ed), 5050:edisontechcenter.org 5046:"Incandescent Lamps" 3849:. 18 December 2009. 3658:on 19 February 2005. 3601:U.S. Patent 575,002 3113:Keefe, T.J. (2007). 2457:"Standard" lightbulb 1791:Coiled coil filament 1596:thermal conductivity 1352:interference filters 973:coiled coil filament 789:mercury vacuum pumps 785:phosphoric anhydride 404:James Bowman Lindsay 121:regulating equipment 40:(Edison 27 mm) 10198:Technology transfer 9889:Client–server model 9340:CRISPR gene editing 9335:Genetic engineering 8922:Internal combustion 8070:Thomas Edison House 8055:War of the currents 7707:Thermionic emission 7702:Nickel–iron battery 7682:Edison–Lalande cell 7677:Consolidated Edison 6698:Electron-stimulated 6499:on 7 February 2009. 6477:. 6 February 2011. 5834:1978MTA.....9..941R 5762:. 27 January 2017. 5578:on 4 February 2012. 5450:2016NatNa..11..320I 5091:, Routledge, 2018, 4984:2012JAP...111j4909M 4628:"Burnie Lee Benbow" 4487:on 12 October 2008. 4418:on 22 February 2015 4221:Western Electrician 4054:. New York: Wiley. 4014:Levy, Joel (2002). 3889:"Electric lighting" 3257:Edison: a biography 3083:A-series light bulb 2977:Photometry (optics) 2942:Flash (photography) 2893:diffraction grating 2439: 2089: 1965:thermionic emission 1769:William D. Coolidge 1685:Corning Glass Works 1610:Krypton mixed with 1382:continuous spectrum 1269:Measures to ban use 1212:black body radiator 940:William D. Coolidge 848:advertising of the 628:Newcastle upon Tyne 624:City of Westminster 522:U.S. patent 181,613 338:Ebenezer Kinnersley 156:compact fluorescent 129:alternating current 125:manufacturing costs 10468:English inventions 10453:1878 introductions 10063:Sustainable design 9797:Integrated circuit 9621:Telecommunications 9577:Optical instrument 8673:Injection moulding 8360:Musical instrument 8145:Major technologies 8034:Edisonian approach 7541:Luminous gemstones 6715:Electroluminescent 6693:Cathodoluminescent 5842:10.1007/BF02649838 5788:. 4 December 2020. 5729:. 9 January 2018. 5354:The New York Times 5225:The New York Times 5145:on 30 January 2016 4872:page 37, table 2-1 3824:Swan, K R (1946). 2699: 2691: 2656: 2637: 2532:Common shape codes 2437: 2416: 2087: 2052:optical microscopy 2031: 1869: 1842: 1815: 1730: 1673: 1582:thermal insulation 1521:tungsten pentoxide 1495:Electrical contact 1479:Stem (glass mount) 1437: 1411:coloring the glass 1316: 1239:color temperatures 1223: 1072: 1063: 987:(a predecessor of 862: 839: 765: 741:Thorn Lighting Ltd 661: 658:Thomas Alva Edison 651: 643: 598: 580: 570: 473: 439:In 1845, American 334: 70: 62: 46: 10435: 10434: 10385: 10384: 10381: 10380: 10358:Mature technology 10246: 10245: 10242: 10241: 9980: 9979: 9976: 9975: 9946:Graphics software 9325:Blood transfusion 8986:Epicyclic gearing 8818:Archimedes' screw 8098: 8097: 8003:A Night of Terror 7621:Carbon microphone 7566: 7565: 7083:Balanced-arm lamp 7039: 7038: 6923:Yablochkov candle 6791:Acetylene/Carbide 6761:Radioluminescence 6633:Luminous efficacy 6579:Color temperature 6283:978-3-8085-3227-0 6122:978-0-07-033046-7 5304:(Press release). 5056:on 14 March 2013. 5014:Helsingin Sanomat 4992:10.1063/1.4721897 4812:on 30 March 2009. 4768:"Popular Science" 4601:978-0-12-823161-6 3964:. Wiley. p. 3729:978-3-86674-006-8 3688:978-0-660-39273-8 3239:978-0-22635-927-4 3053:978-0-8018-9482-4 2993:Explanatory notes 2972:Over-illumination 2800:Color temperature 2529: 2528: 2481:Candle-flame bulb 2342:energy efficiency 2325:according to the 2306: 2305: 1933:positive feedback 1924:Filament notching 1879:fluorescent lamps 1867: 1840: 1725: 1525:tungsten trioxide 1501: 1500: 1356:photonic crystals 1203: 1202: 1108:luminous efficacy 1087:per watt (lm/W). 1077:luminous efficacy 1049:Luminous efficacy 969:Burnie Lee Benbow 889:Tungsten filament 806:as the so-called 555:Commercialization 477:Alexander Lodygin 475:In 1872, Russian 469:Alexander Lodygin 373:Royal Institution 358:oxyhydrogen torch 317: 316: 195:fluorescent lamps 148:luminous efficacy 78:incandescent lamp 16:(Redirected from 10480: 10422: 10410: 10409: 10398: 10397: 10263: 10262: 10256:Related concepts 10252: 10251: 10056:Clean technology 9997: 9996: 9986: 9985: 9951:Operating system 9557:Magnetic storage 9520:Electromagnetism 9150:Air conditioning 9099:Geothermal power 8845:Block and tackle 8791:Four-bar linkage 8678:Lost-wax casting 8555:Horseback riding 8152: 8151: 8141: 8140: 8125: 8118: 8111: 8102: 8101: 7894:Young Tom Edison 7783:General Electric 7593: 7586: 7579: 7570: 7569: 7366:Christmas lights 7300:Safety reflector 7295:Reversing lights 7230:Navigation light 7181:Bicycle lighting 7071: 7024: 7016: 6990: 6749:Photoluminescent 6732:Fluorescent lamp 6705:Chemiluminescent 6653: 6652: 6621:Bi-pin lamp base 6616:Lightbulb socket 6553: 6546: 6539: 6530: 6529: 6501: 6500: 6495:. Archived from 6489: 6483: 6482: 6471: 6465: 6464: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6439: 6437: 6428:. Bulbster.com. 6422: 6416: 6415: 6404: 6398: 6397: 6392:. Archived from 6382: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6354: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6343: 6332: 6326: 6316: 6310: 6309: 6302:donklipstein.com 6294: 6288: 6287: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6227: 6221: 6218:Internet Archive 6212:S. G. Starling, 6210: 6204: 6202:Internet Archive 6194: 6188: 6187: 6176: 6170: 6155: 6149: 6145: 6139: 6133: 6127: 6126: 6110: 6100: 6094: 6092: 6086: 6059: 6053: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6039: 6023: 6017: 6002: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5976: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5965: 5949: 5943: 5940: 5934: 5919: 5910: 5892: 5883: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5813: 5802: 5796: 5790: 5789: 5782: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5760:Behind the Glass 5752: 5743: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5727:Behind the Glass 5719: 5713: 5712: 5707:. Archived from 5701: 5695: 5694: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5624: 5611: 5610: 5586: 5580: 5579: 5564: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5550: 5544: 5537: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5497: 5495: 5469: 5435: 5426: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5406: 5405: 5390: 5384: 5383: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5345: 5339: 5338: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5308:. Archived from 5297: 5291: 5290: 5274: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5254: 5247: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5216: 5207: 5206: 5204: 5202: 5188: 5182: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5144: 5137: 5128: 5122: 5121: 5116:. 