254:) operate in the same virtual machine as the user application, as do intermediate levels such as the subsystems that implement filestore access and networking. System calls thus involve a change of protection level, but not an expensive call to invoke code in a different virtual machine. Every code module executes at a particular access level, and can invoke the functions offered by lower-level (more privileged) code, but does not have direct access to memory or other resources at that level. The architecture thus offers a built-in encapsulation mechanism to ensure system integrity.
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331:. This is a 64-bit structure containing a 32-bit virtual address and 32 bits of control information. The control information identifies whether the area being addressed is code or data; in the case of data, the size of the items addressed (1, 8, 32, 64, or 128 bits); a flag to indicate whether hardware array-bound-checking is required; and various other refinements.
345:. However, in practice, all machines in the 2900 series implement a common order code or instruction set, known as the PLI (Primitive Level Interface). This is designed primarily as a target for high-level language compilers. The most powerful machines, such as the 2980 and 2988, implemented all instructions in hardware, whereas the others used microcoded firmware.
638:
configuration by enquiring down the Stream(s), Trunk(s), and Port(s) to find the default or manually elected boot device for the microcode set and/or
Operating System to be booted. This process was called a GROPE or General Reconnaissance Of Peripheral Equipment. The cassette load method also allowed engineering staff to load and execute diagnostic software.
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The cabinets in the foreground, labelled 44, 45, etc., are exchangeable disk drives; the plastic containers on top of the cabinets are used to hold the disks if they are removed from the drives. The larger containers holding more platters are 200Mb in capacity, the smaller would typically hold 40MB.
117:
on 9 October 1974. The company had started development under the name "New Range" immediately on its formation in 1968. The range was not designed to be compatible with any previous machines produced by the company, nor for compatibility with any competitor's machines: rather, it was conceived as a
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Because some of the PLI instructions, notably those for procedure calling, are very powerful (especially system calls), instruction rates on the 2900 Series are not always directly comparable with those on competitors' hardware. ICL marketing literature tended to use the concept of "IBM equivalent
348:
There are several registers, each designed for a special purpose. An accumulator register (ACC) is available for general-purpose use, and may be 32, 64, or 128 bits in size. The B register is used for indexing into arrays; the LNB (Local Name Base) register points to the base of the current stack
618:
A 2900 Series machine was constructed from a number of functional modules, each contained in a separate cabinet. Peripheral devices were connected using ICL's
Primitive Interface (Socket/Plug and cable set) to a Port Adapter on the SMAC. Logical addressing was employed and used a group scheme to
603:
The 2980 was initially the most powerful of ICL's New Range mainframe computers. In addition to the OCPs, it consisted of a store multiple access controller (SMAC) and one or more store access controllers (SAC), a general peripheral controller (GPC), one or more disc file controllers (DFC) and a
637:
The boot process for the 2960 Series merits special mention: the OCP contained a mini OPER terminal and a cassette deck. At boot, the OCP would perform its
Initial Program Load (IPL) from the nominated IPL device. The IPL code provided the means for the OCP to discover the system's hardware
349:
frame, with the SF (Stack Front) register pointing to the movable 'top' of the stack; the DR register is used for holding descriptors for addressing into the heap, and so on. There are also two 32-bit pointers to off-stack data; XNB (eXtra Name Base) and LTB (Linkage Table Base).
599:
The first machines announced in the 2900 Series were the 2980 and 2970. The 2980 allowed one or two order code processors (OCPs), each operating at up to 3 million instructions per second, with real memory configurable up to 8 megabytes, with a 500 nanosecond access time.
384:
rating of an IBM mainframe that achieved the same throughput in application benchmarks. The efficiencies achieved by the 2900 architecture, notably the avoidance of system call overheads, compensated for relatively slow raw hardware performance.
265:
used for application-level shared data: this latter mechanism is used only when there is an application requirement for two virtual machines to communicate. For example, global memory segments are used for database lock tables. Hardware
249:
In a virtual machine, code can run in any of sixteen layers of protection, called access levels (or ACR levels, after the Access
Control Register which controls the mechanism). The most-privileged levels of operating system code (the
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communications link controller (CLC), together with disc drives (a typical configuration would have eight EDS 200 drives), tape decks, an operating station (OPER), line printers, and card readers. It could run the
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in the mid-1980s; however, Series 39 was essentially a new set of machines implementing the 2900 Series architecture, as were subsequent ICL machines branded "Trimetra".