4 March 2009. 5106: 5100: 5085: 5079: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5052:. Archived from 5042: 5036: 5035: 5030:. Archived from 5023: 5017: 5016:23 October 2007. 5010: 5004: 5003: 4977: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4946: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4920: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4891: 4885: 4879: 4873: 4858: 4847: 4841: 4814: 4813: 4808:. Archived from 4802: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4690: 4688: 4679:. TOSHIBA CORP. 4669: 4663: 4661: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4643: 4634:. Archived from 4624: 4618: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4585: 4579: 4578: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4504:. Archived from 4503: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4483:. Archived from 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4447: 4441: 4434: 4428: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4414:. Archived from 4404: 4398: 4397: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4363: 4354: 4353: 4351: 4349: 4344:. Lamptech.co.uk 4338: 4327: 4324: 4318: 4306:Fouché, Rayvon, 4304: 4298: 4297: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4256: 4250: 4247: 4241: 4240: 4234: 4232: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4201: 4199: 4180: 4171: 4170: 4164: 4162: 4143: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4072: 4066: 4065: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4021: 4011: 4005: 4003: 3997: 3988: 3987: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3963: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3928: 3922: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3885: 3879: 3878:, 3 October 1881 3870: 3864: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3839: 3830: 3829: 3821: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3801: 3778: 3752: 3743: 3732: 3717: 3711: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3680: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3654:. Archived from 3644: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3624:. Archived from 3614: 3608: 3607: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3564:A Streak of Luck 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3521: 3515: 3509:Charles D. Wrege 3506: 3500: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3407: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3338: 3332: 3327: 3321: 3315: 3304: 3303: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3260: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3208: 3202: 3192: 3186: 3165:Vincenzo Balzani 3162: 3156: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3121:on 23 April 2012 3117:. Archived from 3110: 3086: 3079: 3070: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3018:Internet Archive 3016:–42 – via 3002: 2931: 2926: 2925: 2917: 2912: 2911: 2888: 2877:Centennial Light 2872: 2844:Photoflood lamps 2820:Centennial Light 2745:lightbulb socket 2743:Contacts in the 2727:General Electric 2711:automotive lamps 2681:Lightbulb socket 2625: 2624: 2620: 2524:bi-pin connector 2440: 2436: 2389:electrical short 2381:electric current 2327:electrical power 2123:Efficacy (lm/W) 2090: 2086: 1981:optical coatings 1862: 1861: 1835: 1834: 1773:General Electric 1737:carbon arc lamps 1726: 1556:molecular weight 1517:tungsten dioxide 1513:tungsten nitride 1428: 1373:electric current 1332:photonic lattice 1320:General Electric 1262:air conditioning 1249:Cost of lighting 1113: 1112: 1100:air conditioning 801: 793:Arturo Malignani 758: 724:Tampere, Finland 716:Nordic countries 530:Alessandro Cruto 524: 452:Château de Blois 422:Warren De la Rue 415:Marcellin Jobard 408:Dundee, Scotland 286: 285: 282: 235:Edison's version 231:General Electric 187:infrared heaters 21: 10488: 10487: 10483: 10482: 10481: 10479: 10478: 10477: 10438: 10437: 10436: 10431: 10430: 10377: 10329: 10267:Applied science 10257: 10238: 10179: 10146:Futures studies 10132: 10074: 10037: 9991: 9972: 9813: 9686:Electrical grid 9676:Circuit breaker 9652: 9514: 9398: 9362:Medical imaging 9345:Genetic testing 9306: 9173: 9056: 8944:Heavy equipment 8905:Washing machine 8876: 8801:Rack and pinion 8711: 8685:Mass production 8644: 8509: 8415: 8299: 8146: 8135: 8129: 8099: 8094: 8038: 8017: 7966: 7931: 7917:The Current War 7902:Edison, the Man 7881: 7858: 7802: 7716: 7665: 7608: 7602: 7597: 7567: 7562: 7526:Bioluminescence 7509: 7478: 7464: 7421: 7405: 7344: 7328: 7244: 7169: 7093:Emergency light 7069: 7035: 7022: 7014: 6988: 6986: 6979: 6927: 6899: 6870:Magnesium torch 6777: 6679: 6648: 6642: 6599:Light pollution 6574:Accent lighting 6562: 6557: 6509: 6504: 6491: 6490: 6486: 6473: 6472: 6468: 6449: 6445: 6435: 6433: 6424: 6423: 6419: 6406: 6405: 6401: 6396:on 3 July 2007. 6384: 6383: 6379: 6369: 6367: 6362:(in Japanese). 6360: 6356: 6355: 6351: 6341: 6339: 6334: 6333: 6329: 6317: 6313: 6296: 6295: 6291: 6284: 6276:. p. 190. 6266: 6262: 6253: 6251: 6244: 6233:Smart Grid Home 6228: 6224: 6211: 6207: 6195: 6191: 6178: 6177: 6173: 6156: 6152: 6146: 6142: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6101: 6097: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6037: 6035: 6024: 6020: 6003: 5999: 5989: 5987: 5978: 5977: 5973: 5963: 5961: 5952:Lipstein, Don. 5950: 5946: 5941: 5937: 5920: 5913: 5893: 5886: 5869: 5865: 5814: 5805: 5797: 5793: 5784: 5783: 5779: 5769: 5767: 5754: 5753: 5746: 5736: 5734: 5721: 5720: 5716: 5703: 5702: 5698: 5683: 5665: 5664: 5660: 5645: 5625: 5614: 5603: 5587: 5583: 5566: 5565: 5558: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5531: 5530: 5526: 5507: 5503: 5493: 5491: 5433: 5427: 5420: 5414: 5413: 5409: 5392: 5391: 5387: 5378:. 7 July 2003. 5370: 5369: 5365: 5346: 5342: 5321: 5317: 5312:on 16 May 2013. 5298: 5294: 5275: 5268: 5258: 5256: 5252: 5245: 5241: 5240: 5236: 5217: 5210: 5200: 5198: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5162: 5158: 5148: 5146: 5142: 5135: 5129: 5125: 5108: 5107: 5103: 5086: 5082: 5065: 5061: 5044: 5043: 5039: 5024: 5020: 5011: 5007: 4958: 4954: 4944: 4942: 4941:on 7 March 2017 4933: 4932: 4928: 4918: 4916: 4907: 4906: 4902: 4893: 4892: 4888: 4880: 4876: 4859: 4850: 4842: 4817: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4789: 4787: 4764: 4760: 4750: 4748: 4741:Popular Science 4733: 4729: 4719: 4717: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4684: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4657: 4655: 4651: 4641: 4639: 4638:on 12 June 2012 4626: 4625: 4621: 4611: 4609: 4602: 4586: 4582: 4551: 4547: 4536: 4520: 4516: 4511:on 30 May 2005. 4508: 4501: 4497: 4496: 4492: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4440:, 1908, no ISBN 4435: 4431: 4421: 4419: 4406: 4405: 4401: 4378: 4374: 4365: 4364: 4357: 4347: 4345: 4340: 4339: 4330: 4325: 4321: 4305: 4301: 4289: 4288: 4284: 4274: 4272: 4257: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4230: 4228: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4197: 4195: 4182: 4181: 4174: 4160: 4158: 4145: 4144: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4118: 4102: 4098: 4088: 4086: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4048: 4044: 4034: 4012: 4008: 3999: 3998: 3991: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3954: 3950: 3929: 3925: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3900: 3895:on 6 June 2014. 3887: 3886: 3882: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3841: 3840: 3833: 3822: 3815: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3750: 3744: 3735: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3678: 3667: 3663: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3631: 3629: 3628:on 19 June 2013 3616: 3615: 3611: 3599: 3598: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3559: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3536: 3522: 3518: 3507: 3503: 3491: 3487: 3479: 3475: 3463: 3459: 3452: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3422: 3414: 3410: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3349:. p. 278. 3339: 3335: 3328: 3324: 3316: 3307: 3296: 3280: 3276: 3269: 3261:. McGraw Hill. 3251: 3247: 3240: 3226: 3222: 3209: 3205: 3193: 3189: 3163: 3159: 3149: 3147: 3139: 3138: 3134: 3124: 3122: 3111: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3080: 3073: 3063: 3061: 3054: 3029: 3025: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2982:Resistance wire 2957:Lightbulb jokes 2927: 2920: 2913: 2906: 2903: 2896: 2889: 2880: 2873: 2759: 2753: 2683: 2677: 2622: 2618: 2617: 2534: 2430:14897:2000 and 2408: 2376: 2371: 2350: 2311: 2113:Efficacy (lm/W) 2098:230-volt lamps 2095:120-volt lamps 2085: 2077:xenon arc lamps 2060: 2019: 2013: 1960: 1958:Bulb blackening 1912:, or sometimes 1902:Irving Langmuir 1895: 1885:as a source of 1871: 1870: 1793: 1718: 1716: 1693: 1661: 1645:carbon monoxide 1565:heat convection 1561:heat conduction 1533: 1398: 1365: 1304: 1290: 1277: 1271: 1257: 1251: 1208: 1206:Color rendering 1171:Quartz halogen 1051: 1045: 958:Irving Langmuir 891: 831: 795: 754: 726:in March 1882. 562: 557: 520: 459:Moses G. Farmer 392:carbon arc lamp 322: 313: 311: 283: 276: 215: 181:bulbs, and the 104:or filled with 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10486: 10476: 10475: 10470: 10465: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10433: 10432: 10429: 10428: 10416: 10404: 10391: 10390: 10387: 10386: 10383: 10382: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10360: 10355: 10350: 10345: 10339: 10337: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10271: 10269: 10259: 10258: 10248: 10247: 10244: 10243: 10240: 10239: 10237: 10236: 10231: 10230: 10229: 10224: 10214: 10213: 10212: 10202: 10201: 10200: 10189: 10187: 10181: 10180: 10178: 10177: 10176: 10175: 10170: 10165: 10155: 10154: 10153: 10142: 10140: 10134: 10133: 10131: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10113:Science policy 10110: 10105: 10104: 10103: 10098: 10088: 10082: 10080: 10076: 10075: 10073: 10072: 10071: 10070: 10060: 10059: 10058: 10047: 10045: 10039: 10038: 10036: 10035: 10030: 10029: 10028: 10018: 10017: 10016: 10014:Low technology 10005: 10003: 9993: 9992: 9982: 9981: 9978: 9977: 9974: 9973: 9971: 9970: 9969: 9968: 9966:Word processor 9963: 9958: 9953: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9923: 9918: 9917: 9916: 9914:World Wide Web 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9881: 9880: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9829: 9823: 9821: 9815: 9814: 9812: 9811: 9809:Superconductor 9806: 9805: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9737: 9736: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9713:Electric light 9710: 9709: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9662: 9660: 9654: 9653: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9618: 9613: 9612: 9611: 9609:Motion picture 9606: 9596: 9591: 9590: 9589: 9584: 9574: 9569: 9564: 9562:Microwave oven 9559: 9554: 9553: 9552: 9542: 9541: 9540: 9530: 9524: 9522: 9516: 9515: 9513: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9501: 9500: 9495: 9490: 9488:Chromatography 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9464: 9463: 9453: 9452: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9426: 9421: 9420: 9419: 9408: 9406: 9400: 9399: 9397: 9396: 9391: 9386: 9381: 9380: 9379: 9374: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9353: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9316: 9314: 9308: 9307: 9305: 9304: 9303: 9302: 9300:Spinning wheel 9297: 9287: 9286: 9285: 9275: 9270: 9265: 9260: 9255: 9250: 9249: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9208: 9207: 9206: 9196: 9195: 9194: 9183: 9181: 9175: 9174: 9172: 9171: 9170: 9169: 9159: 9158: 9157: 9152: 9142: 9141: 9140: 9130: 9129: 9128: 9123: 9113: 9112: 9111: 9104:Heat exchanger 9101: 9096: 9095: 9094: 9087:Energy storage 9084: 9083: 9082: 9077: 9066: 9064: 9058: 9057: 9055: 9054: 9053: 9052: 9047: 9037: 9036: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9010: 9005: 9004: 9003: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8968: 8967: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8946: 8941: 8940: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8917:Electric motor 8909: 8908: 8907: 8902: 8892: 8886: 8884: 8878: 8877: 8875: 8874: 8869: 8868: 8867: 8862: 8860:Potter's wheel 8857: 8852: 8847: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8820: 8810: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8773: 8772: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8751: 8750: 8749: 8739: 8738: 8737: 8727: 8721: 8719: 8717:Simple machine 8713: 8712: 8710: 8709: 8704: 8703: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8682: 8681: 8680: 8675: 8665: 8660: 8654: 8652: 8646: 8645: 8643: 8642: 8641: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8598: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8581: 8576: 8575: 8574: 8564: 8563: 8562: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8541: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8519: 8517: 8511: 8510: 8508: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8491: 8490: 8480: 8479: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8453: 8448: 8443: 8442: 8441: 8436: 8425: 8423: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8413: 8412: 8411: 8406: 8404:Printing press 8401: 8396: 8386: 8385: 8384: 8379: 8369: 8368: 8367: 8357: 8356: 8355: 8350: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8329: 8328: 8323: 8313: 8307: 8305: 8301: 8300: 8298: 8297: 8296: 8295: 8285: 8284: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8254: 8253: 8252: 8247: 8237: 8236: 8235: 8225: 8224: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8189:Sewing machine 8181: 8180: 8179: 8177:Working animal 8174: 8169: 8158: 8156: 8148: 8147: 8137: 8136: 8128: 8127: 8120: 8113: 8105: 8096: 8095: 8093: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8080:Telephonoscope 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8046: 8044: 8040: 8039: 8037: 8036: 8031: 8025: 8023: 8019: 8018: 8016: 8015: 8007: 7999: 7991: 7983: 7974: 7972: 7968: 7967: 7965: 7964: 7956: 7948: 7944:The Future Eve 7939: 7937: 7933: 7932: 7930: 7929: 7921: 7913: 7906: 7898: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7879: 7873: 7870:Charles Edison 7866: 7864: 7860: 7859: 7857: 7856: 7854:Winter Estates 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7810: 7808: 7804: 7803: 7801: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7778:Edison Studios 7775: 7770: 7768:Edison Records 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7724: 7722: 7718: 7717: 7715: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7673: 7671: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7612: 7610: 7609:and inventions 7604: 7603: 7596: 7595: 7588: 7581: 7573: 7564: 7563: 7561: 7560: 7559: 7558: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7517: 7515: 7514:Related topics 7511: 7510: 7508: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7481: 7479: 7477: 7476: 7473: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7463: 7462: 7457: 7456: 7455: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7424: 7422: 7420: 7419: 7416: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7347: 7345: 7343: 7342: 7337: 7333: 7330: 7329: 7327: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7314: 7309: 7308: 7307: 7305:retroreflector 7297: 7292: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7265: 7260: 7254: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7216: 7215: 7205: 7200: 7199: 7198: 7193: 7183: 7177: 7175: 7171: 7170: 7168: 7167: 7162: 7160:Track lighting 7157: 7152: 7151: 7150: 7140: 7135: 7133:Recessed light 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7103:Gooseneck lamp 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7074: 7073: 7065: 7060: 7049: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7033: 7028: 7027: 7026: 7018: 7010: 7000: 6994: 6992: 6985:High-intensity 6981: 6980: 6978: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6966: 6965: 6955: 6954: 6953: 6943: 6937: 6935: 6929: 6928: 6926: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6909: 6907: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6850: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6787: 6785: 6779: 6778: 6776: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6763: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6754:Laser headlamp 6746: 6745: 6744: 6739: 6724: 6723: 6722: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6689: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6678: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6661: 6659: 6650: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6613: 6612: 6611: 6606: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6584:Electric light 6581: 6576: 6570: 6568: 6564: 6563: 6556: 6555: 6548: 6541: 6533: 6527: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6508: 6507:External links 6505: 6503: 6502: 6484: 6466: 6443: 6417: 6399: 6377: 6349: 6327: 6311: 6289: 6282: 6260: 6243:978-1111318512 6242: 6222: 6205: 6189: 6171: 6150: 6140: 6128: 6121: 6095: 6054: 6045: 6018: 5997: 5971: 5944: 5935: 5911: 5895:Donald G. Fink 5884: 5863: 5828:(7): 941–946. 5803: 5791: 5777: 5744: 5714: 5696: 5681: 5658: 5643: 5612: 5602:978-0080933153 5601: 5581: 5556: 5524: 5501: 5418: 5407: 5385: 5363: 5340: 5315: 5292: 5266: 5234: 5208: 5183: 5156: 5123: 5101: 5080: 5059: 5037: 5034:on 2 May 2006. 5018: 5005: 4952: 4926: 4900: 4897:. p. 647. 4886: 4874: 4848: 4815: 4797: 4758: 4727: 4694: 4664: 4656:Benbow, B.L., 4649: 4619: 4600: 4580: 4545: 4534: 4514: 4490: 4468: 4442: 4429: 4399: 4372: 4355: 4328: 4319: 4299: 4282: 4251: 4242: 4208: 4172: 4135: 4116: 4096: 4067: 4060: 4042: 4032: 4006: 3989: 3971: 3948: 3923: 3909: 3898: 3880: 3865: 3856: 3831: 3813: 3733: 3712: 3701: 3687: 3661: 3639: 3609: 3592: 3580: 3573: 3553: 3541: 3534: 3516: 3501: 3485: 3473: 3457: 3451:978-1844036110 3450: 3432: 3420: 3408: 3392: 3362: 3356:978-1108037709 3355: 3333: 3322: 3305: 3294: 3274: 3267: 3245: 3238: 3220: 3203: 3187: 3157: 3132: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3087: 3071: 3052: 3023: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2990: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2933: 2932: 2929:Physics portal 2918: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2890: 2883: 2881: 2874: 2867: 2812:Phoebus cartel 2807: 2806: 2797: 2788: 2779: 2752: 2749: 2679:Main article: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2660: 2648: 2647: 2641: 2629: 2628: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2602: 2598: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2566: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2541: 2538: 2533: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2496: 2492: 2491: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2477: 2473:, ⌀26 mm 2464: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2407: 2404: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2349: 2346: 2319:apparent power 2310: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2288: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2206: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2124: 2121: 2114: 2111: 2104: 2100: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2084: 2081: 2059: 2056: 2015:Main article: 2012: 2009: 1959: 1956: 1894: 1891: 1854:anaglyph image 1827:anaglyph image 1807: 1806: 1792: 1789: 1715: 1712: 1708:Osram-Sylvania 1692: 1691:Ribbon machine 1689: 1660: 1657: 1628: 1627: 1621: 1615: 1608: 1602: 1599: 1585: 1532: 1529: 1519:, violet-blue 1499: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1462: 1443: 1438: 1407:Christmas tree 1397: 1394: 1364: 1361: 1303: 1300: 1296:health effects 1288: 1273:Main article: 1270: 1267: 1250: 1247: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1190: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1160:Glass halogen 1157: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1146: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1044: 1041: 996:Phoebus cartel 905:Franjo Hanaman 890: 887: 830: 827: 817:developed the 815:Walther Nernst 804:red phosphorus 773:William Sawyer 747:in June 1882. 707:Hiram S. Maxim 699:William Sawyer 632:United Kingdom 561: 558: 556: 553: 541:Heinrich Göbel 513:Henry Woodward 350:stage lighting 321: 318: 315: 314: 294: 291: 290: 274: 214: 211: 183:Easy-Bake Oven 133:direct current 86:electric light 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10485: 10474: 10473:Thomas Edison 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10445: 10443: 10427: 10426: 10421: 10417: 10415: 10414: 10405: 10403: 10402: 10393: 10392: 10388: 10374: 10371: 10369: 10366: 10364: 10361: 10359: 10356: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10340: 10338: 10336: 10332: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10272: 10270: 10268: 10264: 10260: 10253: 10249: 10235: 10232: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10219: 10218: 10215: 10211: 10208: 10207: 10206: 10203: 10199: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10188: 10186: 10182: 10174: 10173:Transhumanism 10171: 10169: 10166: 10164: 10161: 10160: 10159: 10156: 10152: 10149: 10148: 10147: 10144: 10143: 10141: 10139: 10138:Progressivism 10135: 10129: 10128:Technorealism 10126: 10124: 10121: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10102: 10099: 10097: 10094: 10093: 10092: 10089: 10087: 10084: 10083: 10081: 10077: 10069: 10066: 10065: 10064: 10061: 10057: 10054: 10053: 10052: 10049: 10048: 10046: 10044: 10043:Ecotechnology 10040: 10034: 10031: 10027: 10024: 10023: 10022: 10019: 10015: 10012: 10011: 10010: 10007: 10006: 10004: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9987: 9983: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9949: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9928: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9887: 9886: 9885: 9882: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9834: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9820: 9816: 9810: 9807: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9789: 9788: 9787:Semiconductor 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9772:Lightning rod 9770: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9750:Circuit board 9748: 9746: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9738: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9715: 9714: 9711: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9694: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9668: 9667: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9659: 9655: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9579: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9572:Optical fiber 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9551: 9548: 9547: 9546: 9543: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9528:Electromagnet 9526: 9525: 9523: 9521: 9517: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9499: 9496: 9494: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9462: 9461:Haber process 9459: 9458: 9457: 9454: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9418: 9415: 9414: 9413: 9410: 9409: 9407: 9405: 9401: 9395: 9392: 9390: 9387: 9385: 9382: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9369: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9337: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9320:Birth control 9318: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9312:Biotechnology 9309: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9292: 9291: 9288: 9284: 9283:Vulcanization 9281: 9280: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9253:Nanomaterials 9251: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9211:Chipped stone 9209: 9205: 9202: 9201: 9200: 9197: 9193: 9190: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9180: 9176: 9168: 9167:Photovoltaics 9165: 9164: 9163: 9160: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9147: 9146: 9145:Refrigeration 9143: 9139: 9136: 9135: 9134: 9131: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9118: 9117: 9114: 9110: 9107: 9106: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9093: 9090: 9089: 9088: 9085: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9072: 9071: 9068: 9067: 9065: 9063: 9059: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9042: 9041: 9038: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9015: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8973: 8972: 8969: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8951: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8914: 8913: 8910: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8887: 8885: 8883: 8879: 8873: 8870: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8815: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8778: 8777: 8774: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8756: 8755: 8752: 8748: 8745: 8744: 8743: 8740: 8736: 8733: 8732: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8722: 8720: 8718: 8714: 8708: 8705: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8690:Assembly line 8688: 8687: 8686: 8683: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8670: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8655: 8653: 8651: 8650:Manufacturing 8647: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8611:Space station 8609: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8579:Motor vehicle 8577: 8573: 8570: 8569: 8568: 8565: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8525: 8524: 8521: 8520: 8518: 8516: 8512: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8485: 8484: 8481: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8461:Fortification 8459: 8458: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8431: 8430: 8427: 8426: 8424: 8422: 8418: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8391: 8390: 8387: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8374: 8373: 8370: 8366: 8363: 8362: 8361: 8358: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8345: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8308: 8306: 8302: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8289: 8286: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8263: 8262: 8258: 8255: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8242: 8241: 8238: 8234: 8231: 8230: 8229: 8226: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8194: 8190: 8187: 8186: 8185: 8182: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8167:Domestication 8165: 8164: 8163: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8142: 8138: 8133: 8126: 8121: 8119: 8114: 8112: 8107: 8106: 8103: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8065:Edison Museum 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8045: 8041: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8020: 8013: 8012: 8008: 8005: 8004: 8000: 7997: 7996: 7992: 7989: 7988: 7984: 7981: 7980: 7976: 7975: 7973: 7969: 7962: 7961: 7957: 7954: 7953: 7949: 7946: 7945: 7941: 7940: 7938: 7934: 7927: 7926: 7922: 7919: 7918: 7914: 7911: 7907: 7904: 7903: 7899: 7896: 7895: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7884: 7877: 7874: 7871: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7811: 7809: 7805: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7719: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7674: 7672: 7668: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7636:Etheric force 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7605: 7601: 7600:Thomas Edison 7594: 7589: 7587: 7582: 7580: 7575: 7574: 7571: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7512: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7495:Infrared lamp 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7467: 7461: 7458: 7454: 7451: 7450: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7425: 7423: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7411: 7408: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7341: 7338: 7335: 7334: 7331: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7255: 7253: 7251: 7247: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7225:Laser pointer 7223: 7221: 7218: 7214: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7176: 7172: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7149: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7128:Pendant light 7126: 7124: 7123:Neon lighting 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7072: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7048: 7046: 7042: 7032: 7029: 7025: 7019: 7017: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7005: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6998:Mercury-vapor 6996: 6995: 6993: 6991: 6982: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6956: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6941:Deuterium arc 6939: 6938: 6936: 6934: 6933:Gas discharge 6930: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6910: 6908: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6844: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6833: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6788: 6786: 6784: 6780: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6747: 6743: 6740: 6737: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6728: 6725: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6658: 6654: 6651: 6645: 6639: 6638:Task lighting 6636: 6634: 6631: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6614: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6594:Light fixture 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6571: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6554: 6549: 6547: 6542: 6540: 6535: 6534: 6531: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6498: 6494: 6488: 6480: 6476: 6470: 6462: 6458: 6457:IEEE Spectrum 6454: 6447: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6413: 6409: 6403: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6381: 6365: 6361: 6353: 6337: 6331: 6324: 6320: 6315: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6293: 6285: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6264: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6235: 6234: 6226: 6219: 6215: 6209: 6203: 6199: 6193: 6185: 6181: 6175: 6168: 6167:0-87995-007-2 6164: 6160: 6154: 6144: 6137: 6132: 6124: 6118: 6114: 6109: 6108: 6099: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6058: 6049: 6033: 6029: 6022: 6015: 6014:0-87995-007-2 6011: 6007: 6001: 5985: 5981: 5975: 5959: 5955: 5948: 5939: 5932: 5931:0-87995-007-2 5928: 5924: 5918: 5916: 5908: 5907:0-07-020974-X 5904: 5900: 5896: 5891: 5889: 5881: 5880:0-07-020974-X 5877: 5873: 5867: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5812: 5810: 5808: 5801: 5795: 5787: 5781: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5751: 5749: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5718: 5710: 5706: 5700: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5669: 5662: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5608: 5604: 5598: 5594: 5593: 5585: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5563: 5561: 5541: 5534: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5505: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5468: 5467:1721.1/109242 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5432: 5425: 5423: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5344: 5336: 5332: 5331: 5326: 5319: 5311: 5307: 5306:Business Wire 5303: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5273: 5271: 5251: 5244: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5215: 5213: 5197: 5193: 5187: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5171: 5170:Energy Policy 5166: 5160: 5141: 5134: 5127: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5087:Blain Brown, 5084: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5022: 5015: 5009: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4940: 4936: 4930: 4914: 4910: 4904: 4896: 4890: 4883: 4878: 4871: 4870:0-88173-378-4 4867: 4863: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4845: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4834: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4762: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4731: 4715: 4711: 4710: 4709:IEEE Spectrum 4705: 4698: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4668: 4660: 4653: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4593: 4592: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4535:9789380578057 4531: 4527: 4526: 4518: 4507: 4500: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4472: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4439: 4433: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4403: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4368: 4362: 4360: 4343: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4323: 4317: 4316:0-8018-7319-3 4313: 4309: 4303: 4296: 4294: 4286: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4255: 4246: 4239: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4212: 4205: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4179: 4177: 4169: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4140: 4123: 4119: 4117:9781926936116 4113: 4109: 4108: 4100: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4071: 4063: 4061:0-471-38420-8 4057: 4053: 4046: 4039: 4035: 4033:9781552976227 4029: 4025: 4020: 4019: 4010: 4002: 3996: 3994: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3967: 3962: 3961: 3952: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3935: 3927: 3919: 3913: 3907: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3877: 3876: 3869: 3860: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3838: 3836: 3827: 3820: 3818: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3776:11577/3164116 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3705: 3690: 3684: 3677: 3676: 3671: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3643: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3606: 3604: 3596: 3589: 3584: 3576: 3574:0-87223-521-1 3570: 3566: 3565: 3557: 3550: 3545: 3537: 3535:0-486-27472-1 3531: 3527: 3520: 3513: 3510: 3505: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3483:, p. 24. 3482: 3477: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3453: 3447: 3443: 3436: 3429: 3424: 3417: 3412: 3406: 3405:1-55970-655-4 3402: 3396: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3366: 3358: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3331: 3326: 3319: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3301: 3297: 3295:3-7186-5200-5 3291: 3287: 3286: 3278: 3270: 3268:0-471-54806-5 3264: 3259: 3258: 3249: 3241: 3235: 3231: 3224: 3216: 3213: 3207: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3146: 3142: 3136: 3120: 3116: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3096: 3084: 3078: 3076: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3045: 3044: 3037: 3033: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3010: 3001: 2997: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2924: 2919: 2916: 2915:Energy portal 2910: 2905: 2894: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2866: 2865: 2864: 2860: 2858: 2857:rough service 2852: 2848: 2845: 2841: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2826: 2821: 2815: 2813: 2805: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2770: 2769: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2757:Lamp rerating 2748: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2695: 2687: 2682: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2652: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2638: 2633: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2585: 2583:Reflector (R) 2582: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2567: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2471:A series bulb 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2451: 2448: 2445: 2442: 2441: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2412: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2356: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2266: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2126: 2122: 2119: 2115: 2112: 2109: 2105: 2102: 2101: 2092: 2091: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2043:halogen cycle 2040: 2036: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2011:Halogen lamps 2008: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1975:used to make 1974: 1970: 1966: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1846: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1811: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1799: 1788: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1704:conveyor belt 1700: 1698: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1670: 1665: 1659:Manufacturing 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1631: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1528: 1526: 1523:, and yellow 1522: 1518: 1514: 1509: 1507: 1494: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1434: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1393: 1392:wavelengths. 1391: 1387: 1386:visible light 1383: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1360: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1313: 1308: 1299: 1297: 1292: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1266: 1263: 1256: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1219: 1215: 1213: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1104: 1101: 1096: 1093: 1090:The luminous 1088: 1086: 1082: 1081:luminous flux 1078: 1067: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1003:Marvin Pipkin 999: 997: 992: 990: 986: 982: 981:Junichi Miura 978: 974: 970: 965: 963: 959: 954: 952: 948: 945: 941: 936: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 903: 899: 896: 886: 884: 880: 875: 872: 868: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 835: 826: 824: 820: 816: 811: 809: 805: 799: 794: 790: 786: 782: 777: 774: 770: 762: 761:Thomas Edison 757: 752: 748: 746: 742: 738: 733: 731: 730:Lewis Latimer 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 708: 704: 700: 696: 691: 689: 685: 684: 679: 674: 670: 665: 664:Thomas Edison 659: 655: 647: 639: 635: 633: 629: 625: 621: 620:Savoy Theatre 617: 611: 608: 604: 595: 590: 586: 584: 578: 574: 566: 552: 550: 546: 542: 537: 535: 534:ethyl alcohol 531: 526: 523: 518: 514: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 478: 470: 466: 462: 460: 455: 453: 449: 444: 442: 441:John W. Starr 437: 435: 430: 427: 423: 418: 416: 411: 409: 405: 400: 396: 393: 388: 386: 382: 381:melting point 378: 374: 370: 366: 361: 359: 355: 354:calcium oxide 351: 347: 343: 342:incandescence 339: 331: 330:Thomas Edison 326: 293: 292: 288: 287: 280: 273: 271: 267: 261: 259: 258:Thomas Hughes 254: 252: 248: 247:Sprengel pump 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 227:Thomas Edison 224: 220: 210: 208: 204: 200: 196: 190: 188: 184: 180: 179:Edison effect 176: 172: 168: 163: 161: 157: 153: 149: 144: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 66: 59: 56:image of the 55: 50: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 10424: 10412: 10400: 10285:Construction 10280:Architecture 10101:Trade secret 9990:Perspectives 9909:Social media 9904:Peer-to-peer 9782:Oscilloscope 9723:Incandescent 9722: 9626:Mobile phone 9538:Optical disc 9505:Spectrometer 9493:Distillation 9268:Rammed earth 9155:Refrigerator 9133:Oil drilling 8981:Differential 8735:Ball bearing 8700:Machine tool 8495:Stonemasonry 8421:Construction 8338:Lock and key 8333:Cryptography 8228:Food storage 8075:Edison Hotel 8009: 8001: 7995:Frankenstein 7993: 7985: 7977: 7958: 7950: 7942: 7923: 7915: 7900: 7892: 7824:Depot Museum 7697:Movie camera 7691: 7670:Advancements 7631:Edison screw 7401:Strobe light 7396:Plasma globe 7371:Crackle tube 7361:Bubble light 7322:trafficators 7317:Turn signals 7143:Street light 7098:Gas lighting 7031:Sodium vapor 7003:Metal-halide 6905:Electric arc 6664: 6657:Incandescent 6626:Edison screw 6497:the original 6487: 6469: 6456: 6446: 6434:. Retrieved 6420: 6412:the original 6402: 6394:the original 6389: 6380: 6368:. Retrieved 6352: 6340:. Retrieved 6330: 6314: 6301: 6292: 6269: 6263: 6252:, retrieved 6232: 6225: 6213: 6208: 6197: 6192: 6174: 6158: 6153: 6143: 6135: 6131: 6106: 6098: 6074: 6070: 6057: 6048: 6036:. Retrieved 6021: 6005: 6000: 5988:. Retrieved 5974: 5962:. Retrieved 5947: 5938: 5922: 5898: 5871: 5866: 5825: 5821: 5799: 5794: 5780: 5768:. Retrieved 5759: 5735:. Retrieved 5726: 5717: 5709:the original 5699: 5667: 5661: 5629: 5591: 5584: 5576:the original 5571: 5547:. Retrieved 5527: 5514: 5504: 5494:23 September 5492:. Retrieved 5444:(4): 320–4. 5441: 5437: 5410: 5397: 5388: 5366: 5353: 5343: 5330:Toronto Star 5328: 5318: 5310:the original 5295: 5282: 5257:. Retrieved 5237: 5224: 5199:. Retrieved 5195: 5186: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5147:. Retrieved 5140:the original 5126: 5104: 5088: 5083: 5067: 5062: 5054:the original 5049: 5040: 5032:the original 5021: 5008: 4965: 4961: 4955: 4943:. 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