615:
Unlike the 2980, the 2970 and the subsequent 2960 were microcoded, and thus allowed emulation of instruction sets such as that of the older 1900 Series or the System 4.
270:
instructions are available to synchronise access to such segments. A minor curiosity is that two virtual machines sharing a global segment use different
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The orange colour of the cabinets (officially "burnt tango") was the dominant colour used in ICL's corporate image at the time of the system's release.
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The most obvious resource in a virtual machine is the virtual store (memory). Other resources include peripherals, files, and network connections.
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The first machines were subsequently replaced by a family of machines based on the 2966 mid-range design, which was less costly to build and used
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376:) instead of EBCDIC by setting a control bit in a privileged register; among other things, this affects certain decimal conversion instructions.
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is represented as zero and false is represented as minus one. Strings are stored as arrays of 8-bit characters, conventionally encoded in
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system provided other ideas, notably in the area of protection. However, the biggest single outside influence was probably the
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as the set of resources available to a program. The concept of a virtual machine in the 2900 Series architecture differs from
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356:; 32-bit and 64-bit twos-complement integers; 32-bit, 64-bit and 128-bit floating point; and 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit
337:
The order code is not strictly part of the 2900 architecture. This fact has been exploited to emulate other machines by
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612:(EMAS) operating system. A typical 2980 configuration would cost about £2 million (equivalent to £16 million in 2023).
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for the same memory locations, which means that virtual addresses cannot safely be passed from one VM to another.
153:, the company considered several options for its future product line. These included enhancements to either ICT's
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320:. The architecture provides built-in mechanisms for making procedure calls using the stack, and special-purpose
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was a generic name and a hardware address within a Port to which a peripheral controller would be assigned. A
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As the name implies, the design was influenced by many sources, including earlier ICL machines. The design of
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was influential, although ICL rejected the concept of optimising the design for one high-level language. The
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The 32-bit virtual address comprises a 14-bit segment number and an 18-bit displacement within the segment.
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was the generic name for the channel under which individual peripheral devices could be referenced.
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Segments of memory can be shared between virtual machines. There are two kinds of shared memory:
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869:"ICL Company Research and Development Part 3: The New Range and Other Developments, 1968-85"
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231:. Because each program runs in its own virtual machine, the concept may be likened to a
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368:(although ICL's EBCDIC has minor variations from IBM's version). It is possible to use
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750:"ICL Company Research and Development. Part 3: The New Range and other developments"
723:, ed Daniel P. Siewiorek, C. Gordon Bell, and Allen Newell. Originally published in
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670:- the operating system for the ICL 2900 Series, not to be confused with a (later)
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used by the operating system (which are present in all virtual machines), and
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for addressing the top of the stack and the base of the current stack frame.
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680:- non-ICL operating system for the ICL 2900 series (and other machines)
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was a generic name for a controller for a number of Stream devices. A
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924:(archived page with a larger photo of an ICL 2966 from around 1984)
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identify system components in terms of Ports, Trunks, and
Streams.
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Data formats recognized by the PLI instructions include 32-bit
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705:. J. K. Buckle. Macmillan Computer Science Series, 1978.
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360:. Contrary to C and UNIX convention, the boolean value
727:, vol. 9, no. 2, July 1977, pp. 53–62. Available
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In marketing terms, the 2900 Series was superseded by
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717:
An
Outline of the ICL 2900 Series System Architecture
223:The 2900 Series architecture uses the concept of a
658:versions, to cover the entire performance range.
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300:The 2900 architecture supports a hardware-based
168:. The option finally selected was the so-called
141:was formed in 1968 as a result of the merger of
239:, while the 2900 Series process is more like a
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113:systems announced by the British manufacturer
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826:Historical anecdotes (Pink Mouse Productions)
721:Computer Structures: Principles and Examples
327:Off-stack data is typically addressed via a
172:: a new design conceptualized from scratch.
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775:
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782:Moralee, Dennis (November–December 1981).
277:The term used in the ICL 2900 Series and
197:
82:Learn how and when to remove this message
748:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (November 1989).
586:
288:
209:
201:
93:
45:This article includes a list of general
867:Martin Campbell-Kelly (November 1989).
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285:(CPU) is "Order Code Processor" (OCP).
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1634:Computer-related introductions in 1974
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229:the term as used in other environments
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143:International Computers and Tabulators
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595:terminal, used as an operator console
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824:Reflections on the ICL 2900 Series
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51:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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1022:English Electric System 4 series
918:The National Museum of Computing
907:The National Museum of Computing
834:"The origins of the 2900 series"
678:Edinburgh Multiple Access System
610:Edinburgh Multiple Access System
36:
969:International Computers Limited
690:ICL Distributed Array Processor
115:International Computers Limited
684:Content Addressable File Store
13:
1:
832:J.K. Buckle (November 1978).
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161:, and a development based on
27:UK mainframe computer systems
784:"Robb Wilmot: The ICL Story"
394:ICL 2900 range (as at 1980)
147:English Electric Leo Marconi
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725:Australian Computer Journal
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1629:ICL mainframe computers
788:Electronics & Power
539:2955, 2958, 2977, 2988
283:central processing unit
66:more precise citations.
608:(VME/B, VME/K) or the
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198:Architectural concepts
166:Basic Language Machine
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1515:Programming languages
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841:ICL Technical Journal
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289:Addressing mechanisms
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192:Manchester University
190:machine developed at
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800:10.1049/ep.1981.0360
214:Operator adding unit
206:ICL 2966 disk drives
98:An ICL 2966 Model 39
1624:Computing platforms
703:The ICL 2900 Series
583:P (parallel) series
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312:would initially be
219:The virtual machine
719:. J. L. Keedy. In
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151:Elliott Automation
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1423:Operating systems
763:(4). ICL: 791–795
642:S (serial) series
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380:MIPS", being the
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272:virtual addresses
237:operating systems
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1040:System 4/50
1035:System 4/30
1030:System 4/10
1002:Elliott 803
805:18 December
767:19 December
339:microcoding
155:1900 Series
145:(ICT) with
64:introducing
1618:Categories
1321:System Ten
979:mainframes
903:"ICL 2966"
893:7 November
882:(4). ICL.
858:7 November
847:(1). ICL.
735:References
518:Cancelled
503:Cancelled
492:Cancelled
481:Cancelled
329:descriptor
302:call stack
180:mainframes
47:references
1480:Executive
1460:superNova
1326:System 25
888:0142-1557
853:0142-1557
508:S-series
416:P-series
408:Delivered
405:Announced
399:Processor
322:registers
268:semaphore
235:in other
177:Burroughs
127:Series 39
108:mainframe
1524:category
1505:MultiJob
1432:category
1403:DRS 6000
1398:DRS 3000
1345:category
1293:category
1274:Level 80
1269:Level 60
1264:Level 50
1259:Level 30
997:ICT 1501
992:ICT 1301
662:See also
593:ICL 7561
572:Jun 1978
567:Nov 1977
551:Nov 1980
535:Jun 1981
530:Nov 1980
469:Dec 1975
464:Mar 1976
451:Dec 1974
446:Oct 1974
433:Jun 1975
428:Oct 1974
111:computer
72:May 2013
18:ICL 2900
1537:Fortran
1495:MINIMOP
1490:MAXIMOP
1440:OpenVME
1393:DRS 500
1388:DRS 400
1383:DRS 300
1378:DRS 200
1373:DRS 100
697:Sources
606:ICL VME
318:FORTRAN
233:process
184:Multics
157:or the
133:Origins
60:improve
1568:Pascal
1485:GEORGE
1368:DRS 20
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632:Stream
366:EBCDIC
341:their
252:kernel
241:thread
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1553:COBOL
1542:ALGOL
1455:VME/K
1450:VME/B
1153:1907F
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1075:1901A
987:LEO I
872:(PDF)
837:(PDF)
753:(PDF)
692:(DAP)
628:Trunk
624:Trunk
576:2946
402:Model
374:ASCII
314:COBOL
137:When
1558:JEAN
1548:SOBS
1532:PLAN
1408:PERQ
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849:ISSN
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707:ISBN
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382:MIPS
362:true
316:and
149:and
102:The
1598:RPG
1583:SFL
1578:SCL
1475:TME
1470:DME
1465:CME
1445:VME
1241:OCP
1236:DAP
920:at
796:doi
668:VME
591:An
475:P2S
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370:ISO
188:MU5
